BASIC BIOLOGYBASIC BIOLOGY BIO 101/4 BIO 101/4

Objectives:Objectives:1.understand that all matters are made up of 1.understand that all matters are made up of atom/elementsatom/elements2. list down the main components of life.2. list down the main components of life.3. how molecules and compounds are formed3. how molecules and compounds are formed4. the unique properties of water, carbon, lipid, and 4. the unique properties of water, carbon, lipid, and proteinprotein

Atoms & Elements.Atoms & Elements.*Earth & all lives are made up 92 elements.*Earth & all lives are made up 92 elements.*Element – the simplest substance, could not *Element – the simplest substance, could not

break into simpler compound by any chemical break into simpler compound by any chemical means.means.

*4 main elements made up the life:*4 main elements made up the life:i. Carboni. Carbonii. Oxygenii. Oxygeniii. Hydrogeniii. Hydrogeniv. Nitrogen iv. Nitrogen

*Other elements:*Other elements:Phosphorus (P), potassium (K), Phosphorus (P), potassium (K),

sulphur (S), sulphur (S), calcium (Ca), iron calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), (Fe), magnesium (Mg), sodium magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), and (Na), and chlorine (Cl).chlorine (Cl).

*Each element made up of atom*Each element made up of atom

*Compound – 2 or more atoms of diff. *Compound – 2 or more atoms of diff. elements joined together.elements joined together.

Molecules and Compounds:Molecules and Compounds:*covalent bonding*covalent bonding*ionic bonding*ionic bonding*valency of element shell*valency of element shell*organic compound*organic compound

CarbonCarbon* Its special properties:* Its special properties:i. tetravalent – hold 4 atoms forming i. tetravalent – hold 4 atoms forming tetrahedron structure, very stable.tetrahedron structure, very stable.ii. carbon-carbon bond is very strong ii. carbon-carbon bond is very strong – forming a long chain in a single / – forming a long chain in a single / combined with other atoms.combined with other atoms.iii. iii.

WaterWater

- essential to life, human body consists - essential to life, human body consists of 60 - 70% water.of 60 - 70% water.

- consists of 2 Hydrogen atoms & 1 - consists of 2 Hydrogen atoms & 1 Oxygen atom forming 2 covalent bonds Oxygen atom forming 2 covalent bonds but not equally shared but not equally shared

– – Oxygen has a stronger pull on the Oxygen has a stronger pull on the ê ê than the Hydrogen resulting in than the Hydrogen resulting in slightly +ve and –ve regions – polar slightly +ve and –ve regions – polar molecules.molecules.

Water is a dipolar molecule.Water is a dipolar molecule.

The unique properties of water:The unique properties of water: - mainly due to its hydrogen bond - mainly due to its hydrogen bond that tends to stick to each other.that tends to stick to each other.

i. liquid at RT – 1 water molecule i. liquid at RT – 1 water molecule could form H-bond with up to 3 could form H-bond with up to 3 other water moleculesother water molecules ii. Universal solvent – bipolar ii. Universal solvent – bipolar moleculemolecule

iii. surface tension – stronger iii. surface tension – stronger attraction among water molecules.attraction among water molecules.

iv. Ice float on water – water most iv. Ice float on water – water most dense at 4dense at 4ooC, in liquid the H-bond C, in liquid the H-bond are constantly formed and reformed are constantly formed and reformed but in ice the water molecules form but in ice the water molecules form H-bond w/ 3 other water molecules H-bond w/ 3 other water molecules and creates a rigid lattice.and creates a rigid lattice.

v. adhesion – tendency to wet most v. adhesion – tendency to wet most surface due to its ability to attract to surface due to its ability to attract to other molecules – polar property.other molecules – polar property.

vi. High specific heat capacity.vi. High specific heat capacity.

vii. High latent heat of vaporization – vii. High latent heat of vaporization – creating cooling effect.creating cooling effect.

iix. latent heat of fusion – high iix. latent heat of fusion – high energy lost to form ice crystals.energy lost to form ice crystals.ix. transparent to sunlight.ix. transparent to sunlight.x. high densityx. high densityxi. Difficult to compressxi. Difficult to compressxii. Electric conductor – pure water xii. Electric conductor – pure water is poor elec. Conductor but dossolve is poor elec. Conductor but dossolve ions is a good conductor.ions is a good conductor.

The significances of water.The significances of water.i. provides a liquid environment i. provides a liquid environment inside cells & aquatic organisms.inside cells & aquatic organisms.

ii. Chemical reactions & transport ii. Chemical reactions & transport mediummedium

iii. Surface tension allows aquatic iii. Surface tension allows aquatic organisms move on it.organisms move on it.

iv. High density of water allow iv. High density of water allow aquatic organisms to live under ice aquatic organisms to live under ice during the cool season.during the cool season.

v. adhesion allow water to move v. adhesion allow water to move upward against gravity in a narrow upward against gravity in a narrow channel (capillary force) – in plants channel (capillary force) – in plants (xylem) (xylem)

vi. High specific capacity – controlls vi. High specific capacity – controlls temperature changes – cellular life.temperature changes – cellular life.

vii. High latent heat vaporization – vii. High latent heat vaporization – cooling effect.cooling effect.

viii. High latent heat fusion – water viii. High latent heat fusion – water slowly to freeze. slowly to freeze.

ix. Transparent – aquatic plants and ix. Transparent – aquatic plants and microorganisms to photosynthesise.microorganisms to photosynthesise.

x. High density – allow large animals x. High density – allow large animals to survive in it; whale, ice, etc.to survive in it; whale, ice, etc.

xi. Hardly compressed – acting as xi. Hardly compressed – acting as hydrostatic skeleton in certain hydrostatic skeleton in certain organisma like worms & turgid.organisma like worms & turgid.

Turgid – composes of Turgid – composes of 85% water & could 85% water & could dehydrate up to 3% left.dehydrate up to 3% left.

xii. Participate in many chemical xii. Participate in many chemical reaction due to its polar properties.reaction due to its polar properties.

xiii. Low viscosity & high tensile xiii. Low viscosity & high tensile strength – move freely in small strength – move freely in small column and reach high up in a big column and reach high up in a big tree. tree.

Water & pH.Water & pH.* Hydrogen and oxygen atoms of * Hydrogen and oxygen atoms of water can dissociate to form protons water can dissociate to form protons and hydroxide ions:and hydroxide ions:

H H22O O ↔ H↔ H++ + OH + OH--

water water proton hydroxide ionproton hydroxide ion

- pH is measured based on the - pH is measured based on the concent. of [Hconcent. of [H++] in particular ] in particular solution.solution.

Carbohydrates.Carbohydrates.-Carbon-containing compounds that -Carbon-containing compounds that supply energy to our body.supply energy to our body.

-contains carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen – -contains carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen – CCxx(H(H22O)O)yy, x & y are variables that could , x & y are variables that could

be the same/diff.be the same/diff.

-eg: table sugar, starch, cellulose, & -eg: table sugar, starch, cellulose, & glycogenglycogen

-types of carbohydrates:-types of carbohydrates:

1. monosaccharides1. monosaccharides2. disaccharides2. disaccharides3. polysaccharides3. polysaccharides

MonosaccharideMonosaccharide-the simple type of sugar – (CH-the simple type of sugar – (CH22O)O)n, n,

n = 3 – 7, n = 3 – 7, triose, tetrose, pentose,hexose,heptosetriose, tetrose, pentose,hexose,heptose

- glucose is the best known and most - glucose is the best known and most abundant sugar – Cabundant sugar – C66HH1212OO6.6.

glucose, fructose, galactose.glucose, fructose, galactose.

-glucose has two common isomers: -glucose has two common isomers: alpha & beta based on the position of alpha & beta based on the position of its hydroxyl group on Cits hydroxyl group on C11

Disaccharides.Disaccharides.- two monosaccharides forms - two monosaccharides forms disaccharide thru disaccharide thru condensation condensation process / water removalprocess / water removal- alpha glucoses - alpha glucoses → starch} glycosidic → starch} glycosidic beta glucose → cellulose} bond beta glucose → cellulose} bond

eg: maltose eg: maltose → 2 glucose molecules → 2 glucose molecules sucrose → glucose & fructosesucrose → glucose & fructoselactose → glucose & galactoselactose → glucose & galactose

-Di/polysaccharides could be broken -Di/polysaccharides could be broken into its constituents thru into its constituents thru hydrolysishydrolysis..

-3 to 10 monosaccharides form -3 to 10 monosaccharides form oligosaccharide.oligosaccharide.

PolysaccharidesPolysaccharides-long chain of monosaccharides -long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bond & linked by glycosidic bond & normally insoluble in water, not normally insoluble in water, not sweet.sweet.

eg. Starch, cellulose, glycogeneg. Starch, cellulose, glycogen-the monosaccharides could be joint -the monosaccharides could be joint in many ways; straight, branched, or in many ways; straight, branched, or coiled. coiled.

-the properties of polysaccharides -the properties of polysaccharides are determined by the # and types of are determined by the # and types of monomers and how it jointed.monomers and how it jointed.

- the monomers are joint thru their - the monomers are joint thru their hydroxyl groups.hydroxyl groups.

starchstarch- energy storage in plants, formed - energy storage in plants, formed by alpha glucose units, broken down for by alpha glucose units, broken down for respirationrespiration

- 2 common types; amylose & - 2 common types; amylose & amylopectin.amylopectin.

AmyloseAmylose – linked by 1-4 glycosidic bond. – linked by 1-4 glycosidic bond.AmylopectinAmylopectin – linked by both 1-6 & 1-4 – linked by both 1-6 & 1-4 glycosidic bonds.glycosidic bonds.

-chloroplast is a type of plastics made -chloroplast is a type of plastics made up of starch.up of starch.

GlycogenGlycogen – energy storage in – energy storage in animals.animals.- has more branches than starch (1-6 - has more branches than starch (1-6 glycosidic bond), less dense and more glycosidic bond), less dense and more soluble, found commonly in liver and soluble, found commonly in liver and muscle cells.muscle cells.

-hydrolysed more rapidly than starch -hydrolysed more rapidly than starch due to its bonding type.due to its bonding type.

CelluloseCellulose – major constituent in plants – major constituent in plants and tougher structure.and tougher structure.- formed by beta monomer unit, not - formed by beta monomer unit, not readily hydrolyzed by common enzymes.readily hydrolyzed by common enzymes.

- herbivores have microorganisms - herbivores have microorganisms producing cellulase to digest cellulose.producing cellulase to digest cellulose.

-cellulose is permeable to water and -cellulose is permeable to water and other substances to enter/leave plant other substances to enter/leave plant cells freely.cells freely.

Lignin – complex cellulose Lignin – complex cellulose impregnated with non-carbohydrate impregnated with non-carbohydrate materials lining cell wall/tube like materials lining cell wall/tube like xylem.xylem.

LipidLipid- insoluble compound in water bur - insoluble compound in water bur dissolve readily in other organic dissolve readily in other organic compounds like ethanol, diethyl compounds like ethanol, diethyl ether.ether.

-common type of lipid is triglycerides -common type of lipid is triglycerides made up of fatty acids and glycerols made up of fatty acids and glycerols thru condensation process; linked by thru condensation process; linked by ester bondester bond

-glycerol is a type of alcohol.-glycerol is a type of alcohol.Fatty acids – a long hydrocarbon chain Fatty acids – a long hydrocarbon chain w/ acidic carboxyl group.w/ acidic carboxyl group.

- 1 molecule glycerol could combine w/ 3 - 1 molecule glycerol could combine w/ 3 mol. of fatty acids; could be the same mol. of fatty acids; could be the same type or diff. type.type or diff. type.

-triglycerides: oils (liquid)-triglycerides: oils (liquid) fats (solids) fats (solids)

-2 types of fatty acids:-2 types of fatty acids:i. saturatedi. saturatedii.unsaturatedii.unsaturated

the atoms around double-bond C the atoms around double-bond C atom could be arranged in atom could be arranged in ciscis- or - or transtrans-form.-form.

-high # of cis-double bond tend to be -high # of cis-double bond tend to be liquid and trans-form tends to be solid. liquid and trans-form tends to be solid.

Significance of lipids:Significance of lipids:i. provides more energy due to its i. provides more energy due to its

higher H-contenthigher H-contentii. Heat insulationii. Heat insulationiii. Shock absorptioniii. Shock absorptioniv. Buoyancy – aid single-celled iv. Buoyancy – aid single-celled

aquatic animals to be on the surface.aquatic animals to be on the surface.

-phospholipids is a major component -phospholipids is a major component of cell membrane and also myelin of cell membrane and also myelin sheath.sheath.- consists of glycerol attached to 2 - consists of glycerol attached to 2 fatty acids w/ the 3fatty acids w/ the 3rdrd hydroxyl group hydroxyl group attach to phosphoric acid make it attach to phosphoric acid make it polar portion.polar portion.**amphipathic propertyamphipathic property..

Protein.Protein.-large & complex molecules, make up -large & complex molecules, make up 18% of human body.18% of human body.

- thousands types with a unique 3-- thousands types with a unique 3-dimensional structure that enables it dimensional structure that enables it to play diverse function in organism to play diverse function in organism life.life.

7 groups of proteins based on their 7 groups of proteins based on their functions:functions:11. enzymes- catalyzes biochemical . enzymes- catalyzes biochemical reaction; breakdown & formation of reaction; breakdown & formation of ATP.ATP.

22. structural proteins- forms parts of . structural proteins- forms parts of animal body; ligament & tendon animal body; ligament & tendon (collagen)(collagen)

33. signal proteins – carry messages . signal proteins – carry messages around the body; insulin, hormonearound the body; insulin, hormone

44. contractile proteins – involve in . contractile proteins – involve in movements of our body; myosin & movements of our body; myosin & actin for muscle contractionactin for muscle contraction

55. storage proteins – eg. Albumin in . storage proteins – eg. Albumin in white yolkwhite yolk

66. defensive proteins – antibodies.. defensive proteins – antibodies.

77. transport proteins - heamoglobin. transport proteins - heamoglobin

Amino acids.Amino acids.- building block of protein- building block of protein- all a.a have amino and carboxyl - all a.a have amino and carboxyl groups in their general structure.groups in their general structure.

-The amino and hydroxyl groups, -The amino and hydroxyl groups, Hydrogen atom & side chain (R group) are Hydrogen atom & side chain (R group) are attached by covalent bond to a central attached by covalent bond to a central carbon atom called carbon atom called αα-carbon-carbon..

R-groupR-group could be a single H-atom or a could be a single H-atom or a complex ring structure, it could be polar or complex ring structure, it could be polar or non-polar.non-polar.

Polar proteins readily dissolve in Polar proteins readily dissolve in water/cellular solution – transported easily. water/cellular solution – transported easily.

Amino acids are Amino acids are amphotericamphoteric; having ; having both acidic and basic properties, both acidic and basic properties, make it a good buffer.make it a good buffer.

2/more amino acids can be joint 2/more amino acids can be joint together by a peptide bond to form together by a peptide bond to form dipeptide/polypeptide.dipeptide/polypeptide.

Protein structure.Protein structure.4 levels of protein structure:4 levels of protein structure:

i. primaryi. primaryii.secondaryii.secondaryiii.tertiaryiii.tertiaryiv.quaternary.iv.quaternary.

Primary structurePrimary structure – a single chain of – a single chain of polypeptide. polypeptide.

SecondarySecondary – folding/coiling structure – folding/coiling structure due to forces between diff. part of the due to forces between diff. part of the molecules forming alpha-helix/beta-molecules forming alpha-helix/beta-pleated sheet structure.pleated sheet structure.

Tertiary structureTertiary structure – 3D shape of – 3D shape of polypeptide chain & could be polypeptide chain & could be classified into 2 groups:classified into 2 groups:

i. fibrous protein – insoluble in i. fibrous protein – insoluble in water & physically tough. It is along water & physically tough. It is along polypeptide chain linked together.polypeptide chain linked together.

Ii. Globular protein – tightly Ii. Globular protein – tightly folded polypeptide forming spherical folded polypeptide forming spherical shape.shape.

Quaternary structureQuaternary structure – consists of – consists of more than one polypeptide chain more than one polypeptide chain bonded together. eg. Haemoglobin bonded together. eg. Haemoglobin structure – 4 polypeptide chain w/ 2 structure – 4 polypeptide chain w/ 2 diff. types; alpha and beta chains.diff. types; alpha and beta chains.