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The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Division of Adolescent and School Health
www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth
Revised Version — July 2010 (Replaces April 2010 Early Release)
Acknowledgments: This publication was developed for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) Division of Adolescent and School Health (DASH) under contract #200 2002-00800 with ETR Associates.
Suggested Citation: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The association between school based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2010.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary . 5
Introduction . 8
Methods 10
Conceptual Definitions . 10
Inclusion Criteria . 10
Identification of Studies that Met the Inclusion Criteria . 11
Classification of Studies . 11
Study Coding Process . 12
Data Analysis . 13
Results . 14
School-Based Physical Education Studies . 16
Recess Studies . 19
Classroom Physical Activity Studies . 21
Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies . 24
Summary . 28
Overall Findings . 28
Findings for Physical Activity by Context . 29
Findings by Gender, Other Demographic Characteristics, and Research Design . 30
Strengths and Limitations of Review . 30
Implications for Future Research or Evaluation . 31
Implications for Schools . 32
References . 34
Appendices . 39
Appendix A: Database Search Terms . 39
Appendix B: Coding Sheet . 41
Appendix C: Glossary of Research Design Terms . 51
Appendix D: School-Based Physical Education Summary Matrix . 52
Appendix E: Recess Summary Matrix . 62
Appendix F: Classroom Physical Activity Summary Matrix . 67
Appendix G: Extracurricular Physical Activity Summary Matrix . 73
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY When children and adolescents participate in the recommended level of physical activity—at least 60 minutes daily—multiple health benefits accrue. Most youth, however, do not engage in recommended levels of physical activity. Schools provide a unique venue for youth to meet the activity recommendations, as they serve nearly 56 million youth. At the same time, schools face increasing challenges in allocating time for physical education and physical activity during the school day.
There is a growing body of research focused on the association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance among school-aged youth. To better understand these connections, this review includes studies from a range of physical activity contexts, including school-based physical education, recess, classroom-based physical activity (outside of physical education and recess), and extracurricular physical activity. The purpose of this report is to synthesize the scientific literature that has examined the association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance, including indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement.
Methods For this review, relevant research articles and reports were identified through a search of nine electronic databases, using both physical activity and academic-related search terms. The search yielded a total of 406 articles that were examined to determine their match with the inclusion criteria. Forty-three articles (reporting a total of 50 unique studies) met the inclusion criteria and were read, abstracted, and coded for this synthesis.
Coded data from the articles were used to categorize and organize studies first by their physical activity context (i.e., physical education, recess, classroom-based physical activity, and extracurricular physical activities), and then by type of academic performance outcome. Academic performance outcomes were grouped into three categories: 1) academic achievement (e.g.,
grades, test scores); 2) academic behavior (e.g., on-task behavior, attendance); and 3) cognitive skills and attitudes (e.g., attention/concentration, memory, mood). Findings of the 43 articles that explored the relationship between indicators of physical activity and academic performance were then summarized.
Results Across all 50 studies (reported in 43 articles), there were a total of 251 associations between physical activity and academic performance, representing measures of academic achievement, academic behavior, and cognitive skills and attitudes. Measures of cognitive skills and attitudes were used most frequently (112 of the 251 associations tested). Of all the associations examined, slightly more than half (50.5%) were positive, 48% were not significant, and only 1.5% were negative. Examination of the findings by each physical activity context provided insights regarding specific relationships.
1) School-Based Physical Education Studies
School-based physical education as a context category encompassed 14 studies (reported in 14 articles) that examined physical education courses or physical activity conducted in physical education class. Typically, these studies examined the impact of increasing the amount of time students spent in physical education class or manipulating the activities during physical education class. Overall, increased time in physical education appears to have a positive relationship or no relationship with academic achievement. Increased time in physical education does not appear to have a negative relationship with academic achievement. Eleven of the 14 studies found one or more positive associations between school-based physical education and indicators of academic performance; the remaining three studies found no significant associations.
2) Recess Studies
Eight recess studies (reported in six articles) explored the relationship between academic performance and recess during the school day in elementary schools. Six studies tested an intervention to examine how recess impacts indicators of academic performance;
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the other two studies explored the relationships between recess and school adjustment or classroom behavior. Time spent in recess appears to have a positive relationship with, or no relationship with, children’s attention, concentration, and/or on-task classroom behavior. All eight studies found one or more positive associations between recess and indicators of cognitive skills, attitudes, and academic behavior; none of the studies found negative associations.
3) Classroom Physical Activity Studies
Nine studies (reported in nine articles) explored physical activity that occurred in classrooms apart from physical education classes and recess. In general, these studies explored short physical activity breaks (5–20 minutes) or ways to introduce physical activity into learning activities that were either designed to promote learning through physical activity or provide students with a pure physical activity break. These studies examined how the introduction of brief physical activities in a classroom setting affected cognitive skills (aptitude, attention, memory) and attitudes (mood); academic behaviors (on-task behavior, concentration); and academic achievement (standardized test scores, reading literacy scores, or math fluency scores). Eight of the nine studies found positive associations between classroom-based physical activity and indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, and academic achievement; none of the studies found negative associations.
4) Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies
Nineteen studies (reported in 14 articles) focused specifically on the relationship between academic performance and activities organized through school that occur outside of the regular school day. These activities included participation in school sports (interscholastic sports and other team or individual sports) as well as other after-school physical activity programs. All 19 studies examining the relationships between participation in extracurricular physical activities and academic performance found one or more positive associations.
Strengths and Limitations This review has a number of strengths. It involved a systematic process for locating, reviewing, and coding the studies. Studies were obtained using an extensive array of search terms and international databases and were reviewed by multiple trained coders. The studies cover a broad array of contexts in which youth participate in school-based physical activities and span a period of 23 years. Furthermore, a majority (64%) of studies included in the review were intervention studies, and a majority (76%) were longitudinal.
The breadth of the review, however, is a limitation. All studies meeting the established review criteria were included and treated equally, regardless of the study characteristics (e.g., design, sample size). The studies were not ranked, weighted, or grouped according to their strengths and limitations. The breadth of the review, while revealing a variety of study designs, measures, and populations, often made comparisons and summaries difficult. As a result, conclusions are intentionally broad.
Implications for Policy There are a number of policy implications stemming from this review:
• There is substantial evidence that physical activity can help improve academic achievement, including grades and standardized test scores.
• The articles in this review suggest that physical activity can have an impact on cognitive skills and attitudes and academic behavior, all of which are important components of improved academic performance. These include enhanced concentration and attention as well as improved classroom behavior.
• Increasing or maintaining time dedicated to physical education may help, and does not appear to adversely impact, academic performance.
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Implications for Schools The results of this review support several strategies that schools can use to help students meet national physical activity recommendations without detracting from academic performance:
• School-based physical education: To maximize the potential benefits of student participation in physical education class, schools and physical education teachers can consider increasing the amount of time students spend in physical education or adding components to increase the quality of physical education class. Articles in the review examined increased physical education time (achieved by increasing the number of days physical education was provided each week or lengthening class time) and/or improved quality of physical education (achieved through strategies such as using trained instructors and increasing the amount of active time during physical education class).
• Recess: School boards, superintendents, principals, and teachers can feel confident that providing recess to students on a regular basis may benefit academic behaviors, while also facilitating social development and contributing to overall physical activity and its associated health benefits. There was no evidence that time spent in recess had a negative association with cognitive skills, attitudes, or academic behavior.
• Classroom-based physical activity: Classroom teachers can incorporate movement activities and physical activity breaks into the classroom setting that may improve student performance and the classroom environment. Most interventions reviewed here used short breaks (5–20 minutes) that required little or no teacher preparation, special equipment, or resources.
• Extracurricular physical activities: The evidence suggests that superintendents, principals, and athletic directors can develop or continue school-based sports programs without concern that these activities have a detrimental impact on students’ academic performance. School administrators and teachers also can encourage after-school organizations, clubs, student groups, and parent groups to incorporate physical activities into their programs and events.
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INTRODUCTION When children and adolescents participate in at least 60 minutes of physical activity every day, multiple health benefits accrue.1,2 Regular physical activity builds healthy bones and muscles, improves muscular strength and endurance, reduces the risk for developing chronic disease risk factors, improves self-esteem, and reduces stress and anxiety.1 Beyond these known health effects, physical activity may also have beneficial influences on academic performance.
Children and adolescents engage in different types of physical activity, depending on age and access to programs and equipment in their schools and communities. Elementary school-aged children typically engage in free play, running and chasing games, jumping rope, and age-appropriate sports—activities that are aligned with the development of fundamental motor skills. The development of complex motor skills enables adolescents to engage in active recreation (e.g., canoeing, skiing, rollerblading), resistance exercises with weights or weight machines, individual sports (e.g., running, bicycling), and team sports (e.g., basketball, baseball).1,3 Most youth, however, do not engage in the recommended level of physical activity. For example,
Defining Academic Performance
In this review, academic performance is used broadly to describe different factors that may influence student success in school. These factors fall into three primary areas:
• Cognitive Skills and Attitudes • (e.g., attention/concentration, memory, verbal ability).
• Academic Behaviors (e.g., conduct, • attendance, time on task, homework completion).
• Academic Achievement (e.g., • standardized test scores, grades).
only 17.1% of U.S. high school students meet current recommendations for physical activity (CDC, unpublished data, 2009).
Schools, which serve nearly 56 million youth in the United States, provide a unique venue for youth to meet the physical activity recommendations.4 At the same time, schools face increasing challenges in allocating time for physical education and physical activity during the school day. Many schools are attempting to increase instructional time for mathematics, English, and science in an effort to improve standards-based test scores.5
As a result, physical education classes, recess, and other physical activity breaks often are decreased or eliminated during the school day. This is evidenced by data from both students and schools. For example, in 2007 only 53.6% of U.S. high school students reported that they attended physical education class on 1 or more days in an average week at school, and fewer (30%) reported participating in physical education classes daily.6 Similarly, in 2006 only 4% of elementary schools, 8% of middle schools, and 2% of high schools in the United States provided daily physical education or its equivalent for all students in all grades.7 Furthermore, in 2006 only 57% of all school districts required that elementary schools provide students with regularly scheduled recess. As for physical activity outside of physical education and recess, during the school day, 16% of school districts required elementary schools, 10% required middle schools, and 4% required high schools to provide regular physical activity breaks.7
In addition to school-day opportunities, youth also have opportunities to participate in physical activity through extracurricular physical activities (e.g., school sports, recreation, other teams), which may be available through schools, communities, and/or after-school programs.8
Seventy-six percent of 6- to 12-year-olds reported participating in some sports in 1997,9 and in 2007, 56% of high school students reported playing on one or more sports teams organized by their school or community in the previous 12 months.6
There is a growing body of research focused on the association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic
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performance among school-aged youth.3,10-16 This developing literature suggests that physical activity may have an impact on academic performance through a variety of direct and indirect physiological, cognitive, emotional, and learning mechanisms.12,17,18 Research on brain development indicates that cognitive development occurs in tandem with motor ability.19
Several review articles also have examined the connections between physical activity and academic behavior and achievement. Sibley and Etnier12
conducted a meta-analysis of published studies relating physical activity and cognition in youth. Two additional reviews described the evidence for relationships between physical activity, brain physiology, cognition, emotion, and academic achievement among children, drawing from studies of humans and other animals across the lifespan.14,20 Finally, two other reviews summarized select peer-reviewed research on the relationship between physical activity and academic performance, with an emphasis on school settings and policies.15,16
Research also has explored the relationships among physical education and physical activity, fitness levels and motor skill development, and academic performance. For example, several studies have shown a positive relationship between increased physical fitness levels and academic achievement10,21-27 as well as fitness levels and measures of cognitive skills and attitudes.28 In addition, other studies have shown that improved motor skill levels are positively related to improvements in academic achievement29-31 and measures of cognitive skills and attitudes.32-34
To extend the understanding of these connections, this review offers a broad examination of the literature on a range of physical activity contexts, including physical education classes, recess, classroom-based physical activity breaks outside of physical education class and recess, and extracurricular physical activity, thereby providing a tool to inform program and policy efforts for education and health professionals. The purpose of this report is to synthesize the scientific literature that has examined the association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance, including indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement.
How Physical Activity Affects the Brain16 18
Cognitive skills and motor skills appear to develop through a dynamic interaction. Research has shown that physical movement can affect the brain’s physiology by increasing
• Cerebral capillary growth. •
• Blood flow. •
• Oxygenation. •
• Production of neurotrophins. •
• Growth of nerve cells in the • hippocampus (center of learning and memory).
• Neurotransmitter levels. •
• Development of nerve connections. •
• Density of neural network. •
• Brain tissue volume. •
These physiological changes may be associated with
• Improved attention. •
• Improved information processing, • storage, and retrieval.
• Enhanced coping. •
• Enhanced positive affect. •
• Reduced sensations of cravings and • pain.
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METHODS
Conceptual Definitions The research on this topic suggests that physical activity can be related to many different aspects of academic performance (e.g., attention, on-task behavior, grade-point average [GPA]), and as a result, the existing literature examines a wide range of variables. In this report, those variables are organized into three categories: 1) cognitive skills and attitudes, 2) academic behaviors, and 3) academic achievement. The three categories, as well as other important terms used in this report, are defined below.
Academic Performance: In this review, academic performance is used broadly to describe different factors that may influence student success in school. These factors are grouped into three primary areas:
1) Cognitive Skills and Attitudes
Cognitive skills and attitudes include both basic cognitive abilities, such as executive functioning, attention, memory, verbal comprehension, and information processing, as well as attitudes and beliefs that influence academic performance, such as motivation, self-concept, satisfaction, and school connectedness. Studies used a range of measures to define and describe these constructs.
2) Academic Behaviors
Academic behaviors include a range of behaviors that may have an impact on students’ academic performance. Common indicators include on-task behavior, organization, planning, attendance, scheduling, and impulse control. Studies used a range of measures to define and describe these constructs.
3) Academic Achievement
Academic achievement includes standardized test scores in subject areas such as reading, math, and language arts; GPAs; classroom test scores; and other formal assessments.
Physical Education: Physical education, as defined by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), is a curricular area offered in K–12 schools that provides students with instruction on physical activity, health-related fitness, physical competence, and cognitive understanding about physical activity, thereby enabling students to adopt healthy and physically active lifestyles.35 A high-quality physical education program enables students to develop motor skills, understand movement concepts, participate in regular physical activity, maintain healthy fitness levels, develop responsible personal and social behavior, and value physical activity.35
Recess: Recess is a time during the school day that provides children with the opportunity for active, unstructured or structured, free play.
Physical Activity: Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by the contraction of skeletal muscle that increases energy expenditure above a resting level.1 Physical activity can be repetitive, structured, and planned movement (e.g., a fitness class or recreational activity such as hiking); leisurely (e.g., gardening); sports-focused (e.g., basketball, volleyball); work-related (e.g., lifting and moving boxes); or transportation-related (e.g., walking to school). The studies in this review included a range of ways to capture the frequency, intensity, duration, and type of students’ physical activity.
Physiology: In this report, physiology includes indicators of structural or functional changes in the brain and body. Studies most often reported measures of physical fitness, motor skills, and body composition from this construct.
Inclusion Criteria The following criteria were used to identify published studies for inclusion in this review. Studies had to
• Be published in English.
• Present original data.
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• Be published between 1985 and October 2008.*
• Focus on school-aged children aged 5–18 years.
• Include clear measures of physical education and/or physical activity, such as – Physical education class. – Recess. – Classroom-based physical activity (outside of
physical education and recess). – Extracurricular physical activities (including school
sports and other teams).
• Measure academic performance (cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement) using one or more educational or behavioral outcomes. Examples include – Graduation or dropout rates (n=2). – Performance on standardized tests (n=17). – Academic grades/GPA (n=9). – Years of school completed (n=1). – Time on task (n=3). – Concentration or attentiveness in educational
settings (n=7). – Attendance (n=3). – Disciplinary problems (n=6). – School connectedness † (n=2).
Studies were excluded if they did not meet the above criteria or if they focused solely on sedentary lifestyle variables, overweight status, or media use rather than physical activity. Studies also were excluded if they focused exclusively on the relationship between academic performance and fitness test scores rather than physical activity itself. Review articles, meta-analyses, and unpublished studies were excluded from the coding and analysis portion of this review, although their reference lists were used to identify original research to be reviewed for inclusion.
* Articles published between October 2008 and the publication date that met the inclusion criteria and made a notable contribution to the field may have been included in the review based on expert recommendations.
† School connectedness refers to students’ belief that adults and peers in the school care about their learning as well as about them as individuals.36
Identification of Studies that Met the Inclusion Criteria Studies were identified through a search of nine electronic databases (ERIC, Expanded Academic Index ASAP, Google Scholar, PsycNET®, PubMed, ScienceDirect®, Sociological Abstracts, SportDiscus™), and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL®) using a pre-established set of search terms that included both physical activity and academic-related terms (see Appendix A). Additional studies also were located from reference lists of the identified articles.
Classification of Studies The search yielded 406 articles (see Figure 1). Two trained researchers examined each article to determine its match with the inclusion criteria; it was then classified as “included for review” or “excluded from review.” When the match was unclear, articles were temporarily classified as “possible inclusion” before being reviewed by two additional researchers for final classification. Initially, 50 articles were identified for inclusion. Four of those articles were later excluded because they lacked clarity necessary to categorize them appropriately for the review. For example, one article examining movement lacked sufficient information to determine whether the movement should be classified as physical activity; another article lacked a clear academic performance variable. The other two articles lacked clarity in descriptions of analyses and testing of research questions that was necessary for categorization. A fifth article was excluded because of its focus on elite athletes rather than a general student population. Two additional articles that examined associations between participation in a sports-based interdisciplinary curriculum and academic grades were excluded because of insufficient detail about the physical activity participation levels of students and the subsequent lack of fit into the review categories.
A total of 363 articles were excluded. Reasons for exclusion were failure to include an appropriate measure of physical activity (n=103), academic achievement (n=40), or both physical activity and academic achievement (n=25); classification as a review or meta-analysis (n=82); inclusion of participants outside the
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F IGURE 1:
108 Included for Review
87 Excluded from Review
260 Excluded from Review
21 Included for Review
43 Total Articles Included for Review
85 of these articles were later classified as excluded
These 38 articles were reviewed by 5 team members and
then classified as
Classified as
38 Possible Inclusion
22 Included for Review
16 Excluded from Review
406 Total Articles
Article Classification System
age range of interest (n=58); inability to obtain full text of the study (n=49); and a publication date outside the inclusion range (n=6).
Overall, 43 articles (describing 50 unique studies) met the inclusion criteria and were read, abstracted, and coded for this synthesis. Two articles in this review presented findings from more than one study that met inclusion criteria; one article described three studies,37
and the other reported six.2
Study Coding Process The coding method for this report is similar to that of several prominent literature reviews in the public health field.38-40 A team of eight trained reviewers read and coded the 43 articles using a standard coding protocol (see Appendix B). When multiple studies were presented in a single article, this information was noted in the coding, but the studies remained grouped by article. The coding protocol involved abstracting information from the studies and entering it into a Microsoft Access® database.
Whenever possible, information was abstracted directly from articles as stated by authors. The following information was abstracted: purpose, research questions, study design, sampling, sample characteristics, setting, theory, intervention, methods, analytic strategy, results, limitations, study focus, and additional comments. For this review, study designs were classified as experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive, or case studies (study designs are defined in Appendix C); data collection methods and time points were noted as described. Studies that lacked details regarding any field of interest were coded as “information not provided.”
To ensure consistency in coding, approximately 17% of all articles were double-coded by a reviewer and a senior coder. A team of article reviewers met regularly during the coding process to discuss and resolve issues associated with coding. A system was established for handling coding questions and concerns. Senior team members resolved and verified issues as they arose.
A brief summary profile of each study was then created (see Appendices D–G). A list of the studies
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classified as using quasi-experimental or experimental designs is provided at the beginning of each of these appendices. These summaries were e-mailed to the studies’ corresponding authors for review and verification. Authors not responding within the initial timeline received a second request for review. Seventy-two percent of the authors (31 of 43) reviewed their summaries. Author edits and suggestions were incorporated where applicable.
Data Analysis Coded data from the articles were used to categorize and organize studies first by their physical activity context and then by outcome, cohort, sampling groups, and date published. The individual studies were identified (in the instances where articles described more than one study), and all reviewed studies were treated equally, regardless of study characteristics or design. Although meta-analysis was considered as a method to analyze data in this review, the small number and heterogeneity of studies precluded use of that method. Therefore, descriptive literature synthesis was conducted. In this report, the results describe the types of associations or relationships reported in the studies. When positive or negative associations are described in the Results section below, they refer to findings that the study authors reported as reaching statistical significance (p ≤ 0.05).
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RESULTS This review examines the findings of 43 articles (reflective of 50 studies total) that explored the relationship between physical activity and/or physical education and academic performance. Each study was categorized in one of four physical activity context areas: 1) school-based physical education; 2) recess; 3) classroom-based physical activity (outside of physical education and recess); and 4) extracurricular physical activity.
School-based physical education as a context category encompassed all studies that were explicitly set in physical education class or consisted of a school-based course or curriculum that addressed primary aspects of physical education. This category included activities conducted in physical education class but did not exclude curricula with components that extended beyond formal physical education. Typically, studies in this category examined the impact of increasing the amount of time students spent in physical education class or manipulating the types of activities conducted with students.
Recess studies explored the relationship between academic performance and recess during the school day in elementary schools. Recess is typically 10–15 minutes or longer of unstructured free play that may occur as a break during the school day or in association with lunch.
Classroom-based physical activity as a context category included studies that were classroom-based but were not physical education class or recess. In general, these studies explored short physical activity breaks (5–20 minutes) or ways to introduce physical activity into learning activities that were either designed to promote learning through physical activity or provide students with a pure physical activity break. These interventions are relatively easy and inexpensive for a teacher to incorporate into the classroom.
Extracurricular physical activity as a context category encompassed studies that focused specifically on the relationships between activities organized through school that occur outside of the regular school day. This category included participation in school sports (interscholastic sports and other teams) as well as other after-school physical activity programs.
Results at a Glance
For the 43 articles reviewed, •
• A total of 251 associations between • physical activity and academic performance were measured.
• The most commonly measured indicator • of academic performance was cognitive skills and attitudes (112 of the 251 associations tested).
• More than half (50.5%) of all • associations tested were positive.
• Positive associations were found across • measures of academic achievement, academic behavior, and cognitive skills and attitudes.
• There were only four negative • associations, accounting for 1.5% of all associations tested.
Of all 50 studies in the review, almost two-thirds (62%) focused on youth physical activity experiences through school-based physical education, during recess, or in the classroom; the remaining studies (38%) examined extracurricular physical activity (see Table 1). Slightly more than half (54%) of the articles focused exclusively on students in secondary school settings; 44% included studies conducted with elementary students; and 2% included both elementary and secondary grade levels. The scope and research designs varied as well. Most studies were descriptive (44%) or quasi-experimental (34%) in nature, and the majority (76%) reported longitudinal data. Most studies (80%) were conducted during the school day, and about two-thirds (64%) included a physical education or physical activity intervention. Finally, the majority (68%) of studies were conducted in the United States; overall, studies were conducted in nine countries other than the United States.
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For ease of review, the results are presented here by physical activity context. Within each context, results are described by study focus (intervention or nonintervention) and by the type of results.
Each results subsection also includes a summary table that shows the number of associations (total, positive, negative, and no association) for all the studies reviewed
in that context area. Results with p values less than 0.05 are considered statistically significant in this report. Qualitative and descriptive studies that did not include significance testing are described in the text of this report, but not in the outcome counts. Associations are displayed by type of academic performance outcome measured: cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, or academic achievement.
Table 1: Summary Characteristics of Reviewed Studies Number of Studies that Included Academic Achievement Measure*
Characteristics of Studies Number of
Studies (N=50) Academic
Achievement Academic Behavior
Cognitive Skills and Attitudes
Physical Activity Context
Physical education class 14 10 3 7
Recess 8 0 3 5
Classroom based 9 6 1 5
Extracurricular physical activity 19 16 9 14
Study Design
Experimental 11 8 3 6
Quasi-experimental 17 6 4 12
Descriptive 22 17 11 11
Data Collection Design
Cross-sectional 12 8 3 5
Longitudinal 38 27 15 26
Intervention
Intervention 32 20 12 23
Nonintervention 18 15 6 8
Setting†
School day 40 26 12 22
After school 6 5 2 5
Community 3 3 3 3
Household 2 2 1 2
Student Sample Educational Level
Primary 22 12 6 11
Secondary 27 23 11 19
Cross level 1 0 1 1
Country
United States 34 23 16 21
International 16 12 2 10
* Studies often included more than one type of measure; thus, the number of studies that include these different academic performance measures may exceed the total number of studies in any given category.
† Some studies included more than one setting; therefore, the total number of studies by setting exceeds 50.
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School-Based Physical Education Studies
Fourteen studies (reported in 14 articles) examined the relationship between school-based physical education and academic performance (see Figure 2, and Tables 2a and 2b). Most (n=10) described intervention studies and assessed the impact of an intervention on a range of outcomes. The remaining four were descriptive and examined the relationships between physical education and academic measures. Appendix D includes summary profiles for each of the articles reviewed in this section. FIGURE 2:
Type of Association Observed for Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors,
and Academic Achievement Outcomes Across All Physical Education Class Studies
(n=79 associations within 14 studies)
Positive Association (n=39) No Association (n=39) Negative Association (n=1)
Intervention Studies. In general, the intervention studies (three implemented in the United States and seven in other countries) examined how differences in physical education affected academic performance. Six studies41-46 examined increasing the amount of physical education or the level of physical activity intensity in physical education class and comparing students’ academic performance by intervention condition (e.g., physical education two times per week versus daily physical education, or physical education for 20 minutes versus physical education for 30 or 40 minutes, or the intensity of physical activity during physical education).
School-Based Physical Education Studies: Highlights
• • Eleven of 14 studies found one or more positive associations between physical education and indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, and/or academic achievement.
• • Overall, increased time in physical education appears to have a positive relationship or no relationship with academic achievement.
• • Increased time in physical education does not appear to have a negative relationship with academic achievement.
Two studies examined strategies for improving the quality of physical education: one focused on implementation by trained instructors of a curriculum that promotes greater amounts of moderate and vigorous physical activity in students, and the other implemented multiple strategies such as focusing on students’ personal goal setting, emphasizing opportunities for active participation by all students, and maximizing active use of class time.47,48 The remaining two studies examined the relationship between increasing the emphasis on different types of activities (i.e., aerobic exercise, coordinative exercise) and aspects of academic performance.49,50
Collectively, the studies were conducted across a broad range of grade levels, representing elementary, middle, and high schools. Seven studies employed an experimental design, and three reported data from quasi-experimental designs. Most studies involved short-term follow-up (e.g., immediate or 3-month delay). Sallis and colleagues48 and Ericsson43 both followed youth for approximately 3 years.
Finally, the studies assessed a range of indicators of academic performance, including cognitive skills (e.g., concentration and creativity), attitudes
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(e.g., self-esteem and motivation), academic behaviors (e.g., conduct), and/or academic achievement (e.g., standardized test scores and GPA).
Results varied across the 10 intervention studies, with most (8 of 10) showing one or more positive associations. Two studies showed all or mostly positive associations between physical education and cognitive skills and attitudes or academic achievement. Specifically, Ericsson43 found that extending physical education (from 2 days per week to daily) was associated positively with academic achievement (math, reading, and writing test scores). That study also noted positive associations
for attention, an indicator of cognitive functioning, although the relationships dissipated over time. Budde and colleagues49 found that coordination exercises (i.e., exercises that require the body to balance, react, adjust, and/or differentiate) were more beneficial than normal sport lessons in boosting cognitive functioning (specifically, concentration and attention).
Six studies reported more mixed conclusions. Five found a mixture of positive and nonsignificant associations.41,42,44,47,50 For example, Dwyer and colleagues42 compared academic achievement and classroom behavior across three intervention conditions
Table 2a: School-Based Physical Education Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors, and Academic Achievement
Variables in Physical Education Intervention Studies (N=10 Studies)*
Total # of Performance
Outcomes Across the 10 Intervention
Studies
Type of Relationship Observed Between Physical Education Class and Academic Performance
Positive None Negative
Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=7 Studies) 24 12 12 0
Attention/concentration 5 3 2 0
Self-esteem 1 1 0 0
Creativity 1 1 0 0
Perception of academic or intellectual competence/self-concept 8 3 5 0
Perceptual motor ability 1 0 1 0
Planning ability 1 0 1 0
Perceived self-concept 2 1 1 0
Impulse control 3 2 1 0
Life satisfaction 1 1 0 0
Attitude towards school 1 0 1 0
Academic Behavior (N=3 Studies) 7 2 5 0
Conduct 7 2 5 0
Academic Achievement (N=6 Studies) 21 11 9 1
Achievement test scores (e.g., math, reading, language arts) 19 10 8 1
Grades/grade point average 2 1 1 0
Total 52 25 26 1
* Studies may have measured the relationship between physical education class and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between physical education class and standardized test scores, attendance, motivation, and perceived academic potential). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 8 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table.
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 17
(fitness group: 75 minutes of activity daily, with an emphasis on intensity of activities; skill group: 75 minutes of activity daily with no focus on intensity; and control group: three 30-minute periods of physical education per week). They found no differences in academic achievement across the three intervention conditions, despite the fact that students in the fitness and skill groups actually had less classroom teaching time to accommodate the increase in time for physical education. They also found that classroom behavior improved for students in the skill and fitness intervention conditions. The sixth study found four positive and three nonsignificant associations, as well as one negative relationship.48 Sallis and colleagues48 examined an intensive 2-year health-related physical education program that was taught by trained classroom teachers or physical education specialists and was designed to increase students’ physical activity levels. They found that the SPARK program taught by trained teachers had a positive impact on reading, language, and basic battery standardized test scores, but had no significant impact on math. When taught by physical education specialists, students in the SPARK program scored better than students not enrolled in SPARK on reading, but lower on language and about the same in math.
Finally, two studies found no associations between physical education and indicators of academic performance. These studies examined the relationship between the frequency of physical education and either cognitive skills and attitudes46 or academic
achievement.45 Raviv and Low46 found that physical education did not reduce concentration, contrary to the beliefs of some teachers in their study. Pollatschek and O’Hagan45 found that the frequency of physical education participation (daily versus twice a week) was not associated with students’ standardized math and reading test scores or affect towards school; similar results were found for boys and girls.
Collectively, the results of these studies suggest that physical education may have favorable associations with students’ cognitive skills and attitudes and their academic achievement, but the relationships are not universal and vary by outcome studied. Furthermore, increasing time for physical education does not appear to have negative associations with academic achievement.
Nonintervention Studies. The four nonintervention studies (two conducted in the United States and two in other countries) examined associations between physical education and academic performance using cross-sectional designs (n=3) or secondary analyses of an existing longitudinal data set (n=1). Three of the four studies were conducted at the elementary or middle school level; the fourth study was completed with high school students. All studies used standardized tests to assess academic achievement. Results were either positive or neutral. Three of the studies found positive associations between time spent in physical education or skills learned in physical education and indicators of academic achievement. As an example, one study51
Table 2b: School-Based Physical Education Nonintervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Academic Achievement
Variables in Physical Education Nonintervention Studies (N=4 Studies)*
Total # of Performance
Outcomes Across the 4
Nonintervention Studies
Type of Relationship Observed Between Physical Education Class and Academic Performance
Positive None Negative
Academic Achievement (N=4 Studies) 27 14 13 0
Achievement test scores (e.g., math, reading, language arts) 27 14 13 0
Total 27 14 13 0
* Studies may have measured the relationship between physical education class and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between physical education class and multiple subjects in standardized test scores). Individual studies in this section measured between 2 and 14 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table.
18 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
noted a positive association between standardized English language arts test scores and time spent in physical education but found no such association for math scores. Another study52 found small but significant associations between physical education and academic achievement in math and reading for girls who had more physical education (70–300 minutes per week) compared with those getting lower amounts (0–35 minutes per week); none of the associations were significant for boys. Dexter53 found a combination of positive associations and no association between performance on sports learned in physical education and an average of math and English test scores and grades, depending on the sport; results were similar for boys and girls. The remaining study found no significant associations between physical education and academic performance on state literacy and numeracy tests.54
There were no negative associations between physical education and indicators of academic performance across these four studies. Consistent with the results of the physical education intervention studies, the data from these four studies suggest physical education has some positive associations with academic outcomes, but these results vary by outcome.
Strengths and Limitations of Methods. This collection of studies has a number of strengths as well as limitations. The studies were conducted across a range of grade levels and used a broad array of indicators related to cognitive skills, attitudes, and academic achievement. Furthermore, nearly half featured experimental designs, and half explored associations by gender. Several limitations were noted by the authors of the studies, including small samples or samples with potential biases that may affect the generalizability of the results (e.g., university research/laboratory school populations or affluent populations). Several authors acknowledged measurement issues, such as limited follow-up, not assessing precursors of academic achievement (e.g., concentration, memory, or classroom behavior), or failing to collect data on socioeconomic status (SES) and other potentially important background variables. Finally, authors of intervention studies also noted implementation limits, such as unequal participation in the intervention or lack of data on implementation quality. Many of the studies did not report data on the racial/ethnic characteristics of their samples, and only one examined results by racial/ethnic subgroups.
Recess Studies: Highlights
• • All eight studies found one or more positive associations between recess and indicators of cognitive skills, attitudes, and academic behavior.
• • Time spent in recess appears to have a positive relationship or no relationship with children’s attention, concentration, and/or on-task classroom behavior.
Recess Studies Eight studies (reported in six articles) examined the relationship between school recess, cognitive skills, attitudes, and/or academic behavior (see Figure 3, and Tables 3a and 3b). Six of the studies tested an intervention to examine how recess impacts these indicators of academic performance. The other two descriptive, nonintervention studies explored the relationships between recess and school adjustment or classroom behavior. Appendix E includes summary profiles for each of the articles reviewed in this section.
FIGURE 3:
Type of Association Observed for Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors,
and Academic Achievement Outcomes Across All Recess Studies
(n=17 associations within 8 studies)
Positive Association (n=10) No Association (n=7)
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 19
Intervention Studies. The six intervention studies (all implemented in the United States) examined the relationship between recess, or increased physical activity during recess, and cognitive skills (attention or concentration) and academic behavior (on-task behavior). All of these studies were conducted in elementary schools with students in kindergarten through fourth grade, and all six employed an experimental or quasi-experimental design.37,55-57 Most used trained observers to collect data on classroom and recess behaviors, with multiple observation points. The data collection follow-up period ranged from 0 to 4 months following baseline. The interventions involved the introduction of recess into the daily school schedule or manipulating the timing of recess (e.g., holding recess after varying lengths of class time).
Results across these six studies showed positive outcomes or no association. Three studies reported all positive associations between more physical activity at recess and classroom behaviors.55-57 Specifically, Caterino and Polak55 found that fourth-grade students who participated in directed physical activity during recess (stretching and aerobic walking) had significantly higher concentration scores than those students who sat quietly in the library during recess. Both studies that measured academic behavior found a positive relationship between recess and on-task behavior. Jarrett and colleagues56 observed that children were less fidgety, less listless, more focused,
and more on task when they had recess compared with when they did not have recess. Pellegrini and Davis57
found that students who engaged in physical activity (as opposed to sedentary behavior) during recess fidgeted less in the classroom after recess.
The three intervention studies by Pellegrini and colleagues37 reported both positive and nonsignificant associations. These studies examined the relationships between the timing of recess (i.e., recess after 2.5 hours versus 3 hours of classroom time) and students’ behaviors during recess and students’ classroom behaviors before and after recess. Investigators found that students’ attention rates were lower after longer periods of classroom work without a break than after shorter periods. They also found that, in general, students’ attention was better after recess than before. Finally, they found that the type of behavior during recess did not affect classroom attention after recess for any grade or gender groups.
Nonintervention Studies. One of the two nonintervention recess studies58 explored the impact of the frequency of recess on teacher reports of classroom behavior in a very large sample (n=11,529); the other59 explored the impact of recess on observations of individual students’ cognitive and emotional adjustment to school within one school (n=77). Barros, Silver, and Stein58 found that overall classroom behavior (based on
Table 3a: Recess Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes and Academic Behaviors
Variables in Recess Intervention Studies (N=6 Studies)*
Total # of Performance
Outcomes Across the 6 Intervention
Studies
Type of Relationship Observed Between Recess and Academic Performance
Positive None Negative
Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=4 Studies) 10 4 6 0
Attention/concentration 10 4 6 0
Academic Behavior (N=2 Studies) 4 4 0 0
On-task behavior (not fidgeting) 4 4 0 0
Total 14 8 6 0
* Studies may have measured the relationship between recess and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between recess and attention and behavior). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 9 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table.
20 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Table 3b: Recess Nonintervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes and Academic Behaviors
Variables in Recess Nonintervention Studies (N=2 Studies)*
Total # of Performance
Outcomes Across the 2
Nonintervention Studies
Type of Relationship Observed Between Recess and Academic Performance
Positive None Negative
Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=1 Study) 2 1 1 0
Perceptions of school adjustment 2 1 1 0
Academic Behavior (N=1 Study) 1 1 0 0
On-task behavior (not fidgeting) 1 1 0 0
Total 3 2 1 0
* Studies may have measured the relationship between recess and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between recess and perceptions of school adjustment and on-task behavior). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 2 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table.
teacher ratings) was significantly better for students who had recess every day for at least 15 minutes than for those who did not. Exploration of the impact of recess on individual students showed a positive association with end-of-year social competence and perceptions of school adjustment for boys, but not for girls.59
Strengths and Limitations of Methods.These studies feature several strengths as well as a few notable limitations. Six of the eight studies used experimental or quasi-experimental designs, and most involved observations of student behaviors with multiple observation points (e.g., 6, 12, or 32 observations). The studies focused on elementary-level students, primarily because recess is most common at the elementary grade levels. Study authors reported a number of limitations including small sample sizes (range of 23–77 students in seven of the eight studies), and the inability in most of the studies to analyze data by SES, race/ethnicity, or other subgroups. In addition, the authors noted that classroom-level ratings of student behavior by the classroom teacher could be influenced by the teachers’ perceptions of the benefits of recess.
Classroom Physical Activity Studies Nine studies (reported in nine articles) examined the relationship between classroom-based physical activity and academic performance (four implemented in the
United States and five in other countries) (see Figure 4 and Table 4). All nine of the studies were interventions. Appendix F includes summary profiles for each of the articles reviewed in this section.
These studies examined how the introduction of brief physical activities in a classroom setting affected cognitive skills (e.g., aptitude, attention, memory); attitudes (e.g., mood); academic behaviors (e.g., on-task behavior, concentration); and academic achievement (e.g., standardized test scores, reading literacy scores, math fluency scores). The interventions involved the introduction of physical activities by trained teachers or facilitators into the classroom setting, with activities lasting 5–20 minutes per session. Physical activity sessions or breaks typically were delivered on a daily or regular basis. Intervention implementation periods spanned from 1 day to 16 months, with most lasting 2–3 months.
All but two of these studies were conducted with elementary school students in first through fifth grades; the others were conducted in a primary and secondary school in Sweden60 and an urban middle school in the United States.61 Five studies employed quasi-experimental designs,60-64 three used experimental designs,32,65-67 and one used a qualitative case-study design.68 The data collection follow-up period ranged from 0 to 12 months after the intervention. Outcome measures most often included standardized aptitude
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 21
and achievement tests and teacher or trained observer ratings of classroom behavior.
FIGURE 4:
Type of Association Observed for Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors,
and Academic Achievement Outcomes Across All Classroom Physical Activity Studies
(n=20 associations within 9 quantitative studies)
Positive Association (n=8) No Association (n=12)
Classroom Physical Activity Studies: Highlights
• • Eight of the nine studies found positive associations between classroom- based physical activity and indicators of academic performance.
• • One study examined gender effects and found no differences in outcomes by gender.
Results across the nine intervention studies showed positive outcomes or no association. Four studies reported all positive associations between classroom physical activity and classroom behaviors and academic achievement.60-63 Specifically, Della Valle and colleagues61 found using movement with seventh-grade learners who had an active learning style enhanced their performance on a word recognition task. Maeda and Randall62 reported that second-grade students exhibited greater concentration and demonstrated higher math fluency after engaging in brief movement breaks consisting of 5 minutes of vigorous exercise 1 hour after lunch. Similarly, Mahar et al.63 observed greater frequency of verbal and motor behavior that followed class rules and was appropriate to the learning situation for third- and fourth-grade students whose teachers led them in daily 10-minute regimens of physical activities (e.g., jumping, rolling, hopping, twisting) during academic instruction. This relationship was especially strong among students who were least on task at baseline. Furthermore, Norlander and colleagues60 found that teachers observed higher student concentration levels after daily stretching exercises.
Four intervention studies reported positive and nonsignificant associations.64,66-68 Fredericks et al.66 described improvements in spatial aptitude, reading skills, and math skills among first-grade students exposed to daily classroom exercises focused on the development of perceptual and sensory motor skills. However, there were no associations with other indicators of aptitude, such as perception, reasoning, memory, and verbal comprehension or emotional indicators. In their feasibility study, Lowden et al.68 qualitatively described that students and teachers perceived that student exposure to The Class Moves!® program was positively related to improvements in on-task classroom behaviors and concentration. Teachers, however, did not feel they could relate the program to academic or cognitive achievement. Molloy64 observed that students exposed to 5 minutes, but not 10 minutes, of aerobic exercise improved their arithmetic performance. Exposure to aerobic exercise was unrelated to observed on-task behavior (attention) for all but a small sample of hyperactive students. Uhrich and Swalm67 found that daily sessions to develop motor skills (bimanual coordination) through a sport cup-stacking exercise were associated with improvements in reading comprehension but not reading decoding scores. These improvements were comparable for boys and girls.
The ninth intervention study found no relationship between an additional 15 minutes of daily classroom-based physical activity (skipping, dancing, and resistance exercises) in the context of a school-wide physical activity program and standardized achievement tests.65 The classroom intervention lasted
22 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Table 4: Classroom Physical Activity Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors, and Academic Achievement
Variables in Classroom Physical Activity Intervention Studies (N=9 Studies)*
Total # of Performance
Outcomes Across the 9 Intervention
Studies
Type of Relationship Observed Between Classroom Physical Activity and Academic Performance
Positive None Negative
Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=5 Studies) 11 2 9 0
Attention/concentration 2 1 1 0
Visual/spatial skills 4 1 3 0
Memory 1 0 1 0
Verbal/conceptual ability 1 0 1 0
Perceptual/motor ability (coordination) 2 0 2 0
Mood 1 0 1 0
Academic Behavior (N=1 Study) 1 1 0 0
Conduct (classroom behavior) 1 1 0 0
Academic Achievement (N=6 Studies) 8 5 3 0
Achievement test scores (e.g., math, reading, language arts) 8 5 3 0
Total 20 8 12 0
* One qualitative study (Lowden68) and one quantitative study (Maeda and Randall62) that did not include significance testing were not included in these results. Studies may have measured the relationship between classroom physical activity and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the associations among classroom physical activities and ability, classroom behaviors, and standardized test scores). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 11 different outcomes.
16 months and was designed to complement 80 minutes of weekly physical education. Analyses by gender showed similar results.
Collectively, eight of the nine studies reviewed suggest that classroom-based physical activities may have favorable associations with indicators of cognitive functioning, academic behaviors, and/or academic achievement. Furthermore, there was no evidence that allotting classroom time for these activities was negatively associated with academic achievement.
Strengths and Limitations of Methods. These studies feature both strengths and important limitations. Eight of the nine studies employed either experimental or quasi-experimental designs, and most used standardized measures of cognitive functioning and academic achievement and standardized protocols for classroom observations. Several studies collected data at multiple
follow-up dates. When reported, study populations represented an array of racial and ethnic backgrounds. Limitations reported by study authors include small sample sizes, with all but two studies having fewer than 100 students, and the inability to analyze data by SES, race/ethnicity, or other subgroups. Others noted that classroom observers typically were not blinded to study condition. Some authors also noted concerns about group comparability at baseline and its potential impact on determining an intervention effect.
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 23
Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies Nineteen studies (reported in 14 articles) examined the relationship between involvement in extracurricular physical activity (such as interscholastic sports or other physical activities outside of the regular school day) and academic performance (see Figure 5, and Tables 5a and 5b). Nine studies focused on involvement in school interscholastic sport teams; the other 10 focused on other school-related extracurricular physical activities. Appendix G includes summary profiles for each of the 14 articles reviewed in this section.
FIGURE 5:
Type of Association Observed for Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors,
and Academic Achievement Outcomes Across All Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies
(n=135 associations within 19 studies)
Positive Association (n=70) No Association (n=62) Negative Association (n=3)
Interscholastic School Sports
All nine of the studies assessing the relationship between school sports team participation and academic performance were descriptive in nature and focused on secondary school students.69-77 Most studies (n=8) were implemented in the United States. Eight of the nine studies examined how students’ participation on sports teams was related to test scores, grades, or teacher ratings of academic achievement; two75,77 measured dropout rates.
Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies: Highlights
• • Nearly all the associations between extracurricular physical activity and indicators of academic performance were either positive (52%) or neutral (46%).
• • Grade point average was positively associated with extracurricular physical activity 12 of the 22 times it was measured.
• • The two different interventions aimed at improving academic performance through extracurricular physical activity had some positive impacts on students’ grades and/or verbal and conceptual skills.
• • Two studies examined the relationship between extracurricular physical activity and dropout rates and found that participation was associated with decreased high school dropout rates.
Three of the nine studies were cross-sectional, collecting data at one time point; six were longitudinal and involved a secondary analysis of data collected at baseline and 3–5 years later. Two of the nine studies had small samples (85–136); the remaining studies had larger sample sizes (883–14,249).
These studies varied in measurement of academic performance and participation in sports. Some used school records (test scores, GPAs, or dropout rates),72,74,75,77 and one used a teacher rating of student academic ability71 for students who participated in interscholastic sports. Others examined the relationship between student report of participation on sports teams (type of team was not specified) and students’ self-reported grades.69,70,73,78
24 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
The studies that explored the relationship between school records of academic achievement and student participation in interscholastic sports found mostly positive and neutral results. For example, one study74
of eighth-grade students found that participation in interscholastic sports was associated with higher math grades, higher math standardized test scores, and higher overall GPAs; however, another study72 of 12th-grade students found no relationship between varsity sports participation and grades. Two studies75,77 examined the impact of sports on high school dropout rates and found that participants were significantly less likely to drop out of school compared with nonparticipants.
Two studies75,76 found that the relationship between academic achievement and varsity sports participation was inconsistent, showing positive, negative, and no association, depending on the outcome measured and the grade level of the students. Fredricks and Eccles76
found participation in seventh-grade school sports was associated with a decreased school value in eighth and 11th grades but was associated with increased resiliency in 11th grade. Yin and Moore75 found that students who reported participation in interscholastic sports in eighth grade showed significantly lower test scores for that year compared with students who did not participate. However, as these same students moved through high school, those differences disappeared, showing no differences in test scores between sport participants and nonparticipants in the 10th or 12th grades. Hawkins and Mulkey’s71 exploration of the relationship between interscholastic sports participation and teacher ratings of students’ academic ability showed no relationship between participation and academic ability; however, other measures of academic behavior and cognitive skills and attitudes showed positive relationships or no relationship, varying by gender. As an example, male athletes were more likely to plan to attend college than nonathletes, and both male and female athletes showed greater interest in class than nonathletes.
Three of the four studies that examined the relationship between student report of participation in sports teams and self-report of grades showed positive relationships. Fredricks and Eccles70 also found a positive relationship between sports participation and students’ educational expectations and school completion rates.
Seven of the nine studies examined gender effects69-72,74,75,76 on academic performance; five of the seven studies found at least one significant difference by gender; however, overall, 68% of the associations by gender showed no relationship. One study76 also examined results by race and SES. No other subgroup or demographic analyses were reported in the other studies.
Other School-Related Extracurricular Physical Activity
Ten studies focused on extracurricular physical activities organized through the school but conducted outside the regular school day (e.g., after school). Seven studies examined the effects of an intervention,2,34 and the other three were descriptive,79,80,78 with sample sizes ranging from 35 to 4,264. Measures of academic performance included grades, math scores, homework completion, and attendance.
Intervention Studies. One intervention article2
focused on physical activity opportunities after school using six different studies. This article, which focused on studies conducted in the United States, assessed the impact of a life skills program with an emphasis on improving physical fitness on students’ self-reported grades, school attendance, and self-concept. The program was taught after school in a sample of middle schools, high schools, and community centers. As part of the program, students completed an individual exercise program as well as instruction about related topics such as self-assessment, goal setting, fitness, and exercise planning. Program impact was evaluated at six sites immediately after the program. Results showed positive associations between program participation and academic performance (grades and attendance) or no significant relationships. The positive findings (for self-concept, school attendance, and self-reported grades) were concentrated in the community site, which had the largest sample size. Across all sites (middle schools, high schools, and community centers), self-concept improved significantly for program participants.
The other intervention study was conducted in the United Kingdom and examined participation in a school-organized, year-long exercise program completed at home and its relationship with cognitive skills and math
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 25
Table 5a: Extracurricular Physical Activity Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behavior, and Academic Achievement
Variables in Extracurricular Physical Activity Intervention Studies (N=7 Studies)*
Total # of Performance
Outcomes Across the 7 Intervention
Studies
Type of Relationship Observed Between Extracurricular Physical Activity and Academic Performance
Positive None Negative
Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=7 Studies) 17 12 5 0
Self-esteem/self-concept 6 6 0 0
Verbal/literacy ability 8 3 5 0
Working memory 1 1 0 0
Motor ability (coordination) 2 2 0 0
Academic Behavior (N=6 Studies) 6 1 5 0
Attendance 6 1 5 0
Academic Achievement (N=6 Studies) 6 1 5 0
Grade point average 6 1 5 0
Total 29 14 15 0
* Studies may have measured the relationship between extracurricular physical activity and academic and cognitive performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between extracurricular physical activity and grade point average, self-concept, and attendance). Individual studies in this section measured between 3 and 11 different academic measures. Consequently, the number of studies across the three academic performance areas exceeds 2.
outcomes of 7- to 10-year-old children diagnosed with, or at risk of, dyslexia or dyspraxia.34 This study used a quasi-experimental design with immediate and long-term (3-year) follow-up. Little detail was provided on how the physical activity intervention was developed or implemented. Children showed improved verbal and cognitive skills following the individualized physical activity intervention, although there were no math improvements.34
Nonintervention Studies. The three nonintervention studies, all conducted with secondary students in the United States, examined associations between participation in after-school physical activity and academic performance using existing data sets (one cross-sectional and two longitudinal). Two studies78,79
explored the association between student reports of participation in extracurricular activities and student self-reported grades, including involvement in a combination of sports and nonsport activities. Those studies found consistently positive associations between extracurricular activity participation and self-reported grades as well
as positive academic attitudes and higher academic aspirations. Harrison and Narayan80 examined the impact of participation in after-school activities (including participating 1–2 hours per week or more in school sports) on homework completion and class attendance. The study showed that physical activity participation was positively related to homework completion and class attendance.
Strengths and Limitations of Methods. These studies featured a number of strengths. Most had relatively large sample sizes. Most (n=16) of the studies focused on measures of academic achievement, such as standardized test scores or grades (record data or self-reported data). In addition, of the studies that examined sports participation compared with nonparticipation, more than half (n=6) specified the level of competitiveness of team participation; nonetheless, these studies did not compare outcomes by varying levels of sports competitiveness. More than three-fourths of the studies were longitudinal in nature (n=15), allowing for an exploration of causality; the cross-sectional nature of the remaining studies (n=4)
26 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=7 Studies) 48 28 18 2
Self-esteem/self-efficacy/self-concept 19 5 4 0
Academic self-concept/competence 3 2 1 0
Locus of control 5 4 1 0
Educational aspirations/potential 4 4 0 0
Interest in class 4 3 1 0
Mood 8 1 7 0
Positive academic attitudes 3 3 0 0
School value 4 0 2 2
School attachment 4 4 0 0
Resiliency 4 2 2 0
Academic Behavior (N=3 Studies) 34 15 19 0
Conduct (discipline) 4 0 4 0
Enrollment in academic track/science class 4 2 2 0
School completion 1 1 0 0
Attendance 6 2 4 0
Prepared for class 4 0 4 0
Homework completion 2 2 0 0
Attend college 4 2 2 0
Dropout rates/graduation 9 6 3 0
Academic Achievement (N=10 Studies) 24 13 10 1
Achievement test scores (e.g., math, reading, language arts) 4 1 2 1
Grade point average/grades 16 11 5 0
Academic ability
Total
4 1 3 0
3 106 56 47
limited the ability to establish the temporal relationship between the variables. Relatively few studies examined data by race/ethnicity, and only two explored physical activity interventions. Reports were unclear whether sport participation required a minimal level of academic achievement, a requirement that could bias the samples.
Several authors also acknowledged limitations such as the need to include measures of social influence (e.g., parental support) in future research, the need to look more closely at how level of participation or competitiveness in sport might affect academic achievement, and the fact that some of the associations found were relatively weak.
Table 5b: Extracurricular Physical Activity Nonintervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behavior, and Academic Achievement
Variables in Extracurricular Physical Activity Intervention Studies (N=12 Studies)*
Total # of Performance
Outcomes Across the 12 Intervention
Studies
Type of Relationship Observed Between Extracurricular Physical Activity and Academic Performance
Positive None Negative
* Studies may have measured the relationship between extracurricular physical activity and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between participation in sports and test scores, attendance, and perceived academic potential). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 32 different academic measures. Consequently, the number of studies across the three academic performance areas exceeds 14.
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 27
SUMMARY This report identified peer-reviewed studies and published reports addressing the association between physical activity, including physical education, and indicators of academic performance, including those related to cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement.
Overall Findings Overall, what do the results of these studies say about the relationship between physical activity and academics, and what does it mean for schools?
• Collectively, the results suggest that physical activity is either positively related to academic performance (50.5% of the associations summarized) or that there is not a demonstrated relationship between physical activity and academic performance (48% of the associations summarized). In addition, increasing time during the school day for physical activity does not appear to take away from academic performance. This pattern of having positive relationships or no relationships, along with the lack of negative relationships, was consistent throughout the results, despite the heterogeneous nature of the included studies, and is consistent with other published reviews.15,81
• School boards, school administrators, and principals can feel confident that maintaining or increasing time dedicated for physical activity during the school day will not have a negative impact on academic performance, and it may positively impact students’ academic performance.
What kinds of academic outcomes were positively related to physical activity?
• Studies looked at a broad range of outcomes. Researchers reported that participating in physical activity was positively related to outcomes including academic achievement, academic behaviors, and indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, such as concentration, memory, self-esteem, and verbal skills.
Which outcomes were most positive?
• Positive associations were found across measures of academic achievement, academic behavior, and cognitive skills and attitudes, but there are some interesting patterns for different outcomes within these categories. Seven articles describing intervention studies (three school-based physical education, two recess, one classroom-based physical activity, and one extracurricular activity) evaluated the relationship between physical activity and academic behaviors, such as classroom conduct.2,41,42,50,56,57,63 The majority of these articles (86%) found at least one positive association with academic behavior outcomes. Given these findings, physical activity interventions may offer one approach to improving academic behaviors (e.g., classroom conduct) in some youth.
Does physical activity have any negative relationship with grades or test scores?
• Very few of the findings in the studies reviewed were negative (only 4 associations of 251 examined), a percentage small enough to reasonably be expected by chance. This pattern of results is consistent with other reports15,16 that suggest that adding physical activity to the school day does not detract from academic performance. The evidence suggests that superintendents and principals can devote school time to physical activity without concern that it will lower student test scores.
Why are some of the study results positive whereas others show no relationship?
• There are a number of possible explanations. Some of the studies had relatively small samples, which can make it more difficult to find statistically significant results. Other studies measured a very broad range of student attitudes and behaviors to try to understand which factors may be related and which may not. Other issues, such as the questionnaires used in the studies, may account for some of the differences. Finally, differences that may not have been discussed in the studies—such as the intensity or duration of the physical activity, the context in which the physical
28 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
activity took place, individual student differences (e.g., in motivation), and levels and quality of implementation for intervention studies—may help explain the different results among the studies.
Findings for Physical Activity by Context
Is school-based physical education related to academic performance?
• The study results suggest that school-based physical education either leads to a positive result or is associated with no change in academic performance. Overall, 11 of 14 studies found one or more positive associations between physical education and indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, and/or academic achievement. Nearly half the associations (49.5%) between physical education and academic performance were positive; nearly all remaining associations in this context area showed no relationship.
• The studies also suggest that increased time spent in physical education is not likely to detract from academic performance even when less time is devoted to subjects other than physical education. Across the nine studies that examined the relationship between time spent in physical education and academic performance, 16 outcomes were positive and 31 showed no association. No negative associations were found.
Is recess related to academic performance?
• Yes, for some outcomes. Eight studies meeting the criteria of this review looked at the impact of physical activity during recess on academic performance. Of all outcomes measured in this context area, 59% were positive. In addition, all eight studies found one or more positive findings suggesting that recess was associated with improvements in attention, concentration, and/or on-task classroom behavior. None of the studies looked directly at the association between recess and measures of academic achievement (e.g., test scores or grades).
• None of the studies reported negative relationships, which indicates that recess does not appear to detract from students’ focus in the classroom.
Are physical activity breaks during class related to academic performance?
• Yes, for some outcomes. Nearly all studies (eight of nine) in this category found that offering physical activity breaks during standard classroom instruction may have favorable associations with some indicators of cognitive functioning (e.g., attention/ concentration); academic behaviors (e.g., classroom conduct); and/or academic achievement (e.g., test scores). Of the individual outcomes studied, 40% of associations between physical activity breaks and academic performance were positive and 60% showed no relationship.
• None of the studies found negative associations. Classroom physical activity breaks do not appear to have a negative relationship with academic performance. Indeed, classroom teachers can include physical activity breaks as one strategy to promote academic-related benefits for students. Furthermore, incorporating brief physical activity breaks into the classroom might contribute to students’ overall levels of physical activity and health.82
Is participation in extracurricular physical activities at school related to academic performance?
• Yes, for some outcomes. More than half of the associations examined in these studies were positive (52% overall), and almost none were negative (2%). Of note, GPA was positively associated with extracurricular physical activity 12 of the 22 times it was measured. Two studies also examined the association between extracurricular activities and dropout rates and found that participation was linked to decreased high school dropout rates.
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 29
Findings by Gender, Other Demographic Characteristics, and Research Design
Do the results vary by gender?
• Relatively few studies examined differences in associations by gender, and there were no distinct patterns. Of studies that did examine data by gender, a few found differences, but most did not. For example, eight of the studies on school-based physical education examined data by gender. Six found no differences by gender; one found effects favoring boys (higher-level motor skills were associated with greater increases in reading and math scores among boys than girls); and one found effects favoring girls (greater time spent in physical education was related to higher reading and math scores for girls but not for boys).
How do the studies and results differ by grade level?
• Studies of recess and classroom-based physical activity tended to be from elementary school settings, and studies of extracurricular physical activity tended to be from secondary school settings.
• Overall, the pattern of results appeared slightly more positive in the secondary school setting. Of the associations examined among elementary youth only, 43% were positive, 56% were neutral, and 1% were negative. At the secondary level, 55% of the associations examined were positive, 43% were neutral, and 2% were negative.
Do the results vary by race/ethnicity?
• Very few studies examined the relationships between physical activity and academic performance by race or ethnicity, so it is difficult to make conclusions at this time. Of the seven studies that explored race/ ethnicity, most focused on how race/ethnicity affected participation in physical activity rather than on how it influenced the association between physical activity and academic achievement. One study examining classroom-based physical activity breaks by race found
no differences in academic performance between Asian and Caucasian students.65 A study of an 8-week movement intervention found that language spoken (Afrikaans, English, and Other), used as a proxy indicator for race/ethnicity, may have explained some differences in children’s spatial aptitude.66
Do the results vary by research design?
• Not much variation in results by research design was noted. Although many factors influence a study’s quality, experimental or quasi-experimental research designs are generally regarded as more rigorous. The pattern of associations in studies with either of these types of design had very similar results. In the 29 studies using experimental or quasi-experimental designs, 50% (55 of 109) of associations were positive, and 49% (53 of 109) were not significant. Less than 1% (1 of 109) of the associations were negative.
Strengths and Limitations of Review
What are the strengths of this review?
• This review has a number of strengths. It covers 23 years of research; it involved a systematic process for locating, reviewing, and coding the studies; articles were obtained using an extensive array of search terms and international databases; articles were reviewed by multiple trained coders; and the articles cover a broad array of contexts in which youth participate in school-based physical activities. Furthermore, a majority (64%) of studies included in the review were intervention studies, and a majority (76%) were longitudinal.
What are the limitations of this review?
• This review summarizes all studies that met the established review criteria, regardless of the study characteristics. The studies were not ranked, weighted, or grouped according to their strengths and limitations; as a result, findings from studies with more rigorous research designs and larger sample sizes were given no more influence than findings from studies with weaker designs and smaller sample sizes. Instead,
30 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
results were based on counts of statistical findings, and this, in essence, had the effect of allowing individual studies containing multiple comparisons to have a greater influence on the findings as a whole. The number of statistical findings in any given study ranged from 1 to 32; given those differences, it becomes clear that a single study with 32 comparisons would have influenced the overall results more than a study that included only 1 comparison.
In addition, the breadth of the review, while revealing a variety of study designs, measures, and populations, often made comparisons and summaries difficult. For example, similar constructs were often defined and/or measured differently across studies. Even something as seemingly consistent as standardized test scores can vary from state to state. Therefore, these inconsistencies limit the ability of this or any review to draw specific conclusions across all studies.
For the same reason, it was not appropriate to make broad statements about effect sizes. Although the studies in this review include examples of moderate and large effect sizes,47,51,63 there were not enough studies analyzing the same variables in any given category to make summary statements about the magnitude of associations between physical activity and academic performance variables. As a result, conclusions do not summarize magnitudes of effect sizes and are intentionally broad.
Implications for Future Research or Evaluation
What other research or evaluation needs to be done to further the field in this area?
• Within the contexts reviewed, there were relatively few studies of the impact of recess and classroom physical activity on academic achievement. None of the reviewed studies examined the relationship of sports and academic achievement within the primary grades or the relationship of physically active breaks/recess and academic achievement within the secondary grades. Few studies conducted subgroup analyses beyond gender comparisons.
• Less than half of the studies described effect sizes or magnitudes of the associations observed. Reporting of effect sizes can guide researchers and practitioners towards interventions most likely to impact outcomes of interest.
• Although nearly all of the reviewed studies described a practical framework for the research, few of the studies articulated a theoretical basis for the work or explicitly described how the findings informed theory development. Theoretical specificity may enable researchers to more easily identify relevant bodies of work from other disciplines, consider new relationships and mechanisms of action, align and strengthen intervention design and measurement, and ultimately progress the field more effectively and efficiently.
• Improved understanding of the specific cognitive and behavioral impacts of particular physical activities could inform intervention developers and improve the match between interventions, populations, and educational goals. For example, compared with measures of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors such as on-task classroom behavior or following instructions were less likely to be examined as proximal outcomes of physical activity or potential mediators of academic achievement.
• Future research should further examine the relationship between school-based physical activity and academic performance in subpopulations of students (e.g., based on gender, race/ethnicity, or SES). Results from this type of research could help physical education teachers and physical activity coordinators apply findings of programs and interventions to meet the needs of particular groups of students.
• Future research should be developed in consultation with educators (e.g., school administrators and staff) and informed by research across disciplines, such as neurobiology, cognitive science, social psychology, and kinesiology. For instance, few studies placed the work within a neurobiology model to better understand the role of brain physiology, within an ecological framework to account for contextual variables, or within a developmental perspective to examine developmental differences in relationships between physical activity and academic achievement.
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 31
• Future research and evaluation would benefit from identifying uniform ways to measure key outcomes, including both physical activity and academic performance outcomes. Similarly, future studies would benefit from larger sample sizes and stronger research designs that include longitudinal follow-up, as appropriate. Adequate follow-up of interventions has been more limited in physical education compared with other contexts.
Implications for Schools What are the policy and practice implications from this review?
• Schools should continue to offer or increase opportunities for physical activity. There is evidence that physical activity may help improve academic performance (including grades and standardized test scores) in some situations. Increasing or maintaining time dedicated to physical education does not adversely impact academic performance.
• The studies in this review also suggest that physical activity can impact cognitive skills and attitudes, important components of improved academic performance. This includes enhanced concentration and attention as well as improved classroom behavior.
• Taking all of the evidence into account, schools should strive to meet the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s recommendation of daily physical education and offer students a balanced academic program that includes opportunities for a variety of daily physical activities.
What are the current recommendations for students’ physical activity?
• Recent recommendations indicate that 6- to 17-year-olds should be participating in at least 60 minutes of physical activity daily,83 and schools can and should provide opportunities for physical activity to help students meet this recommendation. In fact, the Institute of Medicine’s Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health in the Balance report recommended that schools provide a significant portion of students’ daily physical activity.84
• To enable students to meet these recommended levels of physical activity, the National Association for Sport and Physical Education recommends that all pre-K through grade 12 schools implement a comprehensive school physical activity program, which includes quality physical education; physical activity before, during, and after school, including recess and other physical activity breaks; extracurricular, noncompetitive physical activity clubs; interscholastic sports; and walk- and bike-to-school initiatives.35
How can schools promote physical activity at school?
• Physical activity can be included in the school environment in a number of ways without detracting from academic performance. Studies highlight potential benefits of physical activity in physical education classes, during recess, in regular classrooms, and through extracurricular sports and other physical activity opportunities.
– School-based physical education: To maximize the potential benefits of student participation in physical education class, schools and physical education teachers can consider increasing the amount of time students spend in physical education class or adding components to increase the quality of physical education class. Studies reviewed here showed that programs were able to increase physical education time by increasing the number of days per week or the length of class time, adding trained physical education instructors, supplementing programs with community resources, and using outside facilities (e.g., swimming pools). In addition, the studies reviewed here explored several different strategies for enhancing the quality of physical education class, requiring varying levels of resources. These range from implementing a standards- and research-based physical education curriculum to adding specific components to physical education.
– Recess: Studies reviewed here used structured or unstructured play during recess as a means to provide students with time for movement and play during the school day. School boards,
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superintendents, principals, and teachers can feel confident that providing recess to students on a regular basis may benefit academic behaviors (e.g., attention), facilitate social development,85
and contribute to overall physical activity86 and its associated health benefits.
– Classroom-based physical activity: Movement activities and physical activity breaks are simple ways for classroom teachers to enhance student physical activity and possibly academic performance. Most interventions described in this review used short breaks (5–20 minutes) that required little or no teacher preparation, special equipment, or resources. As an example, interventions such as speed (cup) stacking could be a center or activity station. Simple movement-based learning techniques (e.g., walking around the perimeter of the classroom while learning vocabulary or using music and rhythmic movement to enhance memory tasks) could be incorporated into large group lessons. Short exercise breaks (e.g., 5 minutes of walking or 10 minutes of prescribed exercise) could be introduced into the classroom routine prior to teaching subjects that require intense student concentration.
– Extracurricular physical activities: The evidence in this review suggests that superintendents, principals, and athletic directors can develop or continue school-based sports programs (e.g., intramurals or physical activity clubs and interscholastic sports programs), without concern that participation in such activities would have negative associations with academic performance. Increasing or maintaining time dedicated to physical activity does not adversely impact academic performance. Indeed, studies suggest there may be a range of possible benefits for some students, including developing a stronger sense of self, fostering educational aspirations, maintaining interest in class, encouraging homework completion, and reducing dropout rates. School administrators and teachers can also encourage after-school organizations, clubs, student groups, and parent
groups to incorporate physical activities into their programs and events (e.g., fundraisers, special activities).
• Collectively, the findings from this review support the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s recommendations for a comprehensive school physical activity program.35 The results also suggest that physical education and physical activity may help advance academic performance for many students and should not hinder academic progress.
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Appendix A: Database Search Terms
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 39
SEARCH TERMS Physical Activity • Reading performance
• Mathematics achievement • Physical activity • Mathematics performance • Exercise • Science achievement • Physical education • Science performance • Fitness • Educational indicators • Sport • Achievement scores • Sport participation (searched in Cumulative
Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature • Educational testing [CINAHL®] and SportDiscus™ only) • Educational assessment
• Energy expenditure (searched in CINAHL® and • Dropout SportDiscus™ only) • School refusal
• Student motivation
• Student engagement Academic-Related • Student learning
• Academic achievement ®• Information retrieval (searched in CINAHL• Academic problems and SportDiscus™ only)
• Educational status (MeSH) • Cognitive performance
• Education measurement (MeSH) • Student assessment
• Graduation rates • Brain development
• Academic grades • School connectedness
• Grade point average (GPA)
• Standardized test scores
• Grade retention Databases For Searching • Years of school completed • PubMed • Time on task • SportDiscus™ • Attentiveness • CINAHL®
• Concentration (searched in CINAHL® • Expanded Academic Index ASAP
and SportDiscus™ only) • PsycNET®
• Attendance • Sociological Abstracts
• Tardiness • ERIC
• Discipline • ScienceDirect®
• Memory • Google Scholar
• Reading achievement
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Appendix B: Coding Sheet
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 41
Topic:
Title of Article:
Date of Article (month/year):
Citation:
Journal:
Authors:
Volume/edition/pages:
1. Purpose of study as stated by author
2. Research questions/hypotheses as stated by author
3. Study Design (check all that apply)
Study Type Data Type
Quasi-experimental Quantitative
Experimental Qualitative
Case study
Cohort Design Follow-up Design
Cross-sectional Immediate post
Prospective Delayed post
Retrospective
Describe design:
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4. Sampling
a. Sample included: (check all that apply) Children/youth (ages 5–18) Parents School personnel Community personnel Classroom School Community Household Other. Please describe:
b. Describe how each sample was obtained:
c. What was the sampling frame for each sample?
d. Study inclusion criteria for each sample:
e. Type of sample: (check all that apply and note for which sample)
Probability Simple random sampling Stratified random sampling Cluster sampling Census Other. Please describe:
Nonprobability Convenience sampling Quota sampling Purposive sampling Snowball sampling Other. Please describe:
f. What was the participation rate for each sample?
Mark source of this rate: Reported by authors Calculated by the reviewer g. If the study was longitudinal, what were the retention rates by time period?
Mark here if the study was not longitudinal. h. Are there any selection bias issues mentioned and/or apparent? Yes No If yes, describe:
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 43
5. Sample Characteristics
Children or Youth N = Other. Please describe: N =
Age range: Mean age: Grade level in school:
Age range: Mean age:
Socioeconomic status (describe how established as well):
Child gender: % Male % Female Other gender: % Male % Female
Youth Race/Ethnicity:
____% American Indian or Alaska Native ____% Asian ____% Black or African American ____% Hispanic ____% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander ____% White ____% Other. Please describe: ____% Alternate Category. Please describe:
Other Race/Ethnicity:
____% American Indian or Alaska Native ____% Asian ____% Black or African American ____% Hispanic ____% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander ____% White ____% Other. Please describe: ____% Alternate Category. Please describe:
Country of study: USA Other. Please describe:
6. Setting
School (during school day). Specify grade levels served by school:
Recess Classroom School-wide
Physical education class Lunch time Special event
(e.g., jog-a-thon)
Other:
Before school (on school grounds or on the way to school):
After school (on school grounds). Specify grade levels served by school:
Community-based organization:
Other. Please describe:
44 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
7. Theory and theoretical model as stated by author, if specified (Is there a theoretical base for the study? If so, what theory is described? What are the relational forms in the model?)
8. Describe the intervention conditions as stated by the author. Include a description of the structure (e.g., number of sessions, number of sessions per week, average length of each session, who is implementing and how those individuals are trained), topics covered and implementation:
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 45
46 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
9a. M
etho
ds f
or In
depe
nden
t Var
iabl
es A
s Re
port
ed b
y A
utho
rs (p
leas
e us
e a
sepa
rate
row
for
each
bro
ad c
once
pt)
Broa
d Co
ncep
t or
Con
stru
ct
How
Is C
once
pt
Ope
ratio
nal-
ized
and
for
W
hat T
arge
t Po
pula
tion
(i.e.
, In
dica
tors
)?
Nam
e of
Sc
ale
or
Inde
x
# Ite
ms
in
Scal
e
Item
and
Su
mm
ary
Mea
sure
men
t Ty
pes
(e.g
., N
omin
al, O
rdin
al,
Inte
rval
, Rat
io)
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Met
hod
(e.g
., Pa
per-
Penc
il Su
rvey
)‡
Info
rman
t or
Info
rmat
ion
Sour
ce (e
.g.,
Stud
ent,
Teac
her,
Trai
ned
Dat
a Co
llect
or)§
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Tim
e Po
ints
**
Relia
bilit
y In
form
atio
n (N
ote
if fr
om
Stud
y Sa
mpl
e or
Oth
er)
Valid
ity
Info
rmat
ion
(Not
e if
from
St
udy
Sam
ple
or O
ther
)
‡Th
e A
cces
s da
taba
se w
ill d
ispl
ay a
dro
p do
wn
box
with
the
follo
win
g re
spon
se o
ptio
ns: p
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y, c
ompu
ter a
ssis
ted
surv
ey, fi
tnes
s te
st, s
kill
asse
ssm
ent,
mea
sure
men
t de
vice
(e.g
., pe
dom
eter
, acc
eler
omet
er, h
eart
rate
mon
itor),
dia
ry o
r jou
rnal
, obs
erva
tion,
inte
rvie
w, f
ocus
gro
up, a
nd o
ther
.
§Th
e A
cces
s da
taba
se w
ill d
ispl
ay a
dro
p do
wn
box
with
the
follo
win
g op
tions
: stu
dent
, tea
cher
, par
ent,
scho
ol a
dmin
istra
tion,
rese
arch
sta
ff, o
ther
adu
lt, p
eer,
and
othe
r.
**Th
e A
cces
s da
taba
se w
ill d
ispl
ay c
heck
box
es w
ith th
e fo
llow
ing
resp
onse
opt
ions
: bas
elin
e, 1
mon
th, 2
mon
ths,
3 m
onth
s, 6
mon
ths,
12
mon
ths,
18
mon
ths,
24
mon
ths,
36
mon
ths,
and
oth
er.
9b. M
etho
ds f
or D
epen
dent
Var
iabl
es A
s Re
port
ed b
y A
utho
rs (
plea
se u
se a
sep
arat
e ro
w fo
r ea
ch b
road
con
cept
)
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 47
Broa
d Co
ncep
t or
Con
stru
ct
How
Is C
once
pt
Ope
ratio
nal-
ized
and
for
W
hat T
arge
t Po
pula
tion
(i.e.
, In
dica
tors
)?
Nam
e of
Sc
ale
or
Inde
x
# Ite
ms
in
Scal
e
Item
and
Su
mm
ary
Mea
sure
men
t Ty
pes
(e.g
., N
omin
al, O
rdin
al,
Inte
rval
, Rat
io)
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Met
hod
(e.g
., Pa
per-
Penc
il Su
rvey
)††
Info
rman
t or
Info
rmat
ion
Sour
ce (e
.g.,
Stud
ent,
Teac
her,
Trai
ned
Dat
a Co
llect
or)‡‡
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Tim
e Po
ints
§§
Relia
bilit
y In
form
atio
n (N
ote
if fr
om
Stud
y Sa
mpl
e or
Oth
er)
Valid
ity
Info
rmat
ion
(Not
e if
from
St
udy
Sam
ple
or O
ther
)
††Th
e A
cces
s da
taba
se w
ill d
ispl
ay a
dro
p do
wn
box
with
the
follo
win
g re
spon
se o
ptio
ns: p
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y, c
ompu
ter a
ssis
ted
surv
ey, fi
tnes
s te
st, s
kill
asse
ssm
ent,
mea
sure
men
t de
vice
(e.g
., pe
dom
eter
, acc
eler
omet
er, h
eart
rate
mon
itor),
dia
ry o
r jou
rnal
, obs
erva
tion,
inte
rvie
w, f
ocus
gro
up, a
nd o
ther
.
‡‡Th
e A
cces
s da
taba
se w
ill d
ispl
ay a
dro
p do
wn
box
with
the
follo
win
g op
tions
: stu
dent
, tea
cher
, par
ent,
scho
ol a
dmin
istra
tion,
rese
arch
sta
ff, o
ther
adu
lt, p
eer,
and
othe
r.
§§Th
e A
cces
s da
taba
se w
ill d
ispl
ay c
heck
box
es w
ith th
e fo
llow
ing
resp
onse
opt
ions
: bas
elin
e, 1
mon
th, 2
mon
ths,
3 m
onth
s, 6
mon
ths,
12
mon
ths,
18
mon
ths,
24
mon
ths,
36
mon
ths,
and
oth
er.
____________________________________
10. Analytic strategy
a. Describe the analytic strategy as stated by author (by outcome as appropriate):
b. Describe the covariates used for each analysis, as applicable:
c. Did the authors:
Conduct statistical testing when appropriate?Yes No NA INP***
Control for design effects in the statistical model (e.g., control for cluster design and/or repeated measures over time)?
Yes No NA INP
Correct for multiple testing (e.g., Bonferroni or more stringent p -value)? Yes No NA INP
Experiments: Control for differential exposure to the intervention (dose)? Yes No NA INP
d. Missing data (describe how it was handled if applicable, e.g., listwise deletions, imputations):
e. Are there any other apparent problems with the data analyses? Yes No Not sure
If yes, please explain:
***INP=Information not provided.
48 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
11. R
esul
ts
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 49
Rese
arch
Q
uest
ion
or
Out
com
e or
Br
oad
Conc
ept
Resu
lts b
y Co
ncep
t/
Out
com
e
Resu
lts b
y Co
ncep
t/
Out
com
e N
Sum
mar
y
Incl
ude
Mag
nitu
de o
f A
ssoc
iatio
n if
Repo
rted
(e.g
., ef
fect
siz
e)
Do
Resu
lts D
irec
tly
Rela
te t
o Pa
per
Focu
s?††
†H
ypot
hesi
s Te
sted
(D
escr
iptiv
e)
(Dat
a Re
sults
) Ty
pe o
f A
ssoc
iatio
n‡‡‡
Des
crip
tion
of A
ssoc
iatio
n if
Ava
ilabl
e
††† P
leas
e ra
te o
n a
3-po
int s
cale
(0=N
o, n
ot re
late
d; 1
=Yes
, a li
ttle;
2=Y
es, a
lot).
‡‡
‡ Ple
ase
rate
on
a 3-
poin
t sca
le (0
=Neg
ativ
e as
soci
atio
n, 1
=No
asso
ciat
ion,
2=P
ositi
ve a
ssoc
iatio
n).
12. Limitations: What limitations were reported by the authors (as stated by author)?
13. Limitations noted by reviewers, but not reported by authors:
14. What type of activity does the article deal with? (Mark all that apply.) Physical education class Regular recess Lunch recess Classroom-based, but not physical education classes specifically General physical activity (school-based or nonschool-based) Sports or athletics Other (please specify):
15. Additional Comments:
50 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Appendix C: Glossary of Research Design Terms Case-study design A case study is an in-depth examination (often over time) of one or a small number of cases believed to represent a broader phenomenon;87 it is usually, but not always, observational.88 In this report, all case studies reported only qualitative data.
Cross-sectional study A cross-sectional study is conducted at a single time point (often through a survey), with a sample believed to represent a cross section of the population of interest on relevant variables such as sex, age, education levels, etc. Cross-sectional studies can be used to determine whether two variables are associated but do not allow for the direct examination of the impact of time on such associations, a condition necessary to establish casuality.88,89
Descriptive design Descriptive studies have the purpose of describing activities, events, or behaviors that have occurred in a given situation; their goal is often to create a “profile” of a phenomenon, program, or population as it exists.90 Descriptive and inferential statistics may be used.87 These studies differ from most quasi-experimental and experimental designs in that they do not control environments or expose subjects to different treatments and typically lack a control or comparison group, making it more difficult to account for the influence of extraneous factors.87,88
Experimental design Experimental design is often considered the most rigorous of research designs and is frequently referred to as the gold-standard for establishing causality; in order for a study to be classified as experimental, it must include a control group and use random assignment to intervention and control groups.91 Results may not generalize beyond the sample or conditions of the experiment.87
Intervention An intervention is “a specific activity (or set of related activities) intended to change the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or practices of individuals and populations to reduce their health risk. An intervention has distinct process and outcome objectives and a protocol outlining the steps for implementation.”92
Longitudinal study A longitudinal study is a study conducted over time of a variable or a group of subjects,87 unlike a cross-sectional study. By collecting data at a minimum of two distinct points in time,90 one advantage of longitudinal studies is that they allow for the direct observation of the impact of time on variable associations, a condition necessary to establish casuality.88 The studies in this review had a wide range of time between the initial and final data collection points; in some, final data were collected immediately following interventions, and in others, final data were collected as many as 4 years after the initial data collection.
Quasi-experimental design A quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design but lacks the important characteristic of random assignment to intervention and control or comparison groups.93 Though not considered as rigorous as an experimental design, it is often considered the next best thing for establishing causality.
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 51
Appendix D: School-Based Physical Education Summary Matrix
Articles describing quasi-experimental or experimental designs are highlighted in the table before the matrix for each setting. Not all studies used these designs.
School Based Physical Education Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date Only)
Bluechardt, M.H., Shephard, R.J. 1995
Budde, H., Voelcker-Rehage, C., Pietraßyk-Kendziorra, S., Ribeiro, P., Tidow, G. 2008
Dwyer, T., Blizzard, L., Dean, K. 1996
Ericsson, I. 2008
McNaughten, D., Gabbard, C. 1993
Milosis, D., Papaioannou, A.G. 2007
Pollatschek, J.L., O’Hagan, F.J. 1989
Raviv, S., Low, M. 1990
Sallis, J.F., McKenzie, T.L., Kolody, B., Lewis, M., Marshall, S., Rosengard, P. 1999
Tremarche, P.V., Robinson, E.M., Graham, L.B. 2007
Tuckman, B.W., Hinkle, J.S. 1986
52 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
App
endi
x D
: Phy
sica
l Edu
catio
n C
lass
Sum
mar
y M
atri
x§§§
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 53
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Blue
char
dt M
H,
Shep
hard
RJ41
Usi
ng a
n ex
tracu
rricu
lar
phys
ical
act
ivity
pr
ogra
m to
en
hanc
e so
cial
sk
ills
Jour
nal o
f Lea
rnin
g D
isabi
litie
s 19
95;2
8(3)
: 16
0-16
9
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Ex
tracu
rricu
lar
phys
ical
act
ivity
pr
ogra
m a
nd
self-
repo
rted
acad
emic
co
mpe
tenc
e
Setti
ng: S
choo
l
Coun
try:
So
uthe
rn
Ont
ario
, Can
ada
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 45
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
9.4
G
rade
: Prim
ary
Gen
der:
M
: 76%
F:
24%
Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts:
Skill
ass
essm
ent (
gros
s an
d fin
e m
otor
ski
lls a
s m
easu
red
by
Brui
nink
s-O
sere
tsky
Test
of M
otor
Pr
ofici
ency
) 2
tim
es (b
asel
ine,
imm
edia
te
follo
w-u
p af
ter 1
0-w
eek
inte
rven
tion)
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (s
elf-r
epor
t ac
adem
ic a
nd n
on-a
cade
mic
co
mpe
tenc
e, p
erce
ptio
n of
ph
ysic
al a
nd s
ocia
l per
form
ance
du
ring
inte
rven
tion
as m
easu
red
by th
e Se
lf-Pe
rcep
tion
Profi
le fo
r Le
arni
ng D
isab
led
Stud
ents)
2 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 1
0 w
eeks
)
Teac
her o
bser
vatio
n (s
ocia
l be
havi
or)
3 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 1
0 w
eeks
, 3
mon
ths)
Cond
ition
s: S
tude
nts
with
lear
ning
di
sabi
litie
s pa
rtici
pate
d in
inte
nse
phys
ical
edu
catio
n in
struc
tion
or
acad
emic
enr
ichm
ent.
Stru
ctur
e:
Inte
rven
tion:
Clo
sely
sup
ervi
sed
twic
e-w
eekl
y, 9
0-m
inut
e ex
tracu
rricu
lar
sess
ions
in th
e po
ol o
r gym
nasi
um
desig
ned
to c
ombi
ne v
igor
ous
phys
ical
ac
tivity
with
soc
ial s
kills
trai
ning
and
pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng o
ver a
10
-wee
k pe
riod.
26
instr
ucto
rs re
ceiv
ed 1
7 ho
urs
of tr
aini
ng a
nd w
ere
assig
ned
2 stu
dent
s ea
ch fo
r the
dur
atio
n of
the
proj
ect.
Con
trol:
Stud
ents
rece
ived
the
sam
e am
ount
of i
ndiv
idua
l atte
ntio
n in
ac
adem
ic in
struc
tion
(twic
e w
eekl
y,
90 m
inut
es, 1
0 w
eeks
).
Topi
cs c
over
ed:
Inte
rven
tion:
Gym
ses
sions
focu
sed
on u
pper
-lim
b co
ordi
natio
n (g
ross
an
d fin
e m
otor
). Po
ol s
essio
ns fo
cuse
d on
stre
ngth
and
vis
ual-m
otor
con
trol.
Soci
al s
kills
wer
e de
velo
ped
thro
ugh
mod
elin
g, p
ract
ice
prob
lem
-solvi
ng,
role
-pla
y w
ith fe
edba
ck.
Con
trol:
Sess
ions
focu
sed
on d
efici
t sk
ills
as id
entifi
ed b
y cl
assr
oom
teac
her.
Met
hods
: Ses
sions
wer
e ba
sed
on
pool
and
gym
nasi
um a
ctiv
ities
(one
of
each
eve
ry w
eek)
. 70
min
utes
of t
he
90 m
inut
es w
ere
activ
ity b
ased
.
Doe
s th
e in
terv
entio
n gr
oup
perf
orm
si
gnifi
cant
ly b
ette
r on
sel
f-rep
orte
d ac
adem
ic a
nd te
ache
r-ob
serv
ed s
ocia
l m
easu
res
than
the
cont
rol g
roup
afte
r 10
-w
eek
inte
rven
tion,
con
trolli
ng fo
r ge
nder
?a
• Se
lf-pe
rcep
tion
of g
ener
al
inte
llect
ual a
bilit
y •
Self-
perc
eptio
n of
spe
lling
co
mpe
tenc
e •
Self-
perc
eptio
n of
mat
hem
atic
al
com
pete
nce
• Se
lf-pe
rcep
tion
of w
ritin
g co
mpe
tenc
e •
Self-
perc
eptio
n of
rea
ding
co
mpe
tenc
e •
Glo
bal s
elf-w
orth
•
Coop
erat
es (s
ocia
l beh
avio
r) •
Dis
rupt
s (s
ocia
l beh
avio
r) •
Figh
ts (s
ocia
l beh
avio
r) •
Seek
s he
lp (s
ocia
l beh
avio
r) •
Lead
er (s
ocia
l beh
avio
r)
0 0 0 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 a A
dditi
onal
ana
lyse
s sh
owed
that
ther
e w
ere
no
sign
ifica
nt g
roup
x ti
me
x ge
nder
effe
cts
on th
e ou
tcom
es.
Doe
s th
e in
terv
entio
n gr
oup
perfo
rm s
ig-
nific
antly
bet
ter o
n m
otor
ski
lls (a
s m
ea-
sure
d by
Bru
inin
ks-O
sere
tsky
Test
of M
otor
Pr
ofici
ency
) and
sel
f-rep
orte
d no
naca
dem
ic
mea
sure
s th
an th
e co
ntro
l gro
up a
fter 1
0-
wee
k in
terv
entio
n, c
ontro
lling
for g
ende
r ?•
Com
posi
te m
otor
ski
ll sc
ores
(gro
ss,
fine,
bat
tery
) •
Non
acad
emic
sco
res
(soc
ial
acce
ptan
ce, a
thle
tic c
ompe
tenc
e,
phys
ical
app
eara
nce,
beh
avio
ral
cond
uct)
0 0
§§§Re
sults
are
cod
ed a
s fo
llow
s: +
sig
nifie
s a
sign
ifica
nt p
ositi
ve o
utco
me;
0 s
ignifie
s no
sig
nific
ant o
utco
me;
– s
ignifie
s a
sign
ifica
nt n
egat
ive
outc
ome.
Mat
rices
may
not
incl
ude
all o
utco
mes
des
crib
ed in
the
artic
le; s
hade
d ou
tcom
es a
re o
utco
mes
of p
rimar
y in
tere
st to
(and
wer
e in
clud
ed in
) thi
s re
view
; add
ition
al o
utco
mes
repo
rted
here
may
be
of
inte
rest
to re
ader
s.
NR
= N
ot re
porte
d by
stu
dy a
utho
rs.
Indi
cate
s da
ta c
olle
ctio
n tim
e po
ints.
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Budd
e H
, Vo
elck
er-R
ehag
e C
, Pie
traßy
k-Ke
ndzi
orra
S,
Ribe
iro P
, Tid
ow
G49
Acu
te c
oord
inat
ive
exer
cise
impr
oves
at
tent
iona
l pe
rform
ance
in
adol
esce
nts.
Neu
rosc
ienc
e Le
tters
20
08;4
41(2
): 21
9-22
3
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Ef
fect
of e
xerc
ise
on c
once
ntra
tion
and
atte
ntio
n sp
an
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Coun
try:
G
erm
any
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 47
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
15.
00
Gra
de: N
R G
ende
r:
M: 7
6.60
%
F: 2
3.40
%
Ethn
icity
: NR
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 52
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
14.9
0 G
rade
: NR
Gen
der:
M
: 84.
60%
F:
15.
40%
Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts:
Stan
dard
ized
tests
(c
once
ntra
tion
and
atte
ntio
n as
m
easu
red
by d
2 te
st) 2
tim
es (p
rete
st w
eek
2 af
ter a
re
gula
r cla
ss a
nd p
ostte
st w
eek
3 af
ter e
xerc
ise
or s
port
clas
s)
Cond
ition
s: S
tude
nts
wer
e as
signe
d to
th
e co
ordi
nate
d ex
erci
se c
ondi
tion
or
the
norm
al s
port
less
on c
ondi
tion.
Coor
dina
ted
exer
cise
con
ditio
n (C
E): E
xerc
ises
sel
ecte
d fro
m s
peci
al
form
s fo
r soc
cer a
nd M
unic
h Fi
tnes
s te
st; g
roup
s of
4 s
tude
nts
spen
t 1.7
5 m
inut
es a
t eac
h of
5 e
xerc
ise
statio
ns.
Nor
mal
spo
rt le
sson
con
ditio
n (N
SL):
Stud
ents
exer
cise
d fo
r 10
min
utes
at
sam
e in
tens
ity a
s C
E gr
oup
but
with
out a
ny s
pecific
atio
n on
mot
or
coor
dina
tion.
Did
the
stud
ents
in th
e co
ordi
nate
d ex
erci
se
grou
p ha
ve h
ighe
r co
ncen
tratio
n an
d at
tent
ion
scor
es o
n th
e d2
test
than
con
trol
grou
ps fr
om p
rete
st to
pos
ttest
?
• O
vera
ll co
ncen
tratio
n an
d at
tent
ion
scor
e +
Did
the
stude
nts
in th
e co
ordi
nate
d ex
erci
se
grou
p ha
ve a
gre
ater
num
ber o
f cor
rect
re
spon
ses
on th
e d2
test
than
con
trol
grou
ps fr
om p
rete
st to
pos
ttest ?
• Q
uant
ity o
f cor
rect
resp
onse
s •
Qua
lity
of re
spon
ses
+ +
Add
ition
al a
naly
ses
show
ed th
at th
ere
wer
e no
si
gnifi
cant
effe
cts
of g
ende
r on
the
pret
est t
o po
stte
st ch
ange
s.
Car
lson
SA,
Fulto
n JE
, Lee
SM
, M
ayna
rd L
M,
Brow
n D
R, K
ohl
HW
3rd
, et a
l.52
Phys
ical
edu
catio
n an
d ac
adem
ic
achi
evem
ent i
n el
emen
tary
sch
ool:
data
from
the
Early
Chi
ldho
od
Long
itudi
nal S
tudy
.
Am
eric
an Jo
urna
l of
Pub
lic H
ealth
20
08;9
8(4)
:
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysi c
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
A
ssoc
iatio
n be
twee
n ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n an
d ac
adem
ic
achi
evem
ent
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass,
cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 531
6 A
g e r
ange
: NR
Mea
n ag
e: 6
.2
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (K
–5th
gra
des)
G
ende
r:
M: 4
7.90
%
F: 5
2.10
%
Ethn
icity
: H
ispa
nic:
13.
3%
Whi
te: 6
9.2%
O
ther
: 17.
5%
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
anal
ysis
of d
ata
from
th
e Ea
rly C
hild
hood
Lon
gitu
dina
l St
udy,
Kin
derg
arte
n C
lass
of
1998
to 1
999
(EC
LS-K
)
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: T
each
er re
port
(tim
es p
er
wee
k an
d m
inut
es p
er d
ay s
pent
in
phy
sical
edu
catio
n) 5
tim
es (b
asel
ine-
Fall
K,
Sprin
g K,
Spr
ing
1st,
Sprin
g 3r
d,
and
Sprin
g 5t
h gr
ades
)
Stan
dard
ized
tests
(mat
h an
d re
adin
g ite
m re
spon
se th
eory
[IR
T] s
core
s);
No
inte
rven
tion
Do
stud
ents
who
spe
nd m
ore
time
in
phys
ical
edu
catio
n (m
ediu
m v
s. lo
w
phys
ical
edu
catio
n tim
e) h
ave
high
er
acad
emic
ach
ieve
men
t ove
r tim
e (a
s m
easu
red
by IR
T sc
ores
and
con
trolli
ng fo
r de
mog
raph
ics)
?
• Re
adin
g (b
oys)
•
Read
ing
(girl
s)
• M
ath
(boy
s)
• M
ath
(girl
s)
0 0 0 0
Do
stud
ents
who
spe
nd m
ore
time
in
phys
ical
edu
catio
n (h
igh
v s. l
ow p
hysi
cal
educ
atio
n tim
e) h
ave
high
er a
cade
mic
ac
hiev
emen
t ove
r tim
e (a
s m
easu
red
by IR
T sc
ores
and
con
trolli
ng fo
r de
mog
raph
ics)
?
• Re
adin
g (b
oys)
0
721-
727
5 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e-Fa
ll K,
•
Read
ing
(girl
s)
+ Sp
ring
K, S
prin
g 1s
t, Sp
ring
3rd,
•
Mat
h (b
oys)
0
and
Sprin
g 5t
h gr
ades
) •
Mat
h (g
irls)
+
54 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Dex
ter T
53
Rela
tions
hips
be
twee
n sp
ort
know
ledg
e, s
port
perfo
rman
ce a
nd
acad
emic
abi
lity:
em
piric
al e
vide
nce
from
GC
SE
Phys
ical
Edu
catio
n.
Jour
nal o
f Sp
orts
Scie
nces
19
99;1
7(4)
: 28
3-29
5
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
The
re
latio
nshi
ps
betw
een
spor
t kn
owle
dge,
spo
rt pe
rform
ance
, an
d ac
adem
ic
abili
ty
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass,
cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
UK
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 517
A
ge r
ange
: NR
Mea
n ag
e: 1
6.00
G
rade
: Sec
onda
ry
(at c
ompl
etio
n of
com
pulso
ry
scho
ol)
Gen
der:
NR
Ethn
icity
: NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
anal
ysis
of d
ata
from
th
e 19
95 G
ener
al C
ertifi
cate
of
Sec
onda
ry E
duca
tion
(GC
SE) e
xam
inat
ion
in p
hysi
cal
educ
atio
n, m
ath,
and
Eng
lish
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
tand
ardi
zed
test
s (G
CSE
/Eng
lish,
mat
h, p
hysi
cal
educ
atio
n kn
owle
dge,
spo
rt kn
owle
dge)
1 ti
me
Skill
ass
essm
ent (
badm
into
n,
bask
etba
ll, fo
otba
ll, h
ocke
y,
roun
ders
, net
ball,
ave
rage
spo
rt pe
rform
ance
sco
re a
s m
easu
red
by A
mat
eur
Ath
letic
Ass
ocia
tion
ESSO
5 S
tar
poin
ts s
yste
m)
1 ti
me
No
inte
rven
tion
Is a
cade
mic
abi
lity
(as
mea
sure
d by
GCS
E En
glis
h sc
ores
) ass
ocia
ted
with
spo
rt s
kill
perf
orm
ance
(ass
esse
d by
teac
hers
)?b
• Fo
otba
ll •
Badm
into
n •
Bask
etba
ll •
Hoc
key
• N
etba
ll •
Roun
ders
•
Ath
letic
s
+ + 0 + + 0 + Is
aca
dem
ic a
bilit
y (a
s m
easu
red
by G
CSE
mat
h sc
ores
) ass
ocia
ted
with
spo
rt s
kill
perf
orm
ance
(as
asse
ssed
by
teac
hers
)?b
• Fo
otba
ll •
Badm
into
n •
Bask
etba
ll •
Hoc
key
• N
etba
ll •
Roun
ders
•
Ath
letic
s
+ + 0 + + + + b A
dditi
onal
ana
lyse
s by
gen
der
show
ed s
imila
r re
sults
.
Dol
lman
J, B
osho
ff K,
Dod
d G
54
The
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
curri
culu
m
time
for p
hysic
al
educ
atio
n an
d lit
erac
y an
d nu
mer
acy
stand
ards
in S
outh
A
ustra
lian
prim
ary
scho
ols.
Euro
pean
Phy
sical
Ed
ucat
ion
Revi
ew
2006
;12(
2):
151-
163
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n cu
rric
ulum
tim
e fo
r ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n an
d lit
erac
y an
d nu
mer
acy
stand
ards
in
Sout
h A
ustra
lian
prim
ary
scho
ols
Setti
ng: S
choo
l
Coun
try:
A
ustra
lia
Sam
ple
1: S
c hoo
l N
: 117
G
rade
: Prim
ary
and
Seco
ndar
y (3
rd, 5
th a
nd 7
th
grad
es)
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
rinci
pal p
aper
-pe
ncil
surv
ey (c
urric
ulum
tim
e de
dica
ted
to p
hysi
cal e
duca
tion,
ph
ysic
al e
duca
tion
staff
age
and
phys
ical
edu
catio
n tra
inin
g,
ethn
icity
, SES
) 1
tim
e
Stan
dard
ized
tests
(sta
te li
tera
cy
and
num
erac
y te
sts—
Stat
e La
N)
2 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 1
2 m
onth
s)
No
inte
rven
tion
Doe
s cu
rric
ulum
tim
e co
mm
itted
to p
hysi
cal
educ
atio
n in
depe
nden
tly p
redi
ct li
tera
cy
and
num
erac
y co
mpe
tenc
ies
asse
ssed
by
the
Stat
e Li
tera
cy a
nd N
umer
acy
Test
(c
ontro
lling
for
soci
oeco
nom
ic s
tatu
s (S
ES),
nonE
nglis
h-sp
eaki
ng b
ackg
roun
d, a
nd s
taff
profi
le v
aria
bles
)?
• Li
tera
cy
• N
umer
acy
• A
vera
ge s
choo
l atta
inm
ent i
n bo
th
liter
acy
and
num
erac
y
0 0 0
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 55
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Dw
yer T
, Bliz
zard
L,
Dea
n K42
Phys
ical
act
ivity
an
d pe
rform
ance
in
chi
ldre
n.
Nut
ritio
n Re
view
s 19
96;5
4(4
Pt
2):S
27-S
31
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
and
acad
emic
pe
rform
ance
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
A
ustra
lia
This
arti
cle
also
re
porte
d on
the
Aus
tralia
n Sc
hool
H
ealth
and
Fitn
ess
Stud
y (A
SHFS
); th
ose
data
are
not
pr
esen
ted
here
be
caus
e th
ey d
id
not m
eet i
nclu
sion
crite
ria.
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
l N
: 7
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (5
th g
rade
)
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 501
A
ge r
ange
: NR
Mea
n ag
e: 1
0 G
rade
: Prim
ary
(5th
gra
de)
Gen
der:
NR
Ethn
icity
: NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: O
bser
vatio
n (c
lass
room
be
havi
or)
2 tim
es (b
asel
ine,
1 w
eek
post
inte
rven
tion)
Mea
sure
men
t dev
ice
(hei
ght a
nd
wei
ght,
skin
fold
test,
end
uran
ce
fitne
ss te
st)
2 tim
es (b
asel
ine,
1 w
eek
post
inte
rven
tion)
Stan
dard
ized
test
s (th
e A
ustra
lian
Cou
ncil
for
Educ
atio
nal R
esea
rch
arith
met
ic
test
and
the
GA
P re
adin
g te
st)
2 tim
es (b
asel
ine,
1 w
eek
post
inte
rven
tion)
Nam
e: S
choo
l Hea
lth, A
cade
mic
Pe
rform
ance
and
Exe
rcis
e (S
HA
PE)
stud
y
Stru
ctur
e: S
tude
nts
wer
e di
vide
d in
to th
ree
grou
ps (s
kill,
fitn
ess,
and
co
ntro
l) th
at fo
cuse
d on
dev
elop
ing
stud
ent s
kill
and
com
pete
nce
leve
l in
min
or g
ames
. The
inte
rven
tion
took
pla
ce o
ver
14 w
eeks
and
was
ov
erse
en b
y th
e in
vest
igat
ors
to
ensu
re a
dher
ence
.
Impl
emen
tatio
n: In
the
skill
gro
up,
the
exer
cise
(dur
atio
n an
d fre
quen
cy)
was
incr
ease
d to
75
min
utes
dai
ly, 1
5 m
inut
es o
f whi
ch w
ere
in th
e m
orni
ng.
The fit
ness
gro
up h
ad th
e sa
me.
Doe
s pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in a
fitn
ess
prog
ram
im
prov
e pe
rfor
man
ce o
n ar
ithm
etic
and
re
adin
g te
sts?
• A
cade
mic
per
form
ance
0
Doe
s pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in a
fitn
ess
prog
ram
im
prov
e cl
assr
oom
beh
avio
r (a
s ob
serv
ed
by te
ache
r)?
• Cl
assr
oom
beh
avio
r +
Doe
s pa
rtici
patio
n in
a fi
tnes
s pr
ogra
m
impr
ove
mea
sure
s of
Phy
sical
Wor
k C
apac
ity a
nd B
MI ?
• Ph
ysic
al w
ork
capa
city
(fitn
ess)
•
Skin
fold
sum
sco
res
+ +
Eric
sson
I43
Mot
or s
kills
, at
tent
ion
and
acad
emic
ac
hiev
emen
ts: a
n in
terv
entio
n stu
dy
in s
choo
l yea
rs
1-3.
Briti
sh E
duca
tiona
l Re
sear
ch Jo
urna
l 20
08;3
4(3)
: 30
1-31
3
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
M
otor
ski
lls
and
atte
ntio
n an
d ac
adem
ic
achi
evem
ent
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Coun
try:
Sw
eden
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 251
A
ge r
ange
: 7–9
M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (1
st–3
rd g
rade
s)
Gen
der:
M
: 55%
F:
45%
Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-ex
perim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
kill
asse
ssm
ent
usin
g th
e M
otor
isk
Utv
eckl
ing
som
Gru
nd fö
r Inl
ärni
ng (M
UG
I) ch
eckl
ist (
obse
rvat
ion
of 1
6 gr
oss
mot
or ta
sks
mea
surin
g ba
lanc
e/
bila
tera
l coo
rdin
atio
n an
d ha
nd-
eye
coor
dina
tion)
in 2
nd a
nd 3
rd
grad
es
3 tim
es, d
ata
colle
ctio
n tim
epoi
nts
varie
d by
coh
ort
(bas
elin
e, y
ear 2
, yea
r 3)
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y us
ing
Con
ners
´ qu
estio
nnai
re
(teac
hers
’ and
par
ents’
co
ncep
tion
of c
hild
ren’
s at
tent
ion
abili
ty a
nd im
pulse
con
trol)
Cond
ition
s:
Inte
rven
tion:
Stu
dent
s re
ceiv
ed
phys
ical
edu
catio
n le
sson
s 5
days
per
w
eek.
C
ompa
rison
: Sta
ndar
d ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n le
sson
s 2
days
per
wee
k.
Met
hods
: In
terv
entio
n: 3
regu
lar
scho
ol p
hysi
cal
educ
atio
n le
sson
s pe
r w
eek
plus
di
ffere
nt lo
cal s
ports
clu
bs g
ave
phys
ical
act
ivity
less
ons
for
2 m
ore
less
ons
ever
y w
eek,
for
a to
tal o
f 5
less
ons
of m
otor
ski
lls tr
aini
ng a
nd
phys
ical
act
ivity
per
wee
k. If
nee
ded
(for
stude
nts
deem
ed m
otor
defi
cien
t),
1 ex
tra le
sson
of M
UG
I mot
or tr
aini
ng
per
wee
k w
as p
rovi
ded.
Do
stud
ents
with
goo
d m
otor
ski
lls h
ave
bette
r at
tent
ion
than
stu
dent
s w
ith d
efici
ts
in m
otor
ski
lls (a
s ob
serv
ed b
y te
ache
rs
and
pare
nts)
?
• A
ttent
ion
• Im
puls
e co
ntro
l + +
Do
stud
ents
in in
terv
entio
n gr
oups
ha
ve b
ette
r at
tent
ion
than
stu
dent
s in
co
mpa
rison
gro
up (a
s ob
serv
ed b
y te
ache
rs
and
pare
nts)
?
• A
ttent
ion
2nd
grad
e •
Impu
lse
cont
rol 2
nd g
rade
•
Atte
ntio
n 3r
d gr
ade
• Im
puls
e co
ntro
l 3rd
gra
de
+ + 0 0
Do
stud
ents
in in
terv
entio
n gr
oups
hav
e be
tter
stan
dard
ized
test
sco
res
than
st
uden
ts in
com
paris
on g
roup
?
56 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
3 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, y
ear
2,
year
3)
Stan
dard
ized
test
s (s
peci
al
educ
atio
n te
ache
rs d
ocum
ent
read
ing
deve
lopm
ent i
n 1s
t and
2n
d gr
ades
) 3
tim
es (b
asel
ine,
6 m
onth
s,
18 m
onth
s)
Stan
dard
ized
tests
(nat
iona
l tes
ts in
Sw
edish
, mat
h, w
ords
, rea
ding
) 1
tim
e (S
wed
ish
and
mat
h:
Sprin
g of
2nd
gra
de; w
ords
and
re
adin
g: S
prin
g of
3rd
gra
de)
• Sw
edis
h re
adin
g an
d w
ritin
g •
Mat
h (s
patia
l abi
lity
and
num
ber
conc
eptio
n)c
+ +
Do
child
ren’
s ob
serv
ed m
otor
ski
lls im
prov
e w
ith e
xten
ded
phys
ical
act
ivity
and
ext
ra
mot
or tr
aini
ng in
sch
ool ?
• M
otor
ski
llsd
+ c A
dditi
onal
ana
lyse
s by
gen
der
show
ed th
at
inte
rven
tion
boys
had
sig
nific
antly
bet
ter
mat
h sc
ores
than
con
trol b
oys.
d A
fter
1 ye
ar, d
iffer
ence
s be
twee
n gr
oups
wer
e ra
ther
larg
e (0
.24)
, and
in y
ear
3, d
iffer
ence
s w
ere
very
larg
e (0
.37)
.
McN
augh
ten
D,
Gab
bard
C44
Phys
ical
ex
ertio
n an
d im
med
iate
men
tal
perfo
rman
ce
of s
ixth
-gra
de
child
ren.
Perc
eptu
al a
nd
Mot
or S
kills
19
93;7
7(3
Pt
2):1
155-
1159
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Ph
ysic
al
exer
tion
and
mat
hem
atic
al
perfo
rman
ce
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 120
A
ge r
ange
: NR
Mea
n ag
e: 1
1.3
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(6
th g
rade
) G
ende
r:
M: 5
0%
F: 5
0%
Ethn
icity
: NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: M
easu
rem
ent d
evic
e (ti
me
of d
ay a
nd d
urat
ion
of
wal
king
act
ivity
) 1
1 tim
es (b
asel
ine,
Tue
sday
, W
edne
sday
, Thu
rsda
y of
wee
k 2,
3, 4
and
Tue
sday
of w
eek
5)
Mat
hem
atic
al te
st 1
1 tim
es (b
asel
ine,
Tue
sday
, W
edne
sday
, Thu
rsda
y of
wee
k 2,
3, 4
and
Tue
sday
of w
eek
5)
Stru
ctur
e: T
wo
proc
edur
es: w
alki
ng
for
a sp
ecifi
c du
ratio
n an
d re
ceiv
ing
a tim
ed m
athe
mat
ical
com
puta
tion
test.
Te
stin
g w
as c
ondu
cted
ove
r a
5- w
eek
perio
d.
Met
hods
: Sub
ject
s w
alke
d ar
ound
the
perim
eter
of a
regu
latio
n ba
sket
ball
cour
t at a
mon
itore
d m
oder
ate
inte
nsity
(120
to 1
45 b
eats
per
m
inut
e). W
alki
ng d
urat
ion
was
sy
stem
atic
ally
ord
ered
for
the
20, 3
0,
and
40 m
inut
es. W
alki
ng o
ccur
red
early
mor
ning
(8:3
0 a.
m.),
bef
ore
lunc
h (1
1:50
a.m
.) or
afte
rnoo
n (2
:20
p.m
.). A
mat
hem
atic
s te
st w
as g
iven
at
the
end
of th
e sp
ecifi
ed d
urat
ion
of
activ
ity, a
nd s
ubje
cts
had
90 s
econ
ds
to c
ompl
ete
the
task
.
Doe
s in
crea
sed
dura
tion
(20,
30
or 4
0 m
inut
es) o
f phy
sica
l exe
rtio
n (w
alki
ng) l
ead
to im
prov
ed m
athe
mat
ical
test
sco
res?
• M
ath
test
sco
re (2
0 m
inut
es)
• M
ath
test
sco
re (3
0 m
inut
es)
• M
ath
test
sco
re (4
0 m
inut
es)
0 + +
Doe
s th
e tim
e of
day
e and
dur
atio
n of
st
uden
t exp
osur
e to
phy
sica
l act
ivity
(w
alki
ng) i
mpr
ove
mat
h pe
rfor
man
ce?
• M
ath
test
sco
re (m
orni
ng)
• M
ath
test
sco
re (b
efor
e lu
nch)
•
Mat
h te
st s
core
(afte
r lu
nch)
0 + +
e Add
ition
al a
naly
ses
show
ed th
at g
ende
r di
d no
t ha
ve a
sig
nific
ant e
ffect
or
inte
ract
ion
with
the
resu
lts.
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 57
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Milo
sis
D,
Papa
ioan
nou
AG
47
Inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y te
achi
ng, m
ultip
le
goal
s an
d se
lf-co
ncep
t.
In: L
iukk
onen
J,
Vand
en A
uwee
le
Y, V
erei
jken
B,
Alfe
rman
n D,
Th
eodo
raki
s Y,
edi
tors
. Ps
ycho
logy
for
Phys
ical
Edu
cato
rs:
Stud
ent i
n Fo
cus.
2n
d ed
ition
. C
ham
paig
n, IL
: H
uman
Kin
etic
s;
2007
:175
-198
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Th
e ef
fect
of a
n in
terd
isci
plin
ary
appr
oach
to
teac
hing
phy
sica
l ed
ucat
ion
on
self-
conc
ept a
nd
goal
s
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Coun
try:
Gre
ece
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 292
A
ge r
ange
: NR
Mea
n ag
e: 1
2.3
Gra
de: I
nitia
l gr
ade
in G
reek
ju
nior
hig
h sc
hool
G
ende
r:
M: 5
5%
F: 4
5%
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y (s
elf-
conc
ept)
2 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 6
mon
ths)
Adm
inis
trativ
e re
cord
s (m
ath
and
Gre
ek la
ngua
ge g
rade
s) 2
tim
es (b
asel
ine,
9 m
onth
s)
Nam
e: M
ultid
imen
sion
al M
odel
of
Goa
l Orie
ntat
ions
(MM
GO
)
Cond
ition
s: S
tude
nts
parti
cipa
ted
in th
e M
MG
O p
hysi
cal e
duca
tion
curr
icul
um o
r sta
ndar
d ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass.
Stru
ctur
e:
Inte
rven
tion:
MM
GO
phy
sica
l ed
ucat
ion
clas
s ta
ught
3 ti
mes
per
w
eek
for
6 m
onth
s by
spe
cial
ly
train
ed p
hysi
cal e
duca
tion
teac
her.
Con
trol:
Stan
dard
phy
sica
l edu
catio
n cl
ass
3 tim
es p
er w
eek
for
6 m
onth
s.
Topi
cs c
over
ed: T
he M
MG
O c
ours
e fo
cuse
d on
per
sona
l im
prov
emen
t go
als
and
outc
omes
in th
e he
alth
do
mai
n, th
e ac
hiev
emen
t dom
ain,
an
d th
e so
cial
dom
ain.
Doe
s st
uden
t par
ticip
atio
n in
the
MM
GO
in
terv
entio
n im
prov
e m
ath
and
lanu
gage
gr
ades
, stu
dent
rep
orte
d se
lf-co
ncep
t, an
d lif
e sa
tisfa
ctio
n?
• G
ener
al s
elf-c
once
pt
• G
ener
al s
choo
l sel
f-con
cept
•
Mat
hem
atic
s se
lf-co
ncep
t •
Gre
ek la
ngua
ge s
elf-c
once
pt
• M
ath
grad
es
• La
ngua
ge g
rade
s •
Life
sat
isfa
ctio
n
+ + + + 0 + +
Polla
tsche
k JL
, O
’Hag
an F
J45
An
inve
stiga
tion
of th
e ps
ycho
-ph
ysic
al influ
ence
s of
a q
ualit
y da
ily
phys
ical
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
mm
e.
Hea
lth E
duca
tion
Rese
arch
19
89;4
(3):3
41-
350
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Ef
fect
of d
aily
ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n vs
. phy
sica
l ed
ucat
ion
twic
e a
wee
k on
phy
sica
l, ac
adem
ic, a
nd
affe
ctiv
e stu
dent
ou
tcom
es
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Coun
try:
Sc
otla
nd
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
l N
: 399
A
ge r
ange
: NR
Mea
n ag
e: N
R G
rade
: Sec
onda
ry
(6th
gra
de)
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y (a
ttitu
de to
war
ds s
choo
l and
sc
hool
wor
k, s
ocia
l rel
atio
ns,
and
pers
onal
ity)
2 tim
es (b
asel
ine,
end
of
acad
emic
yea
r)
Fitne
ss te
st (m
otor
fitn
ess:
mus
cula
r str
engt
h an
d en
dura
nce,
circ
ulat
ory
endu
ranc
e, m
uscu
lar p
ower
, agi
lity,
fle
xibi
lity,
and
spe
ed a
s m
easu
red
by C
anad
ian
Ass
ocia
tion
of
Hea
lth, P
hysic
al E
duca
tion
and
Recr
eatio
n (C
AH
PER)
Fitn
ess-
Perfo
rman
ce II
Tes
t) 2
times
(bas
elin
e, e
nd o
f ac
adem
ic y
ear)
Stan
dard
ized
test
s (re
adin
g,
mat
h ‘G
APA
DO
L’)
2 tim
es (b
asel
ine,
end
of
acad
emic
yea
r)
Cond
ition
s:
Inte
rven
tion:
Stu
dent
s pa
rtici
pate
d in
da
ily p
hysi
cal e
duca
tion.
C
ompa
rison
: 2 p
erio
ds o
f phy
sica
l ed
ucat
ion
per
wee
k.
Met
hods
: In
terv
entio
n: D
aily
PE
clas
ses
usua
lly
cons
istin
g of
45
to 6
0 m
inut
es p
er
day
but a
s m
uch
as h
alf a
day
on
certa
in a
ctiv
ities
, suc
h as
orie
ntee
ring.
Was
the
daily
phy
sica
l edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m
asso
ciat
ed w
ith im
prov
ed p
erfo
rman
ce
scor
es (s
tand
ardi
zed
test
sco
res
and
self-
repo
rted
atti
tude
) com
pare
d w
ith s
tand
ard
phys
ical
edu
catio
n?f
• M
ath
scor
es
• Re
adin
g sc
ores
•
Atti
tude
tow
ard
scho
ol
0 0 0 f A
dditi
onal
ana
lyse
s sh
owed
that
gen
der d
id
not h
ave
a sig
nific
ant e
ffect
on
acad
emic
ac
hiev
emen
t.
Was
the
daily
phy
sical
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m
asso
ciat
ed w
ith im
prov
ed m
otor
fitn
ess
scor
es c
ompa
red
with
sta
ndar
d ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n ?g
• M
otor
fitn
ess
(girl
s)
• M
otor
fitn
ess
(boy
s)
+ +
g Inte
rven
tion
girls
sco
red
high
er o
n ev
ery
mot
or
fitne
ss te
st; i
nter
vent
ion
boys
sco
red
high
er o
n sh
uttle
run
and
50
-met
er r
un.
58 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Ravi
v S,
Low
M46
Influ
ence
of
phys
ical
act
ivity
on
con
cent
ratio
n am
ong
juni
or h
igh-
scho
ol s
tude
nts.
Perc
eptu
al a
nd
Mot
or S
kills
19
90;7
0(1)
:67-
74
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n an
d co
ncen
tratio
n
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, ph
ysic
al
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 96
Age
ran
ge: 1
1–12
M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(Is
rael
i jun
ior
high
sc
hool
) G
ende
r: N
R Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
tand
ardi
zed
test
s (c
once
ntra
tion
as m
easu
red
by
d2 te
st)
NR
Cond
ition
s: S
tude
nts
wer
e di
vide
d in
to
4 gr
oups
: 2 p
artic
ipat
ed in
phy
sica
l ed
ucat
ion
clas
s an
d 2
stud
ied
scie
nce.
Stru
ctur
e: E
ach
subj
ect w
as ta
ught
tw
ice
a da
y by
the
sam
e te
ache
r at
th
e be
ginn
ing
and
end
of th
e sc
hool
da
y.
Doe
s co
urse
con
tent
(sci
ence
or
phys
ical
ed
ucat
ion)
impr
ove
stud
ent l
evel
s of
co
ncen
tratio
n m
easu
red
by th
e d2
test
?
• Be
tter
conc
entra
tion
in s
cien
ce th
an
phys
ical
edu
catio
n 0
Doe
s tim
ing
(beg
inni
ng o
r end
of c
lass
) im
prov
e stu
dent
leve
ls of
con
cent
ratio
n m
easu
red
by th
e d2
test ?
• Be
tter c
once
ntra
tion
at th
e en
ds o
f +
educ
atio
n cl
ass,
le
sson
s th
an th
e be
ginn
ing
clas
sroo
m
• Be
tter c
once
ntra
tion
at th
e +
begi
nnin
g of
the
day
than
the
end
Coun
try:
Isra
el
of th
e da
y
Salli
s JF
, McK
enzi
e TL
, Kol
ody
B, L
ewis
M
, Mar
shal
l S,
Rose
ngar
d P48
Effe
cts
of h
ealth
-re
late
d ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n on
aca
dem
ic
achi
evem
ent:
Proj
ect S
PARK
.
Rese
arch
Q
uarte
rly fo
r Ex
erci
se a
nd S
port
1999
;70(
2):1
27-
134
Stud
y Fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Th
e ef
fect
of
scho
ol p
hysi
cal
educ
atio
n on
sta
ndar
dize
d te
st sc
ores
Setti
ng: S
choo
l da
y, p
hysi
cal
educ
atio
n cl
ass,
cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
ls N
: 7
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 759
A
ge r
ange
: NR
Mea
n ag
e: 9
.5
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (4
th–6
th g
rade
) G
ende
r:
M: 5
2%
F: 4
8%
Ethn
icity
: Bl
ack:
2.2
%
His
pani
c: 4
.9%
A
sian
/Pac
ific
Isla
nder
: 14.
2%
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil
surv
ey (s
tand
ardi
zed
test
in
read
ing,
lang
uage
, mat
h, a
nd
basi
c ba
ttery
as
mea
sure
d by
Met
ropo
litan
Ach
ieve
men
t te
st—
MAT
6 an
d M
AT7)
2
times
(bas
elin
e in
2nd
gr
ade,
coh
ort 1
in S
prin
g of
5th
gr
ade,
coh
ort 2
in F
all o
f 6th
gr
ade)
Nam
e: S
PARK
(phy
sica
l edu
catio
n cu
rric
ulum
)
Cond
ition
s: S
tude
nts
wer
e as
sign
ed
to S
PARK
phy
sica
l edu
catio
n cl
asse
s ta
ught
by
phys
ical
edu
catio
n sp
ecia
lists,
by
train
ed c
lass
room
te
ache
rs, o
r sta
ndar
d ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n (c
ontro
l).
Stru
ctur
e: F
our
30-m
inut
e le
sson
s to
tal p
er w
eek:
3 d
ays
of p
hysi
cal
educ
atio
n le
sson
s in
clud
ing
heal
th-
fitne
ss a
nd s
kill-fit
ness
act
iviti
es p
lus
30 m
inut
es o
f cla
ssro
om le
sson
on
beha
vior
cha
nge/
self-
man
agem
ent.
Topi
cs c
over
ed: 1
3 he
alth
-fitn
ess
units
an
d 9
spor
ts u
nits
Met
hods
: Brie
f rev
iew
of s
kills
, pr
esen
tatio
n of
new
topi
c, s
et p
hysi
cal
activ
ity g
oals.
Did
exp
osur
e to
SPA
RK p
hysi
cal e
duca
tion
impr
ove
stud
ent o
utco
mes
on
stan
dard
ized
te
sts?
Read
ing
• Co
hort
1
• Co
hort
2
Mat
h •
Coho
rt 1
•
Coho
rt 2
La
ngua
ge
• Co
hort
1
• Co
hort
2
Basi
c ba
ttery
•
Coho
rt 1
•
Coho
rt 2
+ + 0 0 + - 0 +
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 59
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Trem
arch
e PV
, Ro
bins
on E
M,
Gra
ham
LB51
Phys
ical
edu
catio
n an
d its
effe
ct o
n el
emen
tary
testi
ng
resu
lts.
Phys
ical
Edu
cato
r 20
07;6
4(2)
:58-
64
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Th
e im
pact
of
incr
ease
d qu
ality
phy
sica
l ed
ucat
ion
time
on s
tand
ardi
zed
test
sco
res
Setti
ng: S
choo
l
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 311
A
ge r
ange
: 9–1
1 M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (4
th g
rade
) G
ende
r: N
R Et
hnic
ity:
Indi
an: 3
.3%
A
sian
: .6%
Bl
ack:
2.6
%
His
pani
c: 1
%
Whi
te: 9
2.5%
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
tand
ardi
zed
test
s (E
nglis
h an
d la
ngua
ge a
rts
and
mat
h on
the
Mas
sach
uset
ts
Com
preh
ensi
ve A
sses
smen
t Sy
stem
—M
CA
S sc
ores
) 1
time
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (s
tude
nt ti
me
in p
hysi
cal e
duca
tion
per
scho
ol
year
) 1
time
No
inte
rven
tion
Did
stu
dent
s w
ho r
ecei
ved
mor
e ho
urs
of
phys
ical
edu
catio
n sc
ore
high
er o
n th
e M
CAS
test
?
• En
glis
h la
ngua
ge a
rts
• M
ath
+ 0
Tuck
man
BW
, H
inkl
e JS
50
An
expe
rimen
tal
study
of t
he
phys
ical
and
ps
ycho
logi
cal
effe
cts
of a
erob
ic
exer
cise
on
scho
olch
ildre
n.
Hea
lth P
sych
olog
y 19
86;5
(3):1
97-
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Des
crip
tion:
Ph
ysic
al a
nd
psyc
holo
gica
l ef
fect
s of
aer
obic
ex
erci
se
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n cl
ass
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 154
A
ge r
ange
: 9.
30–1
1.30
M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: C
ross
leve
l (4
th–6
th g
rade
s)
Gen
der:
NR
Ethn
icity
: N
onw
hite
: 27
–29%
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: M
easu
rem
ent d
evic
e (ti
me
on 5
0-m
eter
run
) 2
tim
es
Mea
sure
men
t dev
ice
(tim
e on
80
0-m
eter
run
) 3
tim
es (b
asel
ine,
pos
ttest,
5
mon
ths
afte
r po
stte
st)
Mea
sure
men
t dev
ice
(ski
nfol
d
Cond
ition
s: S
tude
nts
parti
cipa
ted
in th
e ru
nnin
g pr
ogra
m o
r re
gula
r ph
ysic
al e
duca
tion.
Stru
ctur
e:
Inte
rven
tion:
3 r
unni
ng s
essi
ons
per
wee
k fo
r 12
wee
ks. E
ach
sess
ion
laste
d 30
min
utes
. The
ses
sion
s w
ere
cond
ucte
d by
the
rese
arch
team
as
part
of s
tude
nts’
phy
sica
l edu
catio
n cl
asse
s.
Con
trol:
regu
lar
phys
ical
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m, w
hich
incl
uded
bas
ketb
all,
Doe
s ex
posu
re to
the
inte
rven
tion
impr
ove
child
ren’
s ph
ysic
al a
nd p
sych
olog
ical
ou
tcom
es?
• Cr
eativ
ity (A
ltern
ate
Use
s te
st)
• Cl
assr
oom
beh
avio
r (te
ache
r ob
serv
atio
n)
• Pe
rcei
ved
self-
conc
ept (
self-
repo
rt)
• Pe
rcep
tual
mot
or a
bilit
y (B
ende
r-G
esta
lt te
st)
• Pl
anni
ng a
bilit
y an
d vi
sual
-mot
or
coor
dina
tion
(Maz
e Tr
acin
g te
st)
+ + 0 0 0
Add
ition
al a
naly
ses
of tr
eatm
ent x
gen
der
207
test
for
body
fat,
pulse
rate
) vo
lleyb
all,
and
occa
sion
al jo
ggin
g.
show
ed n
o di
ffere
nces
for
clas
sroo
m b
ehav
ior,
Coun
try:
USA
2
times
Re
gula
r ph
ysic
al e
duca
tion
took
se
lf-co
ncep
t, Be
nder
-Ges
talt
test.
How
ever
, pl
ace
3 tim
es p
er w
eek
for
6th-
grad
e tre
atm
ent b
oys
and
treat
men
t girl
s pe
rform
ed
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (te
ache
r st
uden
ts an
d 5
times
per
wee
k fo
r 4t
h-
bette
r on
the
maz
e te
st th
an c
ontro
l boy
s an
d
ratin
g of
stu
dent
beh
avio
r as
con
duci
ve o
r di
srup
tive
to
clas
sroo
m p
artic
ipat
ion)
2 ti
mes
Skill
ass
essm
ent (
perc
eptu
al-
mot
or a
bilit
y as
mea
sure
d by
Be
nder
-Ges
talt
test
) 2
tim
es
and
5th-
grad
e st
uden
ts.
Met
hods
: The
run
ning
took
pla
ce
on a
400
-met
er tr
ack
and
cons
iste
d of
gra
dual
incr
emen
ts in
dis
tanc
e,
inte
rval
wor
kout
s, a
nd re
lay
runs
.
cont
rol g
irls,
resp
ectiv
ely.
Doe
s ex
posu
re to
the
inte
rven
tion
impr
ove
child
ren’
s ph
ysic
al o
utco
mes?
60 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Skill
ass
essm
ent (
plan
ning
abi
lity
and
visu
al m
otor
coo
rdin
atio
n as
mea
sure
d by
the
Maz
e Tr
acin
g Te
st)
2 ti
mes
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (c
reat
ivity
as
mea
sure
d by
the
Alte
rnat
ive
Use
s Te
st m
easu
ring
dive
rgen
t th
inki
ng; s
elf-c
once
pt a
s m
easu
red
by P
iers
-Har
ris
Chi
ldre
n’s
Self-
Con
cept
Sca
le)
2 ti
mes
• 80
0-m
eter
run
(boy
s an
d gi
rls)
• 80
0-m
eter
run
(5-m
onth
follo
w-u
p—bo
ys)
• 80
0-m
eter
run
(5-m
onth
follo
w-u
p—gi
rls)
• 50
-met
er d
ash
• Pu
lse ra
te
• Sk
info
ld (b
ody
fat)
(boy
s)
• Sk
info
ld (b
ody
fat)
(girl
s)
+ + 0 0 + + 0
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 61
Appendix E: Recess Summary Matrix Articles describing quasi-experimental or experimental designs are highlighted in the table before the matrix for each setting. Not all studies used these designs.
Recess Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date Only)
Caterino, M.C., Polak, E.D. 1999
Jarrett, O.S., Maxwell, D.M., Dickerson, C., Hoge, P., Davies, G., Yetley, A. 1998
Pellegrini, A.D., Davis, P.D. 1993
Pellegrini, A.D., Huberty, P.D., Jones, I. 1995
62 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
App
endi
x E:
Rec
ess
Sum
mar
y M
atri
x***
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 63
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Barro
s, R
M, S
ilver
, EJ
, Ste
in, R
EK58
Scho
ol re
cess
and
gr
oup
clas
sroo
m
beha
vior
.
Stud
y fo
cus:
Re
cess
Des
crip
tion:
Th
e ef
fect
of
exp
osur
e to
rece
ss o
n
Sam
ple1
: You
th
N: 1
1,52
9 A
ge r
ange
: 8–9
M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (3
rd g
rade
) G
ende
r:
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
anal
ysis
of E
arly
C
hild
hood
Lon
gitu
dina
l Stu
dy
(EC
LS) d
atas
et (K
inde
rgar
ten
Cla
ss o
f 199
8–19
99)
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
No
inte
rven
tion
Do
stud
ents
who
are
exp
osed
to re
cess
dur
ing
the
scho
ol d
ay h
ave
bette
r cl
assr
oom
beh
avio
r, as
re
port
ed b
y th
e te
ache
r, th
an s
tude
nts
who
do
not
have
rece
ss?
• Cl
assr
oom
beh
avio
r (o
vera
ll cl
assr
oom
) +
Resu
lts w
ere
also
exa
min
ed b
y th
e le
vel o
f exp
osur
e to
Pe
diat
rics
2009
; pr
imar
y sc
hool
M
: 50.
3%
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y re
cess
. A
ll le
vels
of r
eces
s sh
owed
sig
nific
antly
bet
ter
clas
s-12
3(2)
:431
-436
stu
dent
s’
F: 4
9.7%
(te
ache
r re
port
of fr
eque
ncy
of
room
beh
avio
r w
hen
com
pare
d w
ith n
o re
cess
. D
iffer
ence
s cl
assr
oom
re
cess
and
phy
sica
l edu
catio
n w
ere
not s
ignific
ant b
etw
een
expo
sure
leve
ls.
beha
vior
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, re
cess
Coun
try:
USA
Ethn
icity
: Bl
ack:
12%
H
ispa
nic:
16%
O
ther
/mix
ed:1
1%
Whi
te: 6
1%
clas
s, c
lass
room
cha
ract
eris
tics,
an
d te
ache
r ra
ting
of g
roup
cl
assr
oom
beh
avio
r) 1
time
(stu
dent
s in
3rd
gra
de)
Add
ition
al a
naly
ses
by e
thni
city
and
SES
rev
eale
d si
gnifi
-ca
nt d
iffer
ence
s. B
lack
and
His
pani
c st
uden
ts a
nd lo
wer
in
com
e st
uden
ts w
ere
all s
ignific
antly
less
like
ly to
hav
e re
cess
. Th
ere
wer
e no
diff
eren
ces
by g
ende
r.
Cat
erin
o M
C,
Pola
k ED
55
Effe
cts
of tw
o ty
pes
of a
ctiv
ity o
n th
e pe
rform
ance
of
sec
ond-
, thi
rd-,
and
four
th-g
rade
stu
dent
s on
a te
st of
con
cent
ratio
n.
Perc
eptu
al a
nd
Mot
or S
kills
199
9;
89(1
):245
-248
Stud
y fo
cus:
Re
cess
Des
crip
tion:
Th
e ef
fect
of
phys
ical
act
ivity
on
ele
men
tary
sc
hool
stu
dent
s’
conc
entra
tion
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
, lib
rary
and
gym
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 54
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (3
rd,
4th,
and
5th
gra
des)
Gen
der:
NR
Ethn
icity
: NR
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 71
Mea
n ag
e: N
R G
rade
: Prim
ary
Gen
der:
NR
Ethn
icity
: NR
Sam
ple
3: Y
outh
N
: 52
Mea
n ag
e: N
R G
rade
: Prim
ary
Gen
der:
NR
Ethn
icity
: NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
tand
ardi
zed
test
s (c
once
ntra
tion
as m
easu
red
by
the
Woo
dcoc
k-Jo
hnso
n Te
st of
C
once
ntra
tion)
1
time
(imm
edia
tely
afte
r in
terv
entio
n)
Cond
ition
s: P
hysi
cal a
ctiv
ity
grou
p, c
lass
room
act
ivity
gr
oup
Stru
ctur
e: S
tude
nts
in th
e ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity g
roup
w
ent t
o th
e gy
m fo
r 15
m
inut
es o
f stre
tchi
ng a
nd
aero
bic
wal
king
and
th
en to
the
libra
ry fo
r th
e W
oodc
ock-
John
son
Test
of
Con
cent
ratio
n. S
tude
nts
in
the
clas
sroo
m a
ctiv
ity g
roup
pa
rtici
pate
d in
regu
lar
clas
sroo
m a
ctiv
ities
and
then
w
ent t
o th
e lib
rary
for
the
Woo
dcoc
k-Jo
hnso
n Te
st o
f C
once
ntra
tion.
Do
stud
ents
who
par
ticip
ate
in d
irect
ed p
hysi
cal
activ
ity h
ave
sign
ifica
ntly
hig
her
scor
es o
n th
e W
oodc
ock-
John
son
Test
of C
once
ntra
tion
than
st
uden
ts w
ho p
artic
ipat
e in
typi
cal c
lass
room
ac
tivity
?
• Co
ncen
tratio
n (4
th-g
rade
stu
dent
s)
+
***R
esul
ts ar
e co
ded
as fo
llow
s: +
sig
nifie
s a
sign
ifica
nt p
ositi
ve o
utco
me;
0 s
ignifie
s no
sig
nific
ant o
utco
me;
– s
ignifie
s a
sign
ifica
nt n
egat
ive
outc
ome.
Mat
rices
may
not
incl
ude
all o
utco
mes
des
crib
ed in
the
artic
le; s
hade
d ou
tcom
es a
re o
utco
mes
of p
rimar
y in
tere
st to
(and
wer
e in
clud
ed in
) thi
s re
view
; add
ition
al o
utco
mes
repo
rted
here
may
be
of
inte
rest
to re
ader
s.
NR=
Not
repo
rted
by s
tudy
aut
hors
. In
dica
tes
data
col
lect
ion
time
poin
ts.
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Jarre
tt O
S,
Max
wel
l DM
, D
icke
rson
C, H
oge
P, D
avie
s G
, Yet
ley
A56
Impa
ct o
f rec
ess
on c
lass
room
be
havi
or:
Gro
up e
ffect
s an
d in
divi
dual
di
ffere
nces
.
Jour
nal o
f Edu
catio
nal
Rese
arch
199
8;
92(2
):121
-126
Stud
y fo
cus:
Re
cess
Des
crip
tion:
The
ef
fect
of r
eces
s on
cla
ssro
om
beha
vior
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, re
cess
, cla
ssro
om
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 43
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (4
th g
rade
) G
ende
r:
M: 4
1.9%
F:
58.
1%
Ethn
icity
: Bl
ack:
18.
6%
Whi
te: 8
1.4%
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: O
bser
vatio
n (c
lass
room
be
havi
or: c
once
ntra
tion,
fidg
ety,
w
ork,
list
less
) 6
times
(bas
elin
e [m
id-
Nov
embe
r] to
mid
-Mar
ch [
until
6
rece
sses
per
chi
ld])
Obs
erva
tion
(aca
dem
ic
achi
evem
ent)
1 ti
me
(yea
r-end
)
Stru
ctur
e: C
hild
ren
wer
e ob
serv
ed in
th
e cl
assr
oom
eac
h w
eek
on th
e 2
days
that
they
did
not
hav
e ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n. D
urin
g th
e fir
st w
eek
of
obse
rvat
ion,
eac
h cl
ass
was
rand
omly
as
sign
ed to
hav
e re
cess
on
one
of
the
days
and
no
rece
ss o
n th
e ot
her
day
(rece
ss a
mou
nted
to 1
5 to
20
min
utes
).
Doe
s re
cess
impr
ove
stud
ents
’ on-
task
be
havi
or a
nd d
ecre
ase
stud
ents
’ fidg
etin
ess
in th
e cl
assr
oom
(as
obse
rved
by
rese
arch
st
aff)?
•
On-
task
beh
avio
r •
Less
fidg
etin
ess
+ +
Pelle
grin
i AD,
D
avis
PD
57
Rela
tions
bet
wee
n ch
ildre
n’s
play
grou
nd
and
clas
sroo
m
beha
viou
r.
Briti
sh Jo
urna
l of
Edu
catio
nal
Psyc
holo
gy 1
993;
63
(1):8
8-95
Stud
y fo
cus:
Re
cess
Des
crip
tion:
Re
latio
nshi
ps
betw
een
child
ren’
s pl
aygr
ound
an
d cl
assr
oom
be
havi
or
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, re
cess
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
l N
: 1
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (3
rd g
rade
)
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 23
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
9.4
G
rade
: Prim
ary
(3rd
gra
de)
Gen
der:
M
: 60.
9%
F: 3
9.1%
Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
tand
ardi
zed
Test
(c
ogni
tive
abili
ty a
s m
easu
red
by th
e Io
wa
Test
of B
asic
Ski
lls
(198
6) 1
tim
e
Obs
erva
tion
(con
cent
ratio
n an
d fid
getin
g in
cla
ssro
om
and
nons
ocia
l exe
rcis
e, s
ocia
l ex
erci
se, n
onso
cial
sed
enta
ry,
and
soci
al s
eden
tary
rece
ss
beha
vior
) 32
tim
es (o
nly
whe
n ou
tdoo
r pl
ay ti
me
occu
rred
durin
g th
e 14
-wee
k da
ta c
olle
ctio
n pe
riod)
Cond
ition
s: S
tude
nts
wer
e ex
pose
d to
1 o
f 2 c
ondi
tions
, a s
horte
r co
nfine
men
t per
iod
in th
e cl
assr
oom
(2
.5 h
ours
) and
a lo
nger
confin
emen
t pe
riod
in th
e cl
assr
oom
(3 h
ours
) be
fore
rece
ss.
Stru
ctur
e: E
ach
child
was
exp
osed
to
both
con
ditio
ns b
y co
unte
rbal
anci
ng
the
orde
r in
whi
ch th
e w
hole
cla
ss
expe
rienc
ed c
onfin
emen
t acr
oss
the
14-w
eek
obse
rvat
ion
perio
d.
Met
hod:
Stu
dent
s w
ere
obse
rved
be
fore
rece
ss, d
urin
g re
cess
, and
af
ter
rece
ss.
Doe
s ch
ildre
n’s
obse
rved
exe
rcis
e be
havi
or
(soc
ial a
nd n
onso
cial
)h dur
ing
rece
ss
impr
ove
obse
rved
cla
ssro
om b
ehav
ior
imm
edia
tely
follo
win
g re
cess
(con
trolli
ng
for
stan
dard
ized
test
sco
res)
?
• Fi
dget
(soc
ial e
xerc
ise
beha
vior
) •
Fidg
et (n
onso
cial
exe
rcis
e be
havi
or)
+ +
Doe
s ch
ildre
n’s
obse
rved
sed
enta
ry
beha
vior
(soc
ial a
nd n
onso
cial
)h dur
ing
rece
ss im
prov
e ob
serv
ed c
lass
room
be
havi
or im
med
iate
ly fo
llow
ing
rece
ss
(con
trolli
ng fo
r sta
ndar
dize
d te
st sc
ores
) ?•
Fidg
et (s
ocia
l sed
enta
ry b
ehav
ior)
• C
once
ntra
tion
(soc
ial s
eden
tary
be
havi
or)
• C
once
ntra
tion
(non
soci
al s
eden
tary
be
havi
or)
– + –
h Soc
ial e
xerc
ise
beha
vior
: Chi
ldre
n w
ere
exch
angi
ng la
ngua
ge, g
estu
res,
or g
azes
whi
le
enga
ging
in g
ross
bod
y an
d/or
mus
cula
r act
ivity
. N
onso
cial
exe
rcis
e be
havi
or: g
ross
bod
y an
d/
or m
uscu
lar a
ctiv
ity a
lone
or w
ithou
t int
erac
ting
with
oth
ers.
So
cial
sed
enta
ry b
ehav
ior:
Non
stre
nuou
s ex
erci
se s
uch
as w
alki
ng, s
ittin
g, o
r sta
ndin
g w
hile
inte
ract
ing
with
oth
ers.
N
onso
cial
sed
enta
ry b
ehav
ior:
nons
trenu
ous
exer
cise
with
out i
nter
actin
g w
ith o
ther
s.
64 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Pelle
grin
i AD,
H
uber
ty P
D, Jo
nes
I37
The
effe
cts
of
rece
ss ti
min
g on
chi
ldre
n’s
play
grou
nd
and
clas
sroo
m
beha
vior
s.
Am
eric
an
Educ
atio
nal
Rese
arch
Jour
nal
1995
;32(
4):8
45-
864
Stud
y fo
cus:
Re
cess
Des
crip
tion:
Re
cess
and
its
impa
ct o
n st
uden
t beh
avio
r in
the
clas
sroo
m
and
on th
e pl
aygr
ound
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, re
cess
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 37
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (2
nd, 4
th g
rade
s)
Gen
der:
M
: 46%
F:
54%
Et
hnic
ity:
Blac
k: 3
0.0%
W
hite
: 70.
0%
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 62
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
7.6
G
rade
: Prim
ary
(K, 2
nd, 4
th
grad
es)
Gen
der:
M
: 55.
0%
F: 4
5.0%
Et
hnic
ity:
Blac
k: 3
0.0%
W
hite
: Maj
ority
%
Asi
an: S
mal
l %
Sam
ple
3: Y
outh
N
: 44
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
10.
1 G
rade
: Prim
ary
(4th
gra
de)
Gen
der:
M
: 39.
0%
F: 6
1.0%
Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: O
bser
vatio
n (s
ocia
l in
tera
ctio
n du
ring
rece
ss,
inat
tent
ion
befo
re a
nd a
fter
rece
ss, p
hysi
cal a
ctiv
ity d
urin
g re
cess
) 3
2 tim
es (e
very
Mon
day–
Th
ursd
ay fo
r 2
mon
ths)
Cond
ition
s: C
hild
ren
in 2
nd a
nd 4
th
grad
es w
ere
pres
ente
d w
ith e
ither
a
mal
e-pr
efer
red
or fe
mal
e-pr
efer
red
task
imm
edia
tely
bef
ore
rece
ss a
nd
imm
edia
tely
afte
r re
cess
. Chi
ldre
n w
ere
expe
cted
to s
it qu
ietly
in th
eir
seat
s w
hile
the
teac
her
read
a s
tory
w
ith e
ither
a m
ale
or fe
mal
e m
ain
char
acte
r.
Stru
ctur
e: 4
day
s pe
r w
eek
rece
ss
timin
g w
as m
anip
ulat
ed: 2
day
s pe
r w
eek
stud
ents
wen
t to
rece
ss
at 1
0:00
a.m
. (sh
ort d
epriv
atio
n pe
riod)
and
2 d
ays
per
wee
k st
uden
ts
wen
t to
rece
ss a
t 10:
30 a
.m. (
long
de
priv
atio
n pe
riod)
.
Met
hod:
Stu
dent
s w
ere
obse
rved
be
fore
rece
ss, d
urin
g re
cess
, and
af
ter
rece
ss.
Are
chi
ldre
n m
ore
atte
ntiv
e to
cla
ssro
om
task
s af
ter
rece
ss th
an b
efor
e re
cess
(as
obse
rved
by
rese
arch
sta
ff)?
Expe
rimen
t 1:
• M
ore
atte
ntiv
e (g
rade
s 2
and
4)
• M
ore
atte
ntiv
e (K
)
Expe
rimen
t 2:
• M
ore
atte
ntiv
e (g
rade
2)
• M
ore
atte
ntiv
e (g
rade
4)
Expe
rimen
t 3:
• M
ore
atte
ntiv
e (c
lass
1)
• M
ore
atte
ntiv
e (c
lass
2)
+ 0 + 0 + 0
Doe
s ch
ildre
n’s
obse
rved
beh
avio
r du
ring
rece
ss a
ffect
pos
t-rec
ess
clas
sroo
m
atte
ntio
n (a
s ob
serv
ed b
y re
sear
ch s
taff)
?
Expe
rimen
t 1:
• A
ttent
ion
Expe
rimen
t 2:
• A
ttent
ion
Expe
rimen
t 3:
• A
ttent
ion
0 0 0
Doe
s th
e tim
ing
of re
cess
(afte
r 2.5
or
3 ho
urs
of c
lass
room
tim
e) a
ffect
the
play
grou
nd p
hysic
al a
ctiv
ity a
nd s
ocia
l in
tera
ctio
n (a
s ob
serv
ed b
y re
sear
ch s
taff)?
Expe
rimen
t 1:
• M
ore
phys
ical
act
ivity
•
Mor
e so
cial
inte
ract
ion
(4th
-gra
de
stude
nts)
Expe
rimen
t 2:
• M
ore
phys
ical
act
ivity
(2nd
- and
4t
h-gr
ade
stude
nts)
•
Mor
e so
cial
inte
ract
ion
Expe
rimen
t 3:
• M
ore
phys
ical
act
ivity
(boy
s)
• M
ore
soci
al in
tera
ctio
n
0 + 0 + + 0
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 65
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Pelle
grin
i AD,
Kat
o K,
Bla
tchf
ord
P,
Bain
es E
59
A s
hort-
term
lo
ngitu
dina
l stu
dy
of c
hild
ren’
s pl
aygr
ound
gam
es
acro
ss th
e fir
st ye
ar o
f sch
ool:
Impl
icat
ions
for
soci
al c
ompe
tenc
e an
d ad
justm
ent t
o sc
hool
.
Am
eric
an
Stud
y fo
cus:
Re
cess
Des
crip
tion:
Sc
hool
ad
just
men
t, ga
me
faci
litat
ion,
pl
ay/g
ames
be
havi
ors
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, re
cess
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 77
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
6.4
G
rade
: Prim
ary
(1st
gra
de)
Gen
der:
M
: 39.
0%
F: 6
1.0%
Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
with
lo
ngitu
dina
l fol
low
-up
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil
surv
ey (t
each
er a
nd re
sear
cher
ch
eckl
ist o
f stu
dent
beh
avio
r of
ad
just
men
t to
scho
ol, f
acili
ty in
sp
orts
and
gam
es)
2 ti
mes
(lat
e Fa
ll an
d ea
rly
Sprin
g)
Obs
erva
tion
(stu
dent
gam
e be
havi
ors
and
gam
e fa
cilit
y)
12 ti
mes
(obs
erve
d fo
r m
inim
um o
f 3 m
inut
es p
er
No
inte
rven
tion
Doe
s a
com
posi
te m
easu
re o
f stu
dent
s’
“gam
e fa
cilit
y”i p
redi
ct e
nd-o
f-yea
r sc
hool
ad
just
men
t (ba
sed
on r
esea
rch
staf
f and
te
ache
r ag
greg
ate
ratin
gs)?
• Sc
hool
adj
ustm
ent (
boys
) •
Scho
ol a
djus
tmen
t (gi
rls)
+ 0
Doe
s a
com
posi
te m
easu
re o
f gam
e fa
cilit
yi pre
dict
stu
dent
’s e
nd-o
f-yea
r soc
ial
com
pete
nce
(bas
ed o
n re
sear
ch s
taff
and
teac
her a
ggre
gate
ratin
gs) ?
• So
cial
com
pete
nce
(boy
s)
• So
cial
com
pete
nce
(girl
s)
+ 0
i Gam
e fa
cilit
y w
as m
easu
red
thro
ugh
an
Educ
atio
nal
mon
th)
aggr
egat
e m
easu
re th
at in
clud
ed re
sear
cher
Rese
arch
Jour
nal
2002
;39(
4):9
91-
1015
In
terv
iew
(pee
r no
min
atio
ns,
scho
ol c
onne
cted
ness
) 2
tim
es (e
arly
Fal
l and
late
Sp
ring)
obse
rvat
ions
of r
eces
s be
havi
or, b
ehav
ior
chec
klis
ts c
ompl
eted
by
the
teac
her
and
rese
arch
er, a
nd p
eer
iden
tifica
tion
of c
hild
ren
who
wer
e go
od a
t spo
rts.
66 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Appendix F: Classroom Physical Activity Summary Matrix
Articles describing quasi-experimental or experimental designs are highlighted in the table before the matrix for each setting. Not all studies used these designs.
Classroom Physical Activity Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date only)
Ahamed, Y., MacDonald, H., Reed, K., Naylor, P.-J., Liu-Ambrose, T., McKay, H. 2007
Della Valle, J., Dunn, R., Geisert, G., Sinatra, R., Zenhausern, R. 1986
Fredericks, C.R., Kokot, S.J., Krog, S. 2006
Maeda, J.K., Randall, L.M. 2003
Mahar, M.T., Murphy, S.K., Rowe, D.A., Golden, J., Shields, A.T., Raedeke, T.D. 2006
Molloy, G.N. 1989
Norlander, T., Moas, L., Archer T. 2005
Uhrich, T.A., Swalm, R.L. 2007
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 67
68 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
App
endi
x F:
Cla
ssro
om P
hysi
cal A
ctiv
ity S
umm
ary
Mat
rix††
††
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Aha
med
Y,
Mac
Don
ald
H,
Reed
K, N
aylo
r P-
J, Liu
-Am
bros
e T,
M
cKay
H65
Scho
ol-b
ased
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
does
not
co
mpr
omis
e ch
ildre
n’s
acad
emic
pe
rform
ance
.
Med
icin
e an
d Sc
ienc
e in
Spo
rts
and
Exer
cise
20
07;3
9(2)
:371
-37
6
Stud
y fo
cus:
C
lass
room
Des
crip
tion:
Ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
inte
rven
tion
eval
uatio
n fo
cusi
ng o
n m
aint
enan
ce
and
chan
ge
of a
cade
mic
pe
rform
ance
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n
Coun
try:
C
anad
a
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
l N
: 20
Age
ran
ge: N
A
Mea
n ag
e: N
A
Gra
de: P
rimar
y
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 288
A
ge r
ange
: 9–1
1 M
ean
age:
10.
2 G
rade
: Prim
ary
(4th
, 5th
gra
des)
G
ende
r:
M: 4
9.7%
F:
50.
3%
Ethn
icity
: A
sian
60.
3%
Whi
te 2
7.9%
O
ther
11.
8%
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y (s
elf-
repo
rt—m
oder
ate
to v
igor
ous
phys
ical
act
ivity
as
mea
sure
d by
a m
odifi
ed v
ersi
on o
f the
Ph
ysic
al A
ctiv
ity Q
uest
ionn
aire
fo
r C
hild
ren
(PA
Q-C
) 5
times
(bas
elin
e m
inus
3
mon
ths,
bas
elin
e, 3
mon
ths,
9
mon
ths,
12
mon
ths)
Stan
dard
ized
tests
(Can
adia
n A
chie
vem
ent T
est-C
AT-3
in
read
ing,
mat
h an
d la
ngua
ge a
rts)
3 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 3
mon
ths,
12
mon
ths)
Nam
e: A
ction
Sch
ools!
BC
(AS!
BC
) Mod
el
Stru
ctur
e: T
he A
S! B
C m
odel
com
ple-
men
ts th
e 80
min
utes
per
wee
k of
ph
ysic
al e
duca
tion
time
with
15
mor
e m
inut
es p
er d
ay o
f phy
sical
act
ivity
in
the
clas
sroo
m (f
or a
tota
l of 7
5 m
inut
es
per w
eek)
to a
chie
ve th
e re
com
men
ded
tota
l of 1
50 m
inut
es p
er w
eek.
Impl
emen
tatio
n: T
he in
terv
entio
n sp
anne
d 16
mon
ths
but a
cade
mic
pe
rform
ance
was
onl
y ev
alua
ted
acro
ss
the
scho
ol y
ear.
Teac
hers
in in
terv
entio
n sc
hool
s w
ere
requ
ired
to im
plem
ent
clas
sroo
m-b
ased
act
ivitie
s fo
r 15
min
utes
du
ring
each
sch
ool d
ay. A
ctivi
ties
offe
red
by te
ache
rs in
clud
ed s
kipp
ing,
da
ncin
g, a
nd re
sista
nce
exer
cise
s.
Did
incr
ease
d ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity im
prov
e ac
adem
ic p
erfo
rman
ce (a
com
bine
d sc
ore
of re
adin
g, m
ath
and
lang
uage
art
s)?
• St
anda
rdiz
ed te
st s
core
(com
bine
d)
0
Did
incr
ease
d ph
ysic
al a
ctivi
ty im
prov
e ac
adem
ic p
erfo
rman
ce b
y ge
nder?
• St
anda
rdiz
ed te
st sc
ores
(com
bine
d)
(by
gend
er)
0
Del
la V
alle
J,
Dun
n R,
Gei
sert
G, S
inat
ra R
, Ze
nhau
sern
R61
The
effe
cts
of
mat
chin
g an
d m
ism
atch
ing
stude
nts’
mob
ility
pr
efer
ence
s on
re
cogn
ition
and
m
emor
y ta
sks.
Stud
y fo
cus:
C
lass
room
Des
crip
tion:
The
ef
fect
of a
ctiv
ity
leve
l on
lear
ning
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 40
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(ju
nior
hig
h sc
hool
) G
ende
r:
M: 4
2.5%
F:
57.
5%
Ethn
icity
: NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: O
bser
vatio
n (s
tude
nts
stud
ied
15 w
ord
pairs
in
a p
assi
ve a
nd in
an
activ
e en
viro
nmen
t) 1
tim
e
Stan
dard
ized
test
s (m
obili
ty
pref
eren
ce—
scor
e on
ele
men
t of
mob
ility
from
lear
ning
sty
le
Cond
ition
s: P
assi
ve c
ondi
tion,
act
ive
cond
ition
Stru
ctur
e: In
the
pass
ive
cond
ition
, stu
dent
s le
arne
d w
ord
pairs
by
rem
aini
ng in
thei
r sea
ts w
hile
15
wor
d pa
irs w
ere fla
shed
on
a sc
reen
at
4-se
cond
inte
rval
s. In
the
activ
e co
nditi
on, s
tude
nts
exam
ined
15
diffe
rent
wor
d pa
irs p
rinte
d on
car
ds
arra
nged
aro
und
the
perim
eter
of t
he
room
. Stu
dent
s ex
amin
ed e
ach
card
for
Doe
s m
atch
ing
stud
ent’s
mob
ility
pr
efer
ence
to th
e le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
t im
prov
e w
ord
reco
gniti
on?j
• W
ord
reco
gniti
on te
st s
core
+
j Stu
dent
s w
ho p
refe
rred
act
ive
lear
ning
pe
rfor
med
sig
nific
antly
bet
ter
whe
n th
ere
was
an
act
ive
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent.
Stud
ents
who
pr
efer
red
pass
ive
lear
ning
per
form
ed b
ette
r in
th
e pa
ssiv
e le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
t. W
hen
the
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent m
atch
ed th
e st
uden
t’s
pref
erre
d le
arni
ng s
tyle
, sc
ores
wer
e si
gnifi
-ca
ntly
bet
ter.
Jour
nal o
f Ed
ucat
iona
l Re
sear
ch
1986
;79(
5):2
67-
272
asse
ssm
ent)
1 ti
me
Stan
dard
ized
test
s (w
ord
reco
gniti
on te
st of
60
wor
d pa
irs)
1 tim
e
4 se
cond
s an
d m
oved
to th
e ne
xt o
ne.
Impl
emen
tatio
n: W
ithin
-subj
ects
de
sign
, the
sam
e st
uden
ts le
arne
d w
ord-
pairs
in e
ach
of th
e 2
cond
itons
.
††††
Resu
lts a
re c
oded
as
follo
ws:
+ s
ignifie
s a
sign
ifica
nt p
ositi
ve o
utco
me;
0 s
ignifie
s no
sig
nific
ant o
utco
me;
- si
gnifi
es a
sig
nific
ant n
egat
ive
outc
ome.
Mat
rices
may
not
incl
ude
all o
utco
mes
des
crib
ed in
the
artic
le; s
hade
d ou
tcom
es a
re o
utco
mes
of p
rimar
y in
tere
st to
(and
wer
e in
clud
ed in
) thi
s re
view
; add
ition
al o
utco
mes
repo
rted
here
m
ay b
e of
inte
rest
to re
ader
s.
NR
= N
ot re
porte
d by
stu
dy a
utho
rs.
NA
= N
ot a
pplic
able
. In
dica
tes
data
col
lect
ion
time
poin
ts.
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Fred
eric
ks C
R,
Koko
t SJ,
Krog
S66
Usi
ng a
de
velo
pmen
tal
mov
emen
t pr
ogra
mm
e to
en
hanc
e ac
adem
ic
skill
s in
gra
de 1
le
arne
rs.
Sout
h A
frica
n Jo
urna
l for
Re
sear
ch in
Spo
rt,
Phys
ical
Edu
catio
n an
d Re
crea
tion
2006
;28(
1):2
9-42
Stud
y fo
cus:
C
lass
room
Des
crip
tion:
M
ovem
ent a
nd
acad
emic
s —
inte
rpla
y be
twee
n br
ain
and
body
Setti
ng: S
choo
l
Coun
try:
Sou
th
Afri
ca
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 53
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (1
st g
rade
) G
ende
r:
M: 4
3.40
%
F: 5
6.60
%
Lang
uage
: En
glis
h: 7
9.3%
A
fric
ans:
11.
3%
Oth
er: 9
.4%
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
kill
asse
ssm
ent (
Apt
itude
Te
st fo
r Sc
hool
Beg
inne
rs—
A
SB—
exam
ined
per
cept
ion,
sp
atia
l, re
ason
ing,
num
eric
al,
Ges
talt,
coo
rdin
atio
n, m
emor
y,
and
verb
al c
ompr
ehen
sion
) 2
tim
es (b
asel
ine,
2 m
onth
s)
Stan
dard
ized
test
(Dra
w-a
-pe
rson
—D
AP—
utili
zed
for
emot
iona
l ind
icat
ors)
2 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 2
mon
ths)
Cond
ition
s: E
xper
imen
tal,
free-
play
, ed
ucat
iona
l toy
s, a
nd c
ontro
l gro
ups.
Stru
ctur
e: T
he e
xper
imen
tal g
roup
fo
llow
ed a
n 8-
wee
k m
ovem
ent
prog
ram
with
20
min
utes
per
day
. A
fter
war
m-u
p, s
mal
ler
grou
ps w
ere
form
ed to
rota
te th
roug
h sta
tions
. A
ctiv
ities
in s
tatio
ns p
rogr
esse
d in
diffi
culty
as
indi
vidu
al m
aste
ry
occu
rred.
The
free
play
gro
up
allo
wed
chi
ldre
n to
use
pla
ygro
und
equi
pmen
t. Th
e ed
ucat
iona
l toy
s gr
oup
cont
aine
d th
e ch
ildre
n in
thei
r cl
assr
oom
s, b
ut a
llow
ed th
em to
use
ta
ble-
top
educ
atio
nal g
ames
. The
co
ntro
l gro
up fo
llow
ed n
orm
al s
choo
l cu
rric
ulum
.
Doe
s ex
posu
re to
the
mov
emen
t pro
gram
im
prov
e ap
titud
e sc
ores
for
yout
h as
m
easu
red
by th
e A
ptitu
de T
est f
or S
choo
l Be
ginn
ers?
•
Spac
ial a
ptitu
de
• Re
adin
g ap
titud
e •
Mat
h ap
titud
e •
Perc
eptio
n •
Reas
onin
g •
Num
eric
al
• G
esta
lt •
Coor
dina
tion
• M
emor
y •
Verb
al c
ompr
ehen
sion
•
Emot
iona
l ind
icat
ors
+ + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Topi
cs C
over
ed: C
onte
nt w
as o
f hig
hly
spec
ific
deve
lopm
enta
l mov
emen
ts in
the
deve
lopm
enta
l seq
uenc
e of
m
ovem
ents
thro
ugh
infa
ncy,
mid
line
cros
sing
, bal
ance
, pro
prio
cept
ion,
la
tera
lity,
inte
rhem
isph
eric
inte
grat
ion,
ve
stib
ular
wor
k, c
onve
rgen
ce,
dive
rgen
ce, v
isua
l acc
omm
odat
ion.
Trai
ning
: Tea
cher
s at
tend
ed a
sem
inar
re
gard
ing
the
proj
ect a
nd th
eir
invo
lvem
ent.
Low
den
K, P
owne
y J,
Dav
idso
n J,
Jam
es C
68
The
Cla
ss M
oves
! Pi
lot i
n Sc
otla
nd
and
Wal
es: A
n Ev
alua
tion.
Edin
burg
h:
Scot
tish
Cou
ncil
for R
esea
rch
in
Educ
atio
n; 2
001
Jan.
Rep
ort N
o.: 1
00.
Stud
y fo
cus:
C
lass
room
Des
crip
tion:
Ex
erci
ses
to e
nhan
ce
conc
entra
tion
and
mot
ivat
ion
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
Sco
tland
an
d W
ales
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
l N
: 6
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: ~19
2 A
ge r
ange
: 5–1
2 M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: P
rimar
y G
ende
r:
M: 4
8%
F: 5
2%
Ethn
icity
: Pr
imar
ily w
hite
Stud
y de
sign
: Cas
e st
udy
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: I
nter
view
(tea
cher
refle
ctio
n of
pro
gram
impa
ct)
2 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 3
mon
ths)
Nam
e: T
he C
lass
Mov
es!
Prog
ram
Stru
ctur
e: T
here
wer
e 24
gro
ups
of s
tude
nts
with
a m
axim
um o
f 8
stud
ents
in e
ach
grou
p. E
xerc
ises
are
gr
oupe
d by
them
e an
d ag
e an
d ar
e lis
ted
on a
mon
thly
cal
enda
r, w
hich
fo
llow
s a
stage
-rela
ted
deve
lopm
ent
plan
. Ses
sion
s ar
e 10
to15
min
utes
an
d ca
n be
con
duct
ed b
efor
e, d
urin
g,
or a
fter
any
clas
s su
bjec
t. Id
eally
ac
tiviti
es a
re a
bre
ak fr
om s
eden
tary
w
ork.
Do
teac
hers
repo
rt stu
dent
s in
volv
ed in
th
e C
lass
Mov
es! P
rogr
am h
ave
incr
ease
d ac
adem
ic p
erfo
rman
ce m
easu
res ?
k
• C
lass
room
beh
avio
r +
k Dat
a co
llect
ed th
roug
h qu
alita
tive
inte
rvie
ws;
cl
ear
defin
ition
s of
eac
h ou
tcom
e w
ere
not
prov
ided
by
the
auth
ors.
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 69
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Sam
ple
3: S
choo
l pe
rson
nel
N: 2
4
Sam
ple
4: P
aren
ts
N: 1
9
Sam
ple
5: S
choo
l pe
rson
nel
N: 3
0 M
aeda
JK, R
anda
ll LM
62
Can
aca
dem
ic
succ
ess
com
e fro
m
five
min
utes
of
phys
ical
act
ivity?
Broc
k Ed
ucat
ion
Jour
nal
2003
;13(
1):1
4-2
2
Stud
y fo
cus:
C
lass
room
Des
crip
tion:
The
im
pact
of a
ddin
g 5
min
utes
of
phys
ical
act
ivity
to
a d
ay fo
r 2n
d-gr
ade
stud
ents
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 19
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: P
rimar
y G
ende
r:
M: 3
6.8%
F:
63.
2%
Ethn
icity
: NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-ex
perim
enta
l, w
ith s
ingl
e su
bjec
t beh
avio
ral
desi
gn—
mul
tiple
trea
tmen
t re
vers
al d
esig
n
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: O
bser
vatio
n (5
min
utes
ru
nnin
g/w
alki
ng)
61 ti
mes
(eac
h da
y fo
r 61
days
)
Teac
her-m
ade flu
ency
test
(1
-min
ute
mat
h ad
ditio
n te
st)
61 ti
mes
(eac
h da
y fo
r 61
days
)
Stru
ctur
e: T
he w
eekl
y ro
utin
e,
appr
oxim
atel
y 1
hour
afte
r lu
nch,
4
days
per
wee
k, c
onsi
sted
of r
estro
om/
wat
er, p
hysi
cal a
ctiv
ity, w
ater
, and
th
en re
turn
to th
e cl
assr
oom
for
the
mat
h ac
tivity
.
Impl
emen
tatio
n: T
he te
ache
r di
vide
d th
e stu
dent
s in
to 2
gro
ups
base
d on
th
eir
perfo
rman
ce in
mat
h re
late
d to
add
ition
con
cept
s: 1
) gra
de-
leve
l gro
up a
nd 2
) bel
ow-g
rade
le
vel g
roup
. 3 v
ersi
ons
of a
dditi
on
prob
lem
s sh
eets
wer
e us
ed.
Do
5 m
inut
es o
f a m
oder
ate
to v
igor
ous
activ
ity in
crea
se m
ath flu
ency
and
co
ncen
tratio
n (b
ased
on
teac
her
obse
rvat
ion)?
• M
ath flu
ency
•
Con
cent
ratio
n + +
Mah
ar M
T,
Mur
phy
SK, R
owe
DA, G
olde
n J,
Shie
lds
AT,
Raed
eke
TD63
Effe
cts
of a
cl
assr
oom
-bas
ed
prog
ram
on
phys
ical
act
ivity
an
d on
-task
be
havi
or.
Med
icin
e an
d Sc
ienc
e in
Spo
rts
and
Exer
cise
20
06;3
8(12
): 20
86-2
094
Stud
y fo
cus:
C
lass
room
Des
crip
tion:
A
clas
sroo
m-b
ased
ph
ysic
al a
ctivi
ty
prog
ram
’s e
ffect
on
ele
men
tary
sc
hool
-age
d ch
ildre
n’s p
hysic
al
activ
ity le
vels
and
on-ta
sk b
ehav
ior
durin
g ac
adem
ic
instr
uctio
n
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 243
A
ge r
ange
: NR
Mea
n ag
e: N
R G
rade
: Prim
ary
(K–4
th g
rade
) G
ende
r: N
R Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
truct
ured
and
tim
ed
obse
rvat
ion
(on-
task
beh
avio
r of
3rd
-and
4th
-gra
de s
tude
nts
only
—defin
ed a
s ve
rbal
or
mot
or b
ehav
ior
that
follo
wed
cl
ass
rule
s an
d w
as a
ppro
pria
te
to th
e le
arni
ng s
ituat
ion)
D
aily
ove
r a
12-w
eek
perio
d (p
re- a
nd p
ostin
terv
entio
n)
Mea
sure
men
t dev
ice
– pe
dom
eter
s (n
umbe
r of
ste
ps
take
n in
all
K–4t
h-gr
ade
clas
ses)
5 d
ays
in a
wee
k (a
ll ch
ildre
n in
one
gra
de p
er w
eek)
Stru
ctur
e: S
tude
nts
in a
ll K–
4th-
grad
e cla
ssro
oms
(3 c
lass
es p
er g
rade
) in
one
scho
ol p
artic
ipat
ed in
“En
ergi
zers
.”
Thes
e ar
e cl
assr
oom
-bas
ed p
hysic
al
activ
ities
that
last
appr
oxim
atel
y 10
m
inut
es, i
nteg
rate
gra
de-a
ppro
pria
te
lear
ning
mat
eria
ls, in
volve
no
equi
pmen
t, an
d re
quire
little
teac
her p
repa
ratio
n.
Trai
ning
: Bef
ore
the
study
, cla
ssro
om
teac
hers
atte
nded
a 4
5-m
inut
e tra
inin
g se
ssio
n w
here
they
wer
e ta
ught
how
to
lead
stu
dent
s th
roug
h En
ergi
zers
ac
tiviti
es. T
rain
ing
incl
uded
info
rmat
ion
abou
t the
chi
ldho
od o
besit
y ep
idem
ic.
Impl
emen
tatio
n: T
each
ers
wer
e ea
ch
aske
d to
lead
one
10
-min
ute
activ
ity
per d
ay fo
r 12
wee
ks.
Doe
s pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in E
nerg
izer
s in
crea
se
on-ta
sk b
ehav
ior
in s
choo
l (ba
sed
on
rese
arch
er o
bser
vatio
n)?
• O
n-ta
sk b
ehav
ior
(3rd
- and
4th
-gr
ade
stud
ents
) +
Doe
s pa
rtici
patio
n in
Ene
rgiz
ers
incr
ease
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity in
sch
ool (
base
d on
pe
dom
eter
cou
nts)?
• Ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
+
70 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Mol
loy
GN
64
Che
mic
als,
ex
erci
se a
nd
hype
ract
ivity
: a
shor
t rep
ort.
Inte
rnat
iona
l Jo
urna
l of
Disa
bilit
y,
Dev
elop
men
t an
d Ed
ucat
ion
1989
;36(
1):5
7-61
Stud
y fo
cus:
C
lass
room
Des
crip
tion:
Ef
fect
of e
xerc
ise
on p
robl
em
solv
ing
and
atte
ntio
n in
no
rmal
and
hy
pera
ctiv
e st
uden
ts
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
A
ustra
lia
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 32
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: P
rimar
y G
ende
r: N
R Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-ex
perim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y (a
chie
vem
ent t
est s
core
s) 1
tim
e (im
med
iate
ly fo
llow
ing
each
exe
rcis
e co
nditi
on: n
o ex
erci
se, 5
min
utes
of e
xerc
ise,
10
min
utes
of e
xerc
ise)
Obs
erva
tion
(on-
task
beh
avio
r) 1
tim
e (im
med
iate
ly fo
llow
ing
each
exe
rcis
e co
nditi
on: n
o ex
erci
se, 5
min
utes
of e
xerc
ise,
10
min
utes
of e
xerc
ise)
Stan
dard
ized
test
(hyp
erac
tivity
) 1
tim
e (b
efor
e st
udy)
Stru
ctur
e: C
hild
ren
enga
ged
in
3 le
vels
of a
erob
ic e
xerc
ise
at a
co
nsta
nt c
aden
ce: n
o ex
erci
se, 5
m
inut
es, o
r 10
min
utes
of e
xerc
ise.
Doe
s st
uden
t’s p
artic
ipat
ion
in 5
min
utes
of
aer
obic
exe
rcis
e im
prov
e ar
ithm
etic
pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng p
erfo
rman
ce?
• A
rithm
etic
per
form
ance
+
Doe
s st
uden
t’s p
artic
ipat
ion
in 1
0 m
inut
es
of a
erob
ic e
xerc
ise
impr
ove
arith
met
ic
prob
lem
sol
ving
per
form
ance
? •
Arit
hmet
ic p
erfo
rman
ce
0 H
ow d
oes
obse
rved
atte
ntio
n sp
an c
hang
e af
ter
aero
bic
exer
cise
? •
Atte
ntio
n 0
Nor
land
er T
, Moa
s L,
Arc
her T
60
Noi
se a
nd
stres
s in
prim
ary
and
seco
ndar
y sc
hool
chi
ldre
n:
noise
redu
ctio
n an
d in
crea
sed
conc
entra
tion
abili
ty th
roug
h a
shor
t but
regu
lar
exer
cise
and
re
laxa
tion
prog
ram
.
Scho
ol
Effe
ctiv
enes
s an
d Sc
hool
Im
prov
emen
t 20
05;1
6(1)
:91-
99
Stud
y fo
cus:
C
lass
room
Des
crip
tion:
Re
latio
nshi
ps
betw
een
nois
e, s
tress
, co
ncen
tratio
n,
and
exer
cise
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
Sw
eden
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 84
Age
ran
g e: N
R M
ean
age:
11.
3 G
rade
: Cro
ss
leve
l (pr
imar
y an
d se
cond
ary
scho
ol)
Gen
der:
M
: 45.
5%
F: 5
4.5%
Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Sam
ple
2: S
choo
l pe
rson
nel
N: 7
M
ean
age:
42.
1 G
ende
r:
M: 2
8.6%
F:
71.
4%
Ethn
icity
: NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-ex
perim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: M
easu
rem
ent d
evic
e (n
oise
leve
ls in
the
clas
sroo
m)
2 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 1
mon
th)
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (s
tude
nt
satis
fact
ion
with
exe
rcis
e an
d re
laxa
tion
prog
ram
, stre
ss le
vels)
2 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 1
mon
th)
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (te
ache
r pe
rcep
tion
of s
tude
nt
conc
entra
tion
and
stre
ss le
vels)
2
times
(bas
elin
e, 1
mon
th)
Stru
ctur
e: R
elax
atio
n/ex
erci
se
epis
odes
occ
urre
d tw
ice
daily
for
4 w
eeks
, im
med
iate
ly fo
llow
ing
the
mor
ning
bre
ak a
nd a
fter
the
lunc
h br
eak.
The
pro
gram
took
5
to 1
0 m
inut
es a
nd c
onsi
sted
of a
co
mbi
natio
n of
stre
tchi
ng e
xerc
ises
an
d re
laxa
tion
exer
cise
s.
Doe
s th
e in
terv
entio
n af
fect
stu
dent
abi
lity
to c
once
ntra
te (a
s re
port
ed b
y te
ache
rs)?
• Co
ncen
tratio
n +
Doe
s th
e in
terv
entio
n re
duce
cla
ssro
om
noise
leve
l (as
mea
sure
d by
rese
arch
sta
ff)?
• N
oise
leve
ls +
Doe
s th
e in
terv
entio
n af
fect
stu
dent
sel
f-re
port
ed s
tress
leve
l ?
• St
ress
leve
l 0
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 71
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Uhr
ich
TA, S
wal
m
RL67
A p
ilot s
tudy
of
a po
ssib
le e
ffect
fro
m a
mot
or
task
on
read
ing
perfo
rman
ce.
Perc
eptu
al a
nd
Mot
or S
kills
20
07;1
04(3
Pt
1):1
035-
1041
Stud
y fo
cus:
C
lass
room
Des
crip
tion:
Influ
ence
of
“cup
sta
ckin
g”
and
read
ing
achi
evem
ent
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
, ph
ysic
al
educ
atio
n
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 41
Age
ran
ge: 1
0–11
M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: C
ross
leve
l (K
-8th
gra
de)
Gen
der:
M
: 56%
F:
44%
Et
hnic
ity:
Nat
ive
Am
eric
an: 1
%
Asi
an-A
mer
ican
: 2%
A
frica
n-A
mer
ican
: 20%
La
tin-A
mer
ican
: 3%
Eu
ro-A
mer
ican
: 74%
Stud
y de
sign
: Exp
erim
enta
l
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
tand
ardi
zed
tests
(mea
surin
g re
adin
g de
codi
ng a
nd
com
preh
ensi
on s
kills
usi
ng
Gat
es-M
acG
initi
e Re
adin
g Te
st 4
th E
ditio
n, G
MRT
-4)
2 tim
es (b
asel
ine,
6
wee
ks)
Inte
rvie
w (r
eadi
ng in
stru
ctio
n fid
elity
) 1
tim
e (c
oncl
usio
n of
in
terv
entio
n)
Stru
ctur
e: F
ive
1-ho
ur le
sson
s m
odifi
ed in
to 1
8 20
-min
ute
less
ons
with
3 le
sson
s pe
r w
eek
over
a
perio
d of
6 w
eeks
.
Impl
emen
tatio
n: E
ach
child
had
12
cups
to u
se d
urin
g th
e in
terv
entio
n tim
e. C
ontro
ls ha
d sn
ack
time
whi
le in
terv
entio
n gr
oup
“sta
cked
” (in
terv
entio
n gr
oup
had
a la
ter
snac
k tim
e).
Doe
s st
uden
t par
ticip
atio
n in
spo
rt s
tack
ing
impr
ove
child
ren’
s re
adin
g lit
erac
y sc
ores
on
the
GM
RT-4
sta
ndar
dize
d te
st?
• Re
adin
g de
codi
ng s
core
s •
Read
ing
com
preh
ensi
on
0 +
72 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Appendix G: Extracurricular Physical Activity Summary Matrix
Articles describing quasi-experimental or experimental designs are highlighted in the table before the matrix for each setting. Not all studies used these designs.
Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date Only)
Darling, N. 2005
Reynolds, D., Nicolson, R.I. 2007
Schumaker, J.F., Small, L., Wood, J. 1986
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 73
74 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
App
endi
x G
: Ext
racu
rric
ular
Phy
sica
l Act
ivity
Mat
rix‡‡
‡‡
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Col
lingw
ood
TR, S
unde
rlin
J, Re
ynol
ds R
, Koh
l H
W 3
rd2
Phys
ical
trai
ning
as
a s
ubsta
nce
abus
e pr
even
tion
inte
rven
tion
for
yout
h.
Jour
nal o
f Dru
g Ed
ucat
ion
2000
; 30
(4):4
35-4
51
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Fi
tnes
s as
a
risk
prev
entio
n in
terv
entio
n
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, co
mm
unity
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 34
Mea
n ag
e: 1
5.5
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(s
enio
r hi
gh
scho
ol)
Gen
der:
M
: 58.
8%
F: 4
1.2%
Et
hnic
ity:
Blac
k: 2
.9%
W
hite
: 97.
1%
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 44
Mea
n ag
e: 1
2 G
rade
: Sec
onda
ry
(juni
or h
igh
scho
ol)
Gen
der:
M
: 53.
5%
F: 4
6.5%
Et
hnic
ity:
Blac
k: 1
5%
His
pani
c: 3
.1%
W
hite
: 80.
4%
Oth
er: 1
.5%
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: F
itnes
s te
st (p
hysi
cal
fitne
ss b
atte
ry)
2 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 3
mon
ths)
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (s
elf-r
epor
t of
phy
sica
l act
ivity
tim
es p
er
wee
k an
d ra
te h
ow c
ompa
res
to p
eers
, sel
f-rep
ort o
f sch
ool
func
tioni
ng a
nd g
rade
s, s
elf-
conc
ept,
scho
ol a
ttend
ance
, w
ell-b
eing
, chu
rch
parti
cipa
tion,
re
latio
nshi
p w
ith p
aren
ts,
frien
ds’ u
se o
f cig
aret
tes,
al
coho
l, an
d dr
ugs)
2 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e, 3
mon
ths)
Nam
e: F
irst C
hoic
e pr
ogra
m
Trai
ning
: Sta
ff w
ere
train
ed a
s Fi
tnes
s Le
ader
s in
a 4
0-h
our
cour
se
with
a w
ritte
n an
d pr
actic
um
certific
atio
n ex
am. C
onte
nt o
f the
sta
ff co
urse
focu
sed
on fi
tnes
s as
sess
men
t tec
hniq
ues,
goa
l set
ting
and
exer
cise
pre
scrip
tion,
exe
rcis
e le
ader
ship
, tea
chin
g sk
ills,
saf
ety,
and
fo
unda
tions
con
tent
.
Stru
ctur
e: P
rogr
am w
as im
plem
ente
d in
22
setti
ngs
acro
ss th
e sta
te
(incl
udin
g 1
juve
nile
cor
rect
iona
l fa
cilit
y, 6
dru
g tre
atm
ent f
acili
ties,
4
juni
or h
igh
scho
ols,
2 s
enio
r hi
gh
scho
ols,
and
9 n
eigh
borh
ood
or
com
mun
ity c
ente
rs).
This
eva
luat
ion
was
con
duct
ed in
6 s
ites
(1 h
igh
scho
ol, 2
juni
or h
igh
scho
ols,
and
3
com
mun
ity s
ites)
.
Met
hod:
The
re w
ere
24 d
iffer
ent
mod
ules
to te
ach
phys
ical
fitn
ess
as a
lif
e sk
ill, f
ocus
ing
on s
elf-a
sses
smen
t, go
al s
ettin
g, e
xerc
ise
and
nutri
tion
plan
ning
, and
sel
f-rew
ard
mot
ivat
ion
thro
ugh
exer
cise
cla
sses
, edu
catio
nal
mod
ules
, dis
cuss
ion
mod
ules
, an
d in
divi
dual
exe
rcis
e pr
ogra
m
mai
nten
ance
.
Wha
t wer
e th
e ef
fect
s of
the
Firs
t Cho
ice
fitne
ss p
rogr
am o
n pa
rtic
ipat
ing
yout
h ac
adem
ic o
utco
mes
and
ris
k fa
ctor
s?
Site
1
• G
rade
s (s
elf-r
epor
t) •
Scho
ol a
ttend
ance
•
Self-
conc
ept
Site
2
• G
rade
s (s
elf-r
epor
t) •
Scho
ol a
ttend
ance
•
Self-
conc
ept
Site
3
• G
rade
s (s
elf-r
epor
t) •
Scho
ol a
ttend
ance
•
Self-
conc
ept
Site
4
• G
rade
s (s
elf-r
epor
t) •
Scho
ol a
ttend
ance
•
Self-
conc
ept
Site
5
• G
rade
s (s
elf-r
epor
t) •
Scho
ol a
ttend
ance
•
Self-
conc
ept
Site
6
• G
rade
s (s
elf-r
epor
t) •
Scho
ol a
ttend
ance
•
Self-
conc
ept
0 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 + 0 0 + + + +
‡‡‡‡
Resu
lts a
re c
oded
as
follo
ws:
+ s
ignifie
s a
sign
ifica
nt p
ositi
ve o
utco
me;
0 s
ignifie
s no
sig
nific
ant o
utco
me;
– s
ignifie
s a
sign
ifica
nt n
egat
ive
outc
ome.
Mat
rices
may
not
in
clud
e al
l out
com
es d
escr
ibed
in th
e ar
ticle
; sha
ded
outc
omes
are
out
com
es o
f prim
ary
inte
rest
to (a
nd w
ere
incl
uded
in) t
his
revi
ew; a
dditi
onal
out
com
es re
porte
d he
re
may
be
of in
tere
st to
read
ers.
N
R=N
ot re
porte
d by
stu
dy a
utho
rs.
Indi
cate
s da
ta c
olle
ctio
n tim
e po
ints.
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Sam
ple
3: Y
outh
N
: 33
Mea
n ag
e: 1
0.9
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(ju
nior
hig
h sc
hool
) G
ende
r:
M: 6
0%
F: 4
0%
Ethn
icity
: H
ispa
nic:
6%
W
hite
: 94%
Sam
ple
4: Y
outh
N
: 22
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
11.
4 G
rade
: NR
(Nat
iona
l G
uard
com
mun
ity s
ite)
Gen
der:
M
: 50%
F:
50%
Et
hnic
ity:
Blac
k: 6
8%
His
pani
c: 3
2%
Sam
ple
5: Y
outh
N
: 40
Mea
n ag
e: 1
1.9
Gra
de: N
R (N
atio
nal
Gua
rd c
omm
unity
site
) G
ende
r:
M: 4
7.5%
F:
52.
5%
Sam
ple
6: Y
outh
N
: 156
M
ean
age:
11.
1 G
rade
: NR
(Nat
iona
l G
uard
com
mun
ity s
ite)
Gen
der:
M
: 60.
8%
F: 3
9.2%
Et
hnic
ity:
Blac
k: 7
6.2%
H
ispa
nic:
3.8
%
Whi
te: 1
9.8%
Wha
t wer
e th
e ef
fect
s of
the
Firs
t Cho
ice
fitne
ss p
rogr
am o
n pa
rtici
patin
g yo
uth
activ
ity le
vels ?
l
Site
1
• A
ctiv
ity le
vel
Site
2
• A
ctiv
ity le
vel
Site
3
• A
ctiv
ity le
vel
Site
4
• A
ctiv
ity le
vel
Site
5
• A
ctiv
ity le
vel
Site
6
• A
ctiv
ity le
vel
0 0 0 0 0 + l In
add
ition
to a
ctiv
ity le
vel,
othe
r fitn
ess
mea
sure
s in
clud
ed 1
-mile
run
times
, sit
and
reac
h, s
it-up
s,
push
-ups
, bod
y fa
t, an
d w
ell-b
eing
.
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 75
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e Ch
arac
teri
stic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Cro
snoe
R69
Aca
dem
ic a
nd
heal
th-re
late
d tra
ject
orie
s in
ad
oles
cenc
e:
The
inte
rsec
tion
of g
ende
r and
at
hlet
ics.
Jour
nal o
f Hea
lth
and
Soci
al
Beha
vior
200
2;
43(3
):317
-335
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Th
e re
latio
nshi
p of
gen
der
and
athl
etic
s to
ac
adem
ic a
nd
heal
th-re
late
d tra
ject
orie
s in
ad
oles
cenc
e.
Setti
ng: S
choo
l
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
l N
: 9
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(hig
h sc
hool
)
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 2,6
51
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(hig
h sc
hool
) G
ende
r: N
R Et
hnic
ity:
Ethn
ic m
inor
ity: 4
0%
Not
spe
cifie
d: 6
0%
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
data
ana
lysi
s (s
ee S
tein
berg
et a
l, 19
96)
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pe
ncil
surv
ey (s
elf-
repo
rted
grad
es,
subs
tanc
e us
e, a
thle
tic
parti
cipa
tion)
6 ti
mes
[2
que
stion
naire
s an
swer
ed
per
year
ove
r a
3-ye
ar
perio
d (1
987–
1990
)]
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (fr
iend
s’ b
ehav
ior,
dem
ogra
phic
s) 1
tim
e
No
inte
rven
tion
Do
mal
e an
d fe
mal
e hi
gh s
choo
l stu
dent
at
hlet
es’ a
cade
mic
traj
ecto
ries
(bas
ed o
n se
lf-re
port
ed g
rade
s) im
prov
e m
ore
than
m
ale
nona
thle
tes?
St
art o
f hig
h sc
hool
: •
Mal
e at
hlet
es
• Fe
mal
e at
hlet
es
Ove
r 3
year
s:
• M
ale
athl
etes
•
Fem
ale
athl
etes
+ + + + D
o ge
nder
and
ath
lete
sta
tus
affe
ct
subs
tanc
e us
e at
the
start
of h
igh
scho
ol?
• To
bacc
o, a
lcoh
ol, o
r dru
g us
e 0
Are
gen
der
and
athl
ete
stat
us r
elat
ed to
th
e tra
ject
ory
of s
ubst
ance
use?
• To
bacc
o us
e •
Alc
ohol
use
(mal
es, f
emal
e at
hlet
es)
• Ill
egal
dru
g us
e
0 – 0
Dar
ling
N,
Cal
dwel
l LL,
Sm
ith R
79
Parti
cipa
tion
in
scho
ol-b
ased
ex
tracu
rricu
lar
activ
ities
and
ad
oles
cent
ad
justm
ent.
Jour
nal o
f Lei
sure
Re
sear
ch 2
005;
37
(1):5
1-76
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n sc
hool
-rela
ted
extra
curr
icul
ar
activ
ities
and
ac
adem
ic
adju
stm
ent
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, af
ter
scho
ol
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 4,2
64
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(9th
–12t
h gr
ades
) G
ende
r:
M: 4
7.9%
F:
52.
1%
Ethn
icity
: A
sian
: 21.
3%
Blac
k: 4
.6%
H
ispa
nic:
13.
6%
Whi
te: 6
0.5%
Sam
ple
2 (a
sub
set o
f sam
ple
1 w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
long
itudi
nal
data
col
lect
ion)
: You
th
N: 2
,462
G
rade
: Sec
onda
ry (9
th–1
2th
grad
es)
Gen
der:
M
: 48%
F:
52%
Et
hnic
ity:
Asi
an: 2
1.2%
Bl
ack:
4.4
%
His
pani
c: 1
3.1%
W
hite
: 61.
3%
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
anal
ysis
of a
n ex
istin
g da
tase
t
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts:
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (p
artic
ipat
ion
in
extra
curr
icul
ar a
ctiv
ity
and
type
of a
ctiv
ity,
frien
ds’ p
artic
ipat
ion
in
extra
curr
icul
ar a
ctiv
ities
, at
titud
e to
war
ds s
choo
l, ac
adem
ic a
spira
tions
, se
lf-re
ports
on
last
term
gr
ades
) 2
times
for
Sam
ple
1 (b
asel
ine,
12
mon
ths)
1
time
for
Sam
ple
2 (1
2 m
onth
s)
No
inte
rven
tion
Is p
artic
ipat
ion
in s
choo
l-bas
ed
extra
curr
icul
ar a
ctiv
ities
(spo
rt a
nd
nons
port
) ass
ocia
ted
with
indi
cato
rs o
f ad
oles
cent
adj
ustm
ent (
afte
r ad
just
men
t for
de
mog
raph
ics)
?m
• H
ighe
r se
lf-re
port
ed g
rade
s •
Hig
her
acad
emic
asp
iratio
ns
• Po
sitiv
e ac
adem
ic a
ttitu
des
+ + + mN
o si
gnifi
cant
diff
eren
ces
by g
ende
r or
oth
er
dem
ogra
phic
cha
ract
eris
tics
in fi
nal a
naly
ses.
Pa
rtici
pant
s in
spo
rts a
ctiv
ities
had
mor
e po
sitiv
e ad
justm
ent t
han
nonp
artic
ipan
ts in
ext
racu
rricu
lar
activ
ities
, but
low
er p
ositi
ve a
djus
tmen
t tha
n no
nspo
rts e
xtra
curri
cula
r ac
tivity
par
ticip
ants.
Do
yout
h w
ho h
ave
frien
ds w
ho
parti
cipa
te in
ext
racu
rric
ular
act
iviti
es
have
hig
her
indi
cato
rs o
f ado
lesc
ent
adju
stm
ent ?
• H
ighe
r sel
f-rep
orte
d gr
ades
•
Hig
her a
cade
mic
asp
iratio
ns
• Po
sitiv
e ac
adem
ic a
ttitu
des
+ + +
76 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Dar
ling
N78
Parti
cipa
tion
in
extra
curri
cula
r ac
tiviti
es a
nd
adol
esce
nt
adju
stmen
t: C
ross
sec
tiona
l an
d lo
ngitu
dina
l fin
ding
s.
Jour
nal o
f You
th
and
Ado
lesc
ence
20
05; 3
4(5)
:493
-50
5
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n sc
hool
-rela
ted
extra
curr
icul
ar
activ
ities
and
ac
adem
ic
adju
stm
ent
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, af
ter
scho
ol
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
l N
: 6
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(9
th–1
2th
grad
es)
Sam
ple
2 (c
ross
-sec
tiona
l an
alys
es):
Yout
h N
: 3,7
61
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(9
th–1
2th
grad
es)
Gen
der:
M
: 47%
F:
53%
Et
hnic
ity:
Asi
an: 1
8.7%
Bl
ack:
4.5
%
His
pani
c: 1
3.8%
W
hite
: 64.
0%
Sam
ple
3 (lo
ngitu
dina
l an
alys
es):
Yout
h N
: 3,4
27
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(9
th–1
1th
grad
es)
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
(cro
ss-se
ctio
nal a
nd lo
ngitu
dina
l an
alys
es)
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y [s
elf-r
epor
ted
grad
es, a
ttitu
de
tow
ards
sch
ool,
acad
emic
as
pira
tions
, dem
ogra
phic
s,
enga
gem
ent i
n cl
asse
s,
parti
cipa
tion
in e
xtra
curr
icul
ar
activ
ity a
t sch
ool d
urin
g cu
rrent
yea
r, tim
e sp
ent i
n ex
tracu
rric
ular
act
iviti
es (e
.g.,
inte
rsch
olas
tic a
nd in
tram
ural
sp
orts,
per
form
ing
grou
ps,
lead
ersh
ip g
roup
s), a
nd c
lubs
, fa
mily
rela
tions
hips
, par
entin
g be
havi
or, p
eer
rela
tions
hip,
de
vian
ce, l
ife e
vent
stre
ss,
depr
essi
ve s
ympt
oms,
sub
stan
ce
use] 3
tim
es (1
987–
1990
)
No
inte
rven
tion
Is p
artic
ipat
ion
in s
choo
l-bas
ed
extra
curr
icul
ar a
ctiv
ities
ass
ocia
ted
with
in
dica
tors
of a
dole
scen
t adj
ustm
ent (
afte
r ad
just
men
t for
dem
ogra
phic
s) in
yea
r 1
of
stud
y?n
• H
ighe
r se
lf-re
port
ed g
rade
s •
Hig
her
acad
emic
asp
iratio
ns
• Po
sitiv
e ac
adem
ic a
ttitu
des
• Le
ss d
epre
ssio
n
+ + + 0 n A
dditi
onal
ana
lyse
s w
ere
cond
ucte
d an
d in
no
case
did
ent
erin
g tim
e co
mm
itmen
t cha
nge
the
asso
ciat
ion
betw
een
parti
cipa
tion
and
outc
omes
. M
ore
time
spen
t on
extra
curri
cula
r ac
tiviti
es w
as
asso
ciat
ed w
ith h
ighe
r gr
ades
and
aca
dem
ic
aspi
ratio
ns.
Is p
artic
ipat
ion
in s
choo
l-bas
ed
extra
curr
icul
ar a
ctiv
ities
ass
ocia
ted
with
in
dica
tors
of a
dole
scen
t adj
ustm
ent (
afte
r ad
just
men
t for
dem
ogra
phic
s) a
cros
s m
utip
le y
ears
of s
tudy
?o
• H
ighe
r se
lf-re
port
ed g
rade
s •
Hig
her
acad
emic
asp
iratio
ns
• Po
sitiv
e ac
adem
ic a
ttitu
des
• Le
ss d
epre
ssio
n
+ + + 0 o A
dditi
onal
ana
lyse
s w
ere
cond
ucte
d an
d m
ore
year
s of
par
ticip
atio
n w
ere
asso
ciat
ed w
ith h
ighe
r gr
ades
, a m
ore
posit
ive
attit
ude
tow
ard
scho
ol,
and
high
er a
cade
mic
asp
iratio
ns.
Is pa
rtici
patio
n in
sch
ool-b
ased
ex
tracu
rricu
lar a
ctiv
ities
ass
ocia
ted
with
in
dica
tors
of a
dole
scen
t adj
ustm
ent (
afte
r ad
justm
ent f
or d
emog
raph
ics)
acro
ss m
utip
le
year
s of
stu
dy?
• Le
ss d
rinki
ng
• Le
ss s
mok
ing
• Le
ss m
ariju
ana
use
• Le
ss o
ther
dru
g us
e
0 + + +
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 77
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Fred
ricks
JA, E
ccle
s JS
76
Parti
cipa
tion
in
extra
curri
cula
r ac
tiviti
es in
m
iddl
e sc
hool
ye
ars:
Are
ther
e de
velo
pmen
tal
benefit
s fo
r A
frica
n A
mer
ican
an
d Eu
rope
an
Am
eric
an y
outh?
Jour
nal o
f You
th
and
Ado
lesc
ence
20
08;3
7:10
29-
1043
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ac
tiviti
es a
nd
acad
emic
ac
hiev
emen
t
Setti
ng:
Hou
seho
ld
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 1,0
47
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
12.
27
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(7
th, 8
th, 1
1th
grad
es)
Gen
der:
M
: 49%
F:
51%
Et
hnic
ity:
Blac
k: 6
7%
Whi
te: 3
3%
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
anal
ysis
of d
ata
from
the
Mar
ylan
d A
dole
scen
t D
evel
opm
ent i
n C
onte
xt S
tudy
(M
AD
ICS)
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y an
d fa
ce-to
-face
inte
rvie
w [s
elf-
repo
rted
grad
es, s
choo
l val
ue,
parti
cipa
tion
in s
choo
l act
iviti
es
(e.g
., cl
ubs,
stu
dent
gov
ernm
ent,
athl
etic
or
spor
ts te
ams
at
scho
ol, a
nd p
artic
ipat
ion
in S
umm
er o
r af
ter-s
choo
l re
crea
tiona
l pro
gram
s), s
elf-
este
em, p
sych
olog
ical
resi
lienc
y,
depr
essi
on, p
roso
cial
pee
rs,
risky
beh
avio
rs, r
ace,
and
ge
nder
] 3
times
(7th
, 8th
, and
11t
h gr
ades
)
No
inte
rven
tion
Did
par
ticip
atio
n in
7th
-gra
de s
choo
l spo
rts
impr
ove
acad
emic
out
com
es a
t 8th
gra
de?
• Se
lf-re
port
ed G
PA
• Sc
hool
val
ue
• Se
lf-es
teem
•
Resi
lienc
y •
Dep
ress
ion
0 – 0 0 0
Did
par
ticip
atio
n in
7th
-gra
de s
choo
l spo
rts
impr
ove
acad
emic
out
com
es a
t 11t
h gr
ade?
• Se
lf-re
port
ed G
PA
• Sc
hool
val
ue
• Se
lf-es
teem
•
Resi
lienc
y •
Dep
ress
ion
0 – 0 + 0 A
dditi
onal
ana
lyse
s sh
owed
a s
ignific
ant e
ffect
in
8th
gra
de fo
r ra
ce o
n re
silie
ncy
and
SES
on
depr
essi
on; n
o si
gnifi
cant
res
ults
by
gend
er.
Did
par
ticip
atio
n in
7th
-gra
de o
ut-o
f-sch
ool
recr
eatio
n im
prov
e ac
adem
ic o
utco
mes
at
8th
grad
e?
• Se
lf-re
port
ed G
PA
• Sc
hool
val
ue
• Se
lf-es
teem
•
Resi
lienc
y •
Dep
ress
ion
0 0 0 + 0
Did
par
ticip
atio
n in
7th
-gra
de o
ut-o
f-sch
ool
recr
eatio
n im
prov
e ac
adem
ic o
utco
mes
at
11th
gra
de?
• Se
lf-re
port
ed G
PA
• Sc
hool
val
ue
• Se
lf-es
teem
•
Resi
lienc
y •
Dep
ress
ion
0 0 + 0 0
Add
ition
al a
naly
ses
show
ed n
o si
gnifi
cant
ef
fect
s in
8th
or
11th
gra
des
for
gend
er,
race
, or
SES
.
Did
par
ticip
atio
n in
7th
-gra
de s
choo
l clu
bs
impr
ove
acad
emic
out
com
es a
t 8th
gra
de?
78 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
• Se
lf-re
porte
d G
PA
• Sc
hool
val
ue
• Se
lf-es
teem
•
Resi
lienc
y •
Dep
ress
ion
+ + 0 + 0 D
id p
artic
ipat
ion
in 7
th-g
rade
sch
ool
club
s im
prov
e ac
adem
ic o
utco
mes
at
11th
gra
de?
• Se
lf-re
porte
d G
PA
• Sc
hool
val
ue
• Se
lf-es
teem
•
Resi
lienc
y •
Dep
ress
ion
+ 0 0 + 0 A
dditi
onal
ana
lyse
s sh
owed
a s
ignific
ant e
ffect
in
11t
h gr
ade
for
race
on
GPA
and
for
gend
er
on s
choo
l val
ue.
Fred
ricks
JA,
Eccl
es JS
70
Is ex
tracu
rricu
lar
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 1,0
75
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
anal
ysis
of d
ata
from
the
Mar
ylan
d A
dole
scen
t D
evel
opm
ent i
n C
onte
xt S
tudy
No
inte
rven
tion
Did
par
ticip
atio
n in
hig
h sc
hool
spo
rts
impr
ove
acad
emic
per
form
ance
out
com
es
at 1
1th
grad
e?
• Se
lf-re
port
ed G
PA
+ pa
rtici
patio
n D
escr
iptio
n:
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(M
AD
ICS)
•
Educ
atio
nal e
xpec
tatio
ns
+ as
soci
ated
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
(8
th g
rade
–pos
t •
Self-
este
em
+ w
ith b
enefi
cial
ac
tiviti
es a
nd
high
sch
ool)
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
• D
epre
ssio
n +
outc
omes?:
ac
adem
ic
Gen
der:
po
ints
: Com
bina
tion
met
hods
•
Inte
rnal
izin
g be
havi
or
+ C
oncu
rrent
and
lo
ngitu
dina
l re
latio
ns.
Dev
elop
men
tal
Psyc
holo
gy 2
006;
42
(4):6
98-7
13
achi
evem
ent
Setti
ng:
Hou
seho
ld
Coun
try:
USA
M: 4
9%
F: 5
1%
Ethn
icity
: Bl
ack:
67%
W
hite
: 33%
(par
ticip
atio
n in
clu
bs, s
ports
or
pros
ocia
l act
iviti
es)
3 tim
es (b
asel
ine,
3 y
ears
, an
d 5
year
s—8t
h gr
ade,
11t
h gr
ade,
and
1 y
ear
out o
f hig
h sc
hool
)
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (s
elf-r
epor
ted
grad
es)
2 ti
mes
(bas
elin
e an
d 3
year
s at
8th
gra
de a
nd 1
1th
grad
e)
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (d
epre
ssio
n an
d ps
ycho
logi
cal
heal
th, e
duca
tiona
l exp
ecta
tions
, al
coho
l and
dru
g us
e, c
ivic
en
gage
men
t) 3
(bas
elin
e, 3
yea
rs, a
nd 5
ye
ars
at 8
th g
rade
, 11t
h gr
ade,
an
d 1
year
out
of h
igh
scho
ol)
• Ex
tern
aliz
ing
beha
vior
+
Did
par
ticip
atio
n in
hig
h sc
hool
spo
rts
impr
ove
acad
emic
per
form
ance
out
com
es
1 ye
ar o
ut o
f hig
h sc
hool
(con
trolli
ng
for
dem
ogra
phic
s, m
otiv
atio
ns, a
nd
educ
atio
nal e
xpec
tatio
ns)?
•
Scho
ol c
ompl
etio
n •
Self-
este
em
• D
epre
ssio
n
+ 0 0 A
dditi
onal
ana
lyse
s sh
owed
no
sign
ifica
nt r
esul
ts
by g
ende
r, ra
ce, o
r in
com
e fo
r th
ese
outc
omes
.
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 79
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Har
rison
PA
, N
aray
an G
80
Diff
eren
ces
in b
ehav
ior,
psyc
holo
gica
l fa
ctor
s, a
nd
envi
ronm
enta
l fa
ctor
s as
soci
ated
w
ith p
artic
ipat
ion
in s
choo
l spo
rts
and
othe
r act
iviti
es
in a
dole
scen
ce.
Jour
nal o
f Sc
hool
Hea
lth
2003
;73(
3):1
13-
120
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Pa
rtici
patio
n in
sc
hool
spo
rts
team
s, h
ealth
be
havi
or,
psyc
holo
gica
l fa
ctor
s,
envi
ronm
enta
l fa
ctor
s, a
nd
extra
curr
icul
ar
activ
ities
Setti
ng: S
choo
l
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 50,
168
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(9
th g
rade
) G
ende
r:
M: 4
9.3%
F:
50.
7%
Ethn
icity
: A
mer
ican
In
dian
: 1%
A
sian
: 5%
Bl
ack:
3%
H
ispa
nic:
2%
W
hite
: 82%
U
nkno
wn:
3%
Bi
raci
al o
r m
ultir
acia
l: 4%
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
anal
ysis
of d
ata
from
th
e 9t
h-gr
ade
Min
neso
ta S
tude
nt
Surv
ey
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y [s
elf-r
epor
t of s
ubsta
nce
use,
an
tisoc
ial b
ehav
ior,
sexu
al
activ
ity, p
artic
ipat
ion
in s
choo
l sp
orts
team
s or
oth
er a
ctiv
ities
(e
.g.,
band
, cho
ir, v
olun
teer
w
ork,
clu
bs o
r or
gani
zatio
ns
outsi
de o
f sch
ool,
etc.
), ex
erci
se,
fruit/
vege
tabl
e co
nsum
ptio
n,
milk
con
sum
ptio
n, s
elf-e
steem
, em
otio
nal d
istre
ss, h
ealth
y w
eigh
t per
cept
ion,
sui
cida
l be
havi
or, f
amily
alc
ohol
/ pr
oble
ms,
vic
tim o
f phy
sica
l/
sexu
al a
buse
, orie
ntat
ion
to s
choo
l, 2-
pare
nt fa
mily
, pe
rcep
tions
of o
ther
s]
1 tim
e (2
001)
No
inte
rven
tion
Do
stud
ents
who
par
ticip
ate
in s
port
s on
ly o
r sp
orts
and
oth
er a
ctiv
ities
hav
e si
gnifi
cant
ly h
ighe
r od
ds o
f stu
dyin
g/
doin
g ho
mew
ork
and
atte
ndin
g cl
ass
than
st
uden
ts w
ho p
artic
ipat
e in
nei
ther
spo
rts
nor
activ
ities
? •
Doi
ng h
omew
ork
(spo
rts
only
)p
• D
oing
hom
ewor
k (s
port
s an
d ac
tiviti
es)
• Re
duce
d tr
uanc
y (s
port
s on
ly)
• Re
duce
d tr
uanc
y (s
port
s an
d ac
tiviti
es)
+ + + +
p Whe
n th
e sp
orts
-onl
y gr
oup
was
com
pare
d to
the
activ
ities
-onl
y gr
oup,
the
activ
ities
-onl
y gr
oup
was
sig
nific
antly
mor
e lik
ely
to s
pend
tim
e on
hom
ewor
k.
Do
stud
ents
who
par
ticip
ate
in s
port
s on
ly o
r sp
orts
and
oth
er a
ctiv
ities
hav
e si
gnifi
cant
ly h
ighe
r od
ds fo
r sc
hool
-rel
ated
ps
ycho
logi
cal a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal o
utco
mes
th
an s
tude
nts
who
par
ticip
ate
in n
eith
er
spor
ts n
or a
ctiv
ities
? •
Liki
ng s
choo
l (sp
orts
onl
y)q
• Li
king
sch
ool (
spor
ts a
nd a
ctiv
ities
) •
Usu
ally
feel
s go
od a
bout
sel
f (s
port
s on
ly)
• U
sual
ly fe
els
good
abo
ut s
elf
(spo
rts
and
activ
ities
) •
Belie
ve te
ache
rs c
are
a gr
eat d
eal
abou
t the
m (s
port
s on
ly)
• Be
lieve
teac
hers
car
e a
grea
t dea
l ab
out t
hem
(spo
rts
and
activ
ities
)
+ + + + + +
q Whe
n th
e sp
orts
-onl
y gr
oup
was
com
pare
d to
the
activ
ities
-onl
y gr
oup,
the
activ
ities
-onl
y gr
oup
was
sig
nific
antly
mor
e lik
ely
to r
epor
t lik
ing
scho
ol.
Do
stude
nts
who
par
ticip
ate
in s
ports
onl
y or
sp
orts
and
othe
r act
iviti
es h
ave
signific
antly
hi
gher
odd
s of
mee
ting
guid
elin
es fo
r m
oder
ate
or v
igor
ous
exer
cise
than
stu
dent
s w
ho p
artic
ipat
e in
nei
ther
spor
ts no
r ac
tiviti
es?
• Ex
erci
se g
uide
lines
(spo
rts o
nly)
•
Exer
cise
gui
delin
es (s
ports
and
ac
tiviti
es)
+ +
80 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Haw
kins
R, M
ulke
y LM
71
Ath
letic
inve
stmen
t an
d ac
adem
ic
resi
lienc
e in
a
natio
nal s
ampl
e of
A
frica
n A
mer
ican
fe
mal
es a
nd m
ales
in
the
mid
dle
grad
es.
Educ
atio
n an
d U
rban
Soc
iety
20
05;3
8(1)
:62-
88
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
A
thle
tic
inve
stm
ent
and
acad
emic
re
silie
nce
Setti
ng: S
choo
l
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
l N
: 1,0
52
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(8
th g
rade
)
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 2,2
17
Age
ran
ge:
13–1
6 M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(8
th g
rade
) G
ende
r:
M: 4
9.8%
F:
50.
2%
Ethn
icity
: NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
anal
ysis
of b
ase
year
dat
a fro
m th
e N
atio
nal
Educ
atio
nal L
ongi
tudi
nal S
tudy
of
198
8 (N
ELS8
8)
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y (s
tude
nt s
elf-r
epor
ted
leve
l of
parti
cipa
tion
in in
ters
chol
astic
an
d in
tram
ural
spo
rts; p
lans
to
enro
ll in
hig
h sc
hool
aca
dem
ic
or c
olle
ge p
repa
rato
ry tr
ack,
gr
adua
te h
igh
scho
ol, o
r at
tend
co
llege
; rep
ort o
f how
pop
ular
or
impo
rtant
they
are
vie
wed
to
be
amon
g sc
hool
mat
es,
stude
nt re
port
of b
ehav
ior
or a
cade
mic
refe
rral
s, s
elf-
repo
rted
abse
ntee
ism
, tar
dine
ss,
clas
s pr
epar
edne
ss, s
choo
l an
ticip
atio
n)
1 tim
e (F
ebru
ary
to Ju
ne,
1988
)
No
inte
rven
tion
Doe
s pa
rtic
ipat
ing
in in
ters
chol
astic
spo
rts
impr
ove
educ
atio
nal p
lans
, pee
r st
atus
, and
aca
dem
ic
inve
stm
ents
?
• A
cade
mic
abi
lity
(teac
her
ratin
g of
mal
es)
• A
cade
mic
abi
lity
(teac
her
ratin
g of
fem
ales
) •
Enro
ll in
aca
dem
ic tr
ack
(mal
es)
• En
roll
in a
cade
mic
trac
k (fe
mal
es)
• G
radu
ate
from
hig
h sc
hool
(mal
es)
• G
radu
ate
from
hig
h sc
hool
(fem
ales
) •
Atte
nd c
olle
ge (m
ales
) •
Atte
nd c
olle
ge (f
emal
es)
• So
cial
mis
cond
uct (
mal
es)
• So
cial
mis
cond
uct (
fem
ales
) •
Atte
ndan
ce p
robl
ems
(mal
es)
• A
ttend
ance
pro
blem
s (fe
mal
es)
• A
cade
mic
unp
repa
redn
ess
(mal
es)
• A
cade
mic
unp
repa
redn
ess
(fem
ales
) •
Inte
rest
in c
lass
es (m
ales
) •
Inte
rest
in c
lass
es (f
emal
es)
0 0 + 0 0 + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + +
Doe
s pa
rtic
ipat
ing
in in
tram
ural
spo
rts
impr
ove
educ
atio
nal p
lans
, pee
r st
atus
, and
aca
dem
ic
inve
stm
ents
?
• A
cade
mic
abi
lity
(teac
her
ratin
g of
mal
es)
+ Pa
per-p
enci
l sur
vey
• A
cade
mic
abi
lity
(teac
her
ratin
g of
fem
ales
) 0
(teac
her
ratin
gs o
f stu
dent
•
Enro
ll in
aca
dem
ic tr
ack
(mal
es)
+ pe
rform
ance
/abi
lity)
•
Enro
ll in
aca
dem
ic tr
ack
(fem
ales
) 0
1 tim
e (F
ebru
ary
to Ju
ne,
• G
radu
ate
from
hig
h sc
hool
(mal
es)
0 19
88)
• G
radu
ate
from
hig
h sc
hool
(fem
ales
) 0
• A
ttend
col
lege
(mal
es)
+ •
Atte
nd c
olle
ge (f
emal
es)
0 •
Soci
al m
isco
nduc
t (m
ales
) 0
• So
cial
mis
cond
uct (
fem
ales
) 0
• A
ttend
ance
pro
blem
s (m
ales
) 0
• A
ttend
ance
pro
blem
s (fe
mal
es)
0 •
Aca
dem
ic u
npre
pare
dnes
s (m
ales
) 0
• A
cade
mic
unp
repa
redn
ess
(fem
ales
) 0
• In
tere
st in
cla
sses
(mal
es)
+ •
Inte
rest
in c
lass
es (f
emal
es)
0
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 81
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
McN
eal,
RB77
Extra
curri
cula
r ac
tiviti
es a
nd h
igh
scho
l dro
pout
s
Soci
olog
y of
Ed
ucat
ion
1995
; 68
(1):6
2-81
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ac
tiviti
es a
nd
scho
ol d
ropo
ut
rate
s
Setti
ng: S
choo
l
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
ls N
: 735
G
rade
: Sec
onda
ry
(9th
–12t
h gr
ades
)
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 14,
249
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
15.
5 G
rade
: Sec
onda
ry
(9th
–12t
h gr
ade)
G
ende
r:
M: 4
8%
F: 5
2%
Ethn
icity
: Bl
ack:
9.4
%
His
pani
c: 9
.5%
O
ther
: 2.2
%
Whi
te: 7
8.9%
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
anal
ysis
of d
ata
from
th
e H
igh
Scho
ol a
nd B
eyon
d (H
SB) d
atas
et
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y an
d fa
ce-to
-face
inte
rvie
w
(sel
f-rep
orte
d gr
ades
; sch
ool
valu
e; p
artic
ipat
ion
in s
choo
l ac
tiviti
es s
uch
as c
lubs
, stu
dent
gov
ernm
ent,
athl
etic
or
spo
rts te
ams
at s
choo
l, an
d Su
mm
er o
r af
ter-s
choo
l re
crea
tiona
l pro
gram
s; s
elf-
este
em; p
sych
olog
ical
resi
lienc
y;
depr
essi
on; p
roso
cial
pee
rs;
risky
beh
avio
rs; r
ace;
and
ge
nder
) 2
times
(bas
elin
e in
198
0 an
d 2
year
follo
w-u
p in
198
2)
No
inte
rven
tion
Doe
s pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in a
thle
tics
decr
ease
hi
gh s
choo
l dro
pout
rat
es?
• Lo
wer
dro
pout
rat
es
+
Add
ition
al s
ubgr
oup
anal
yses
wer
e co
nduc
ted
with
out s
ignific
ance
test
ing;
it a
ppea
rs th
at
parti
cipa
tion
may
furth
er d
ecre
ase
drop
out
prob
abili
ty fo
r bl
acks
, an
d hi
gher
SES
stu
dent
s.
Add
ition
al a
naly
ses
show
ed th
at w
hen
stud
ents
pa
rtici
pate
in m
ore
than
one
act
ivity
, lit
tle is
ga
ined
; at
hlet
ic p
artic
ipat
ion
is th
e on
ly o
ne
that
rem
ains
sig
nific
ant.
Did
par
ticip
atio
n in
oth
er n
onsp
orts
ex
tracu
rric
ular
act
iviti
es d
ecre
ase
drop
out
rate
s ?
• Fi
ne a
rts
• A
cade
mic
clu
bs
• Vo
catio
nal c
lubs
0 0 0
Ana
lyse
s al
so c
ontro
lled
for
how
muc
h tim
e st
uden
ts s
pent
wor
king
dur
ing
the
scho
ol y
ear.
Reyn
olds
D,
Nic
olso
n RI
34
Follo
w-u
p of
an
exer
cise
-bas
ed
treat
men
t for
ch
ildre
n w
ith
read
ing
diffi
culti
es.
Dys
lexi
a 20
07;1
3(2)
:78-
96
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Ex
erci
se-b
ased
tre
atm
ent
for
child
ren
with
read
ing
diffi
culti
es
Setti
ng:
Hou
seho
ld
Coun
try:
Uni
ted
King
dom
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
l N
: 1
Gra
de: P
rimar
y
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 35
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
9
Gra
de: P
rimar
y (U
K ju
nior
sch
ool)
Gen
der:
M
: 54.
3%
F: 4
5.7%
Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
tand
ardi
zed
test
s (c
ogni
tive
and
mot
or s
kills
—
dysle
xia
scre
enin
g te
st)
4 tim
es (J
une
2000
, Jun
e 20
01, J
une
2002
, and
June
20
03)
Stan
dard
ized
test
s (s
choo
l-ad
min
iste
red
test
s)
3 tim
es (J
une
2001
, Jun
e 20
02, a
nd Ju
ne 2
003)
Stru
ctur
e: P
artic
ipan
ts w
ere
assi
gned
to
the
inte
rven
tion
or c
ompa
rison
gr
oup
mat
ched
on
the
basi
s of
age
, an
d dy
slexi
a ‘a
t-ris
k’ le
vels.
Stru
ctur
e: In
terv
entio
n: y
outh
pa
rtici
pate
d in
the
DD
AT (d
ysle
xia,
dy
spra
xia
and
atte
ntio
n-defic
it di
sord
er tr
eatm
ent)
exer
cise
-bas
ed
daily
trea
tmen
t at h
ome
for
6 m
onth
s.
Com
paris
on: y
outh
had
no
addi
tiona
l ac
tivity
.
Did
exp
osur
e to
the
exer
cise
pro
gram
im
prov
e yo
uth’
s pe
rfor
man
ce in
mot
or a
nd
verb
al s
kills
ove
r tim
e?
• Ra
pid
nam
ing
• Be
ad th
read
ing
• 1-
min
ute
read
ing
• Po
stur
al s
tabi
lity
• Ph
onem
ic s
egm
enta
tion
• 2-
min
ute
spel
ling
• Ba
ckw
ards
dig
it sp
an
• N
onse
nse
pass
age
read
ing
• 1-
min
ute
writ
ing
• Ve
rbal
flue
ncy
• Se
man
tic fl
uenc
y
+ + 0 + + 0 + 0 0 0 +
The
inte
rven
tion
grou
p m
ade
roug
hly
norm
al
prog
ress
per
yea
r po
sttre
atm
ent c
ompa
red
with
th
e pr
ojec
ted
mea
n pr
etre
atm
ent.
82 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Schu
mak
er JF
, Sm
all L
, Woo
d J72
Self-
conc
ept,
acad
emic
ac
hiev
emen
t, an
d at
hlet
ic
parti
cipa
tion.
Perc
eptu
al a
nd
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Effe
cts
of
athl
etic
par
ticip
atio
n on
sel
f-con
cept
an
d ac
adem
ic
achi
evem
ent i
n hi
gh
scho
ol s
ubje
cts
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 85
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(1
2th
grad
e)
Gen
der:
M
: 50.
6%
F: 4
9.4%
Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Qua
si-e
xper
imen
tal
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: A
dmin
istra
tive
reco
rds
(gra
des)
1
time
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (s
elf-c
once
pt
ques
tionn
aire
, par
ticip
atio
n fo
r at
le
ast 2
yea
rs in
a v
arsi
ty s
port)
No
inte
rven
tion
Doe
s at
hlet
ic p
artic
ipat
ion
impr
ove
scho
ol-
repo
rted
gra
des
and
stud
ent-r
epor
ted
self-
conc
ept?
• G
rade
s •
Self-
conc
ept
0 +
Doe
s at
hlet
ic p
artic
ipat
ion
impr
ove
scho
ol-
repo
rted
grad
es a
nd s
tude
nt-re
porte
d se
lf-co
ncep
t ?
• G
rade
s (m
ales
) 0
Mot
or S
kills
198
6;
1 tim
e •
Gra
des
(fem
ales
) 0
62(2
):387
-390
Se
tting
: Afte
r sc
hool
•
Self-
conc
ept (
mal
es)
+
Coun
try:
USA
•
Self-
conc
ept (
fem
ales
) 0
Spen
ce JC
, Poo
n P73
Resu
lts fr
om
the
Alb
erta
Sc
hool
s’ A
thle
tic
Ass
ocia
tion
Surv
ey.
Rese
arch
Upd
ate
(ser
ial o
nlin
e)
1997
, Sep
tem
ber;
5(1)
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Sur
vey
resu
lts o
n sp
orts
parti
cipa
tion
in
Alb
erta
sch
ools
Setti
ng: S
choo
l
Coun
try:
Alb
erta
, C
anad
a
Sam
ple
1: S
choo
l N
: 36
Gra
de: S
econ
dary
(h
igh
scho
ol)
Sam
ple
2: Y
outh
N
: 883
A
ge r
ange
: NR
Mea
n ag
e: 1
8 G
rade
: Sec
onda
ry
(hig
h sc
hool
) G
ende
r:
M: 5
0.3%
F:
49.
7%
Ethn
icity
: NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: P
aper
-pen
cil s
urve
y (s
elf-r
epor
t of s
choo
l gra
des,
sc
hool
-bas
ed s
ports
par
ticip
atio
n,
nons
choo
l spo
rts p
artic
ipat
ion,
ex
tracu
rric
ular
act
ivity
, sub
stan
ce
use,
and
crim
inal
offe
nses
) 1
time
No
inte
rven
tion
Doe
s pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in s
choo
l-bas
ed s
port
s im
prov
e st
uden
ts’ s
elf-r
epor
ted
acad
emic
ac
hiev
emen
t?
• Se
lf-re
port
ed g
rade
s +
Step
hens
LJ,
Scha
ben
LA74
The
effe
ct o
f in
ters
chol
astic
sp
orts
parti
cipa
tion
on a
cade
mic
ac
hiev
emen
t of
mid
dle
leve
l sch
ool
stude
nts.
NA
SSP
Bulle
tin 2
002;
86
(630
):34
-41
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n ac
adem
ic
achi
evem
ent a
nd
parti
cipa
tion
in
inte
rsch
olas
tic s
ports
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, cl
assr
oom
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 136
A
ge r
ange
: NR
Mea
n ag
e: N
R G
rade
: Sec
onda
ry
(8th
gra
de)
Gen
der:
M
: 50%
F:
50%
Et
hnic
ity: N
R
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
tand
ardi
zed
test
s (m
ath
porti
on o
f the
Cal
iforn
ia
Ach
ieve
men
t Tes
t—C
AT)
1 tim
e
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y (in
ters
chol
astic
sp
orts
par
ticip
atio
n)
1 tim
e
Adm
inis
trativ
e re
cord
s (m
ath
grad
e an
d cu
mul
ativ
e gr
ades
) 1
time
No
inte
rven
tion
Do
athl
etes
hav
e be
tter
acad
emic
ou
tcom
es th
an n
onat
hlet
es?
• M
ath
grad
es
• M
ath
CAT
scor
es
• O
vera
ll G
PA
+ + +
• G
PA (m
ale
athl
etes
com
pare
d w
ith
mal
e no
nath
lete
s)
• G
PA (f
emal
e at
hlet
es c
ompa
red
with
fem
ale
nona
thle
tes)
•
GPA
(fem
ale
athl
etes
com
pare
d w
ith m
ale
athl
etes
)
+ + +
The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 83
Stud
y Ci
tatio
n St
udy
Focu
s an
d Se
tting
Sa
mpl
e C
hara
cter
istic
s St
udy
Des
ign
and
Dat
a Co
llect
ion
Inte
rven
tion
Cond
ition
s Ke
y O
utco
mes
and
Res
ults
Yin
Z, M
oore
JB75
Re-e
xam
inin
g th
e ro
le o
f in
ters
chol
astic
sp
ort p
artic
ipat
ion
in e
duca
tion.
Psyc
holo
gica
l Re
ports
200
4;
94(3
Pt 2
):144
7-14
54
Stud
y fo
cus:
Ex
tracu
rric
ular
ph
ysic
al a
ctiv
ity
Des
crip
tion:
Re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n in
ters
chol
astic
sp
orts
and
drop
out r
ate,
co
gniti
ve s
core
, lo
cus
of c
ontro
l, an
d se
lf-co
ncep
t
Setti
ng: S
choo
l, sc
hool
wid
e
Coun
try:
USA
Sam
ple
1: Y
outh
N
: 1,8
83
Age
ran
ge: N
R M
ean
age:
NR
Gra
de: C
ross
leve
l (8
th–1
2th
grad
es)
Gen
der:
NR
Ethn
icity
: NR
Stud
y de
sign
: Des
crip
tive,
se
cond
ary
anal
ysis
of d
ata
from
the
base
yea
r an
d fo
llow
-up
s 1
and
2 of
the
Nat
iona
l Ed
ucat
iona
l Lon
gitu
dina
l Stu
dy
of 1
988
(NEL
S88)
Dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hod
and
time
poin
ts: S
tand
ardi
zed
test
s (c
ompo
site
sco
re o
f mat
h an
d re
adin
g sta
ndar
dize
d te
sts)
3
times
(bas
elin
e, 2
4 m
onth
s,
48 m
onth
s)
Pape
r-pen
cil s
urve
y—N
ELS
(inte
rsch
olas
tic s
port
parti
cipa
tion,
sel
f-con
cept
, loc
us
of c
ontro
l) 3
times
(bas
elin
e, 2
4 m
onth
s,
48 m
onth
s)
Adm
inis
trativ
e re
cord
s (s
choo
l re
cord
s of
dro
pout
s)
1 tim
e (4
8 m
onth
s–12
th g
rade
)
No
inte
rven
tion
Doe
s in
ters
chol
astic
spo
rt p
artic
ipat
ion
impa
ct s
tude
nt s
elf-
repo
rt o
f loc
us o
f co
ntro
l and
sel
f-co
ncep
t?
• 8t
h-gr
ade
locu
s of
con
trol
•
10th
-gra
de lo
cus
of c
ontr
ol
• 12
th-g
rade
locu
s of
con
trol
•
8th-
grad
e se
lf-co
ncep
t •
10th
-gra
de s
elf-
conc
ept
• 12
th-g
rade
sel
f-co
ncep
t
+ + 0 + + 0
Doe
s in
ters
chol
astic
spo
rt p
artic
ipat
ion
impr
ove
a co
mpo
site
sco
re o
f rea
ding
and
m
ath
stan
dard
ized
test
sco
res?
• 8t
h-gr
ade
com
posi
te te
st s
core
•
10th
-gra
de c
ompo
site
test
sco
re
• 12
th-g
rade
com
posi
te te
st s
core
- 0 0
Doe
s pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in in
ters
chol
astic
spo
rt
in 8
th g
rade
dec
reas
e st
uden
t dro
pout
ra
tes
repo
rted
by
scho
ol a
dmin
istr
atio
n?
• D
ropo
ut r
ate
(boy
s)
• D
ropo
ut r
ate
(girl
s)
+ +
Doe
s pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in in
ters
chol
astic
spo
rt
in 1
0th
grad
e de
crea
se s
tude
nt d
ropo
ut
rate
s re
port
ed b
y sc
hool
adm
inis
trat
ion?
• D
ropo
ut r
ate
(boy
s)
• D
ropo
ut r
ate
(girl
s)
+ +
84 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance