TheArtist’sCompleteGuideto

DRAWINGTHEHEAD

WILLIAML.MAUGHAN

WATSON-GUPTILLPUBLICATIONS/NEWYORK

Frontcovermodel:TweedConradANOTEFROMTHEAUTHOR:Alloftheheadsinthisbookweredrawnlife-size,betweenapproximatelysixandeightinches.

Copyright©2004byWilliamL.MaughanFirstpublishedin2004byWatsonGuptillPublications,

CrownPublishingGroup,adivisionofRandomHouseInc.,NewYork

www.crownpublishing.com

www.watsonguptill.com

Allrightsreserved.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataMaughan,WilliamL.,1946–

Theartist’scompleteguidetodrawingthehead/WilliamL.Maughan.

p.cm.

Includesindex.

eBookISBN:978-0-77043473-1

TradepaperbackISBN:978-0-8230-0359-4

ISBN-13:978-0-8230-0359-4

ISBN0-8230-0359-0(pbk.:alk.paper)

1.Headinart.2.Drawing—Technique.I.Title.

NC770.M382004

743.4’2—dc22

2003020387

SeniorEditor:JoyAquilino

Editor:HollyJennings

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v3.1

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Without valuable help from my wife, Susan Maughan, and her sister,MaryAnnWebster, inthepreparationofthisbook,itwouldnothavecometopass.IamgratefultoLorserFeitelson,thefatherofhard-edgeabstractionand post-surrealism, for teaching me to analyze and draw therepresentationalform.IwouldalsoliketothankRichardandElisaStephensand theAcademy ofArt College for givingme the opportunity to developthis material into the curriculum. I owe a special word of thanks to myeditor,Holly Jennings, for the countless hours of phone conversations, e-mails,andrewrites.

Thisbookisdedicatedtomychildren,Brittany,Meagan,Weston,Tyson,Matthew,Bradford,andBryant.

CONTENTS

CoverTitlePageCopyrightAcknowledgmentsDedication

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

THEDRAWINGMETHODANDMATERIALSCHIAROSCUROSfumato

THEMATERIALSSubstituteMaterials

WORKINGWITHTHEPENCILDrawingShadowShapesSharpeningthePencil

CHAPTERONE

PRINCIPLESOFCHIAROSCUROLINEVERSUSVALUE“Lost-and-Found”Line

VALUEANDFORMPaper+TwoPencils=AFull-ValueRange

THESHADOWSHAPESANDTHEIREDGESForm-ShadowsCast-ShadowsTheShadowEdges

THEFORMINLIGHT

ANALYZINGFORMNegativeShapes

CHAPTERTWO

PRINCIPLESOFDRAWINGTHEHEADTWOMASSESOFLIGHTANDSHADOW

LIGHTINGTHEHEADArtificialandNaturalLightLightAdvances;DarkRecedes

SINGLEFOCALPOINT

PERSPECTIVEANDTHETHREE-QUARTERVIEWPerspectivePlanesoftheHeadForeshortening

VALUEPATTERN

ADDRESSINGTHEBACKGROUND

CHAPTERTHREE

THEDRAWINGPROCESS,STEP-BY-STEPSCULPTINGTHEHEAD

GESTURETheTilt

PROPORTIONSPlacingtheFeatures

THEANATOMYOFTHEEYESTheOrbicularCavityTheNaturalSlantsoftheEyeTheEyelids,Pupil,andIrisPositionsoftheEyes

DRAWINGTHEEYESHighlightsontheEyesUsingthePaperValueExamplesofEyes

NOSEANDMOUTHTheStructureoftheNoseandMouthExamplesoftheNoseandMouth

EARSPlacementoftheEar

HAIR

TROUBLESHOOTINGEXAMPLE

CHAPTERFOUR

PUTTINGITALLTOGETHERTHEFIVEESSENTIALDRAWINGSTEPSReviewTheDemonstrations

GOINGFORWARDPracticeIdeasSelf-CritiqueTakingYourSkillstotheNextLevel

CHAPTERFIVE

DRAWINGFROMMULTIPLESOURCESCOMBININGREFERENCESADemonstration

EXAMPLESOFCOMPOSITEDRAWINGS

CHAPTERSIX

WORKINGWITHCOLORFROMDRAWINGTOPAINTING

THECOLOR“WHEEL”ComplementaryColors

COLORINTENSITYMixingfromtheTertiaryColors

COLORTEMPERATUREColorRelationshipsWarmAdvances;CoolRecedes

FAMILYOFCOLORSExpressiveColor

PASTELPAINTINGTheMaterialsCaringforYourPastelApplyingtheCharcoalPencilApplyingtheToneApplyingthePastelPaintingtheBackgroundPastelDemonstrationOnePastelDemonstrationTwo

ABOUTTHEAUTHORINDEX

PREFACEI have taught for thirty years, and during that time, I have been askedcontinuallywhatbooksIcanrecommendtoreinforcetheinstructionIgiveinthestudio.Unfortunately,sincemostbooksteachthereadertoconstructthehead linearly and to add a general tone to fill out the form, I couldn’trecommend a single one. The drawingmethod I teach is based on value,ratherthanline,andthecenturies-oldprinciplesofchiaroscuro.Thisbookwas borne in response to these repeated requests from countless anddedicated students. In your hands it will introduce and reinforce adistillation of the same lectures and demonstrations my students havereceivedoverthelastthreedecades.Withoutquestionchiaroscuroisthebestbasisfordrawingtheillusionof

threedimensionsonatwo-dimensionalsurface.Themethodisbasedonthestudyof lightas it fallsacross thestructureof form,producingbothform-andcast-shadows.Whenanexactrenderingofbothform-andcast-shadowsis achieved, the result is a convincing likeness and the illusion of three-dimensionality.Thekeytothisbookis,It’sallintheshadows.Iftheshadowsarecorrect

in size, shape, and placement, the likeness, sex, age, nationality, andexpressionwill be captured.The illusionwill be lifelike andappear three-dimensional.Infact,ifanexactlikenessisnotthegoal,youmustforceyourdrawingawayfromtheexactlikenessthatwillautomaticallyoccurwhenyouapply the principles I teach. Once you have gained confidence that bothform-and cast-shadow shapes describe structure, youwill be able to drawanythinganddrawitwell.Whenartistssaytheyaregoodatdrawingobjectsbut cannot draw people, they have not come to know this simple truth:Whetherdrawingafigure,landscape,stilllife,animal,orportrait,itisallthesame,justlightandshadow.InthisbookIwillwalkyouthroughtheprinciplesandfivedrawingsteps

—gesture, proportions, shadow shapes, edge control, and detail—that willenableyoutoachievealikenessofamodel.It’sbesttofollowthecontentsofthe book in the order given, since one principle builds upon another.However,thebeautyofhavingabookasateachingguideisthatyoucango

backandreviewwhatyouhave learnedatanytime.Unlikethestudents inmyclass,youdonothavetotakenotes.Justreadandlook;allthenotesarewrittendown.

THECHAPTERSInthe“Introduction”youwillbecomeacquaintedwiththedrawingmethod,includingitshistoricalroots,andthematerialsyouwillusetodrawahead.In the firstchapter,“PrinciplesofChiaroscuro,” thebasicprinciplesof thedrawingmethodaredescribedindepth,includingtherelationshipbetweenvalueand form, form-andcast-shadows,andshadowedges. In thesecondchapter, “Principles of Drawing the Head,” you will be taught how tosuccessfullypose,light,andforeshortenthehead,andhowtocreatealivelycompositionusingvaluepatternandnegativespace.The third chapter, “The Drawing Process, Step-by-Step,” focuses on

gesture, proportions, and, to a great extent, the features of the head.Anatomy isknowledge,and themoreknowledgeyouhaveof thestructureyou are drawing, the greaterwill be your ability to recognize the shadowscreated by that structure. However, knowledge alone is not enough. Myfamilyphysiciancannameeveryboneandmuscleinthebody,buthecan’tdrawwell.Thoughtheedgesofshadowswillbevisibleifyouobservethemclosely,yourobservationwillbeenhancedbyyourknowledgeofanatomy.Butultimately, if theshadowshapes,whichare theresultof lightonform,arecorrectinsize,shape,andplacement,theywilldescribetheanatomyforyouaccurately.The fourthchapter, called“Putting ItAllTogether,”putsall thatyou’ve

learned into practice. It’s about doing. You will find four demonstrationdrawings, suggestions on how to criticize your own work constructively,practiceideas,andthoughtsabouthowtotakeyourdrawingtothenextlevelofsubtlety.Thefifthchapter,“DrawingfromMultipleSources,”teachesyouhow to combine life, photo reference, and your imagination to create arealistic “likeness” of something that is both real and imagined. Theresulting composite drawings are not likenesses in the sense of traditionalportraiture,butratherarerealisticrenderingsofnonrealsubjects.The final chapter, “Working with Color,” introduces you to pastel

painting.Sincedrawinginvalueisacrucialdevelopmentalstepinlearningtopaint, thematerial in thischapter isanaturalprogressionfromlearningabout putting the principles of chiaroscuro into practice. Working withpastel, the samemediumyouwill haveused in the first five chapters, youwill make the transition from drawing the head in a four-value scale topaintingtheheadincolor.

GENERATIONSOFLEARNINGMyartschool teacherLorserFeitelson, thefatherofhard-edgeabstractionandpost-surrealism,exposedmetotheprinciplesofchiaroscuro.Althoughhe chose to be a nonfigurative artist, he could draw in a realist style likeRaphael and Caravaggio. He taught me to analyze form and describestructure in the same way that Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Caravaggio,Hals,Velázquez,andRembrandtdid—bydrawingshadowshapes.Hewasinhiseightieswhenhepassedonthisknowledgetome,andIhavepasseditontootherswhohavealsobecomesuccessful illustratorsandfineartists.ThemoreIdrew,themoreIsaw;themoreItaught,thebetterIbecame.Nothinggivesmegreaterpleasurethantoassistothersinattainingtheirpotentialbydevelopingthegiftinsidethem.In all the years of illustrating, I have never come across a book more

valuablethanCreativeIllustration(VikingPress,1947)byAndrewLoomis.Itisthebibleforillustration.Asoldasitis,theinformationisjustasrelevanttoday as when the book was written. In his book Loomis addresses valuepattern, lightonform,aswellasagreatdealmoreoncompositionandtheprocessof illustration.For the fineartist Ihighly recommendTheHumanFigure (Dover,1985)byJ.H.Vanderpoel, firstpublishedin1907.(Thoughboth books are now out of print, they are available in libraries or as usedcopies.) Vanderpoel was a great teacher in Chicago at the turn of the lastcentury,andyoungartistsfromalloverthecountryflockedtostudyunderhim. Vanderpoel’s writings reinforce the instruction given to me by myteacherLorserFietelson,withexamplesofhisstudents’workaswellashisown demonstrations. Beginning with Postimpressionism and laterModernism,atasteforflatnessemerged,causinginstructioninchiaroscuroto be neglected and its principles misunderstood or forgotten. Thanks toartist-instructors such as J.H.Vanderpoel in the early 1900s andAndrewLoomis in themid-1900s, this knowledge has been preserved and passedon.Thetextofthisbookreinforceswhattheytaught,theverysameconceptshanded down by the great masters of the Renaissance. Finally, I want tothank the numerous models who have posed for me over the years andwhoselikenessescanbefoundwithinthecoversofthisbook.

INTRODUCTION

THEDRAWINGMETHODANDMATERIALS

CHIAROSCUROWhendrawingaportrait,youarecreatinganillusion.Ifyouaresuccessful,theheadwillappearthree-dimensional,despitethefactthatitisdrawnonatwo-dimensional surface. The technique to create this illusion is calledchiaroscuro, an Italian term meaning “light (chiaro) and dark (oscuro)”.Once you have mastered it you will be able to draw or paint anythingrealistically.Chiaroscuro is not an invented formula, but rather the result of the

observationoflightandshadowonform.Whenilluminatedproperly,formdividesintotwomajormassesofvalue,thatis,oflightanddark,orshadow.Duplicatingtheexactshapesofbothlightandshadow,andpayingparticularattention to the edges between the two, is fundamental to capturing alikeness.ItwasLeonardodaVinci(1452–1519)who,inthelate1400s,firstrealized

that duplicating the shape of shadows was fundamental to creating theillusionofthree-dimensionalformandamodel’slikeness.IntheMonaLisa(1503–5), Leonardo’s mastery and refinement of the principles ofchiaroscuro are fully evident. In this masterpiece Leonardo has clearlydescribed the overall structure of his model’s head, and the mass andspecific likeness of each feature, by rendering the shadow shapes in valuewithoutdetailoroutlines.Leonardo’sbreakthroughuseofvalueandshadowshapes ushered in a new epoch and approach to rendering that has beenpracticedbycountlessartiststhroughthecenturies:Michelangelo,Raphael,Titian, Rembrandt van Rijn, Vermeer, John Singer Sargent, and ThomasEakins,amongothers.InhisstudiesLeonardoidentifiedtwodistinctivelydifferentshadows.The

first, a form-shadow, is caused by form turning away from the source oflight.Asoft,gradatededgeiscreatedbetweenthelitportionoftheformandtheportionoftheformthatisinshadow—thatis,theroundpartoftheformthathasturnedawayfromthelight.Thesecond,acast-shadow,iscausedbyform intercepting the light and casting its shadow on an adjacent surface.This produces a hard edge between light and the cast-shadow. Thus thedivisionbetweenthetwocontrastingvaluesoflightanddarkwill,dependingontheshadowcreated,eitherbeasofttransitionorahard,abruptone.Leonardo must have observed that all shadows begin as form-shadows

andendascast-shadows—that is,eachshadowshapebeginssoftandendshard in relationship to the sourceof light.Fromexperience artists learnedthatthemoretheyemphasizedthedifferenceinappearancebetweenthetwotypesof shadows, themore effective their illusion; the closer in similarity,the less effective. Once you as the artist have convinced the viewer that asoft-edgedshadowdescribesformturningawayfromthesourceoflightandthat a hard-edged shadow describes the protrusion of form that hasinterceptedthelight,youhaveestablishedavisualdialoguewiththeviewer.Themoreconsistentyouareinemphasizingthedifferencebetweenaform-and cast-shadow edge, the clearer the dialogue. If the difference appearsvagueorinconsistent,theviewerwillbeconfused.

©GIANNIDAGLIORTI/CORBIS

TheMonaLisaisamasterfulrefinementoftheprinciplesofchiaroscuro.Thepaintingisreproducedin

amonochromatictonetodramatizeLeonardo’suseoflightandshadowmassestorenderform.

SFUMATOLeonardo used a technique called sfumato (meaning “smoke”) to furthersoftenedgesofacontour.Paintingsaresometimesdescribedbywritersandcritics ashavinga smokyquality.Thedarkandhazyeffect theyobserve ismost likely the result of a dark, transparent glaze that often diminishesstrongvaluecontrast.Aglaze,however,isnotsfumato.Thetermdescribesaquality,ortreatment,ofaform’scontour.Basedontheprinciplethatoureyescannotfocusonmorethanonedepth

of field at the same time, everything beyond the focal point will be lessdefinedandblurry.Thereforecontoursofallroundedformswilldisappearlike smoke (sfumato), since smoke has no discernable edge. Artists whostrugglewith contours that always seem too hard or tight, like an outline,haveprobablyneverbeenexposedtosfumato,anold-mastertechniquethatisstillextremelyuseful today.Asastudent,Iwastaughttodrawandpainthair like smokewith the assurance thatmy renderingwould bemore likehairthanactualhair.Andmyprofessorswereright.

Everythingbeyondtheeyes,thefocalpointinaportrait,willbelessdefinedandblurry.

THEMATERIALSI use pastel pencils for chiaroscuro drawing because they have a softconsistency,producerich,brightcolor,andgivemeagreatdealofcontrol.IrecommendtheCarbOthellopencilsmanufacturedbyStabilobecause theyhaveanarrowshaft,andIprefertheCarbOthellocolornumber645formydarkvalue.However,anypastelpencilwilldo.Justrememberthatthedarkvalue must be as dark as the white is light, so the paper will be exactlyhalfway between them. Though the official CarbOthello color for number645is“CaputMartuumRed,”itisessentiallyasanguinecolor.ForsimplicityIrefertoitassanguine,ornumber645,throughoutthisbook.The paper I use and recommend is Strathmore’s “Charcoal” paper in

“VelvetGray.” It comes in twenty-five-sheetpacks and is available in onesizeonly(nineteenbytwenty-fiveinches).Ioftencutasheetinhalftouseitfortwodrawingssince,whendrawnlife-size,theaverageheadisaboutsixbyeightinches.Iusethesmooth,backsideofthepapersincethetexturedsideproducesacheckerboardlookthattendstooverpoweranysubtletyinadrawing.Strathmore’s “VelvetGray”paper is actuallya tancolor thatblendswell

withthedarkerofthetwopencilsyouwilluse,number645.Thepapercoloris a perfect middle value between white, your light-value pencil, andsanguine,yourdark-valuepencil.Ifyouweretouseapaperthatistoolightinvalue,yourapplicationofhighlightswouldnotbenoticed.Ifthepaperistoodark,thewhiteappearstoolight.TheX-Acto®knifeandsandpadareusedtosharpenandsandthepoint

ofthepastelpencil.Thekneadederaserisusedtoblotawayexcessvalueinshadowshapes.Idonotrecommendsprayingyourfinishedpasteldrawingswith fixative since it tends to darken pastel pigment. For dislay, a pasteldrawing should be framed behind glass, though be careful the paper doesnot touch the surface of the glass. For storage, pastel drawings can bestackedoneontopoftheother;iftheydonotslidebackandforththeywillnotsmear.

X-Acto®knife,pencils,sandpad,andkneadederaserphotographedonStrathmore’s“VelvetGray”

paper

SUBSTITUTEMATERIALSForthedarkvalue,youcanuseanextrasoftcharcoalpencil,suchasa6-B,in place of the pastel pencil. I do not recommend white charcoal pencilssince they aremuchharder and therefore not as bright. Charcoal ismuchdarkerthanCarbOthello’snumber645,sothepaperyouusemustalsobeofadarkervalue.Thepapervaluethatishalfwaybetweenblackcharcoalandwhiteisacolorcalled“PotteryGreen,”alsomanufacturedbyStrathmore.Ido not recommend using markers or other liquid media since it is moredifficulttoproducesoftedgeswiththem.

WhatYouWillNeed

CarbOthellopastelpencilin“CaputMartuumRed”(Number645)

CarbOthellopastelpencilin“TitaniumWhite”(Number100)

“Charcoal”paperin“VelvetGray”

X-Acto®knife

Sandpad

Kneadederaser

WORKINGWITHTHEPENCILTo hold the pencil correctly, position it between the thumb and the firstthreefingersbelowthepalmofyourhand.Keepyourwristlockedanduseyour elbow and shoulder to move the pencil, rather than your wrist andfingers.Sinceyouwillbedrawingwiththesideratherthanthepointedtipofthepencil,youwillproduceasoftstroke,whichisdesirable.Accentuatethesubtletyofyourstrokebyapplyingyourpencilwithasoftpressure,asifyouare caressing thedrawing surface.Thekey is tonot go toodark too soon!This will facilitate editing, allowing you to refine shadow shapes during alongerperiodoftimewithoutoverrendering.Blending sanguine or white pencil with your finger is acceptable when

blending intopaper value, though it is important that thepaper appear ashalftone value between the light and shadow. If you blend the white andsanguinetogether,notonlywillyoudestroythemiddlevalueofthepaper,butyouwillcreateahorriblepinkcolorinitsplace.

Holdthepencilbetweenthethumbandthefirstthreefingers,anddrawwiththesideofthepencil

ratherthanthetip.

Useyourfingertoblendthesanguineorwhitepencilintothepapervalue.

OnthePencilHoldthepencilasyouwouldapaintbrush,asthoughyouwerepaintingwithdrypigment.If

youholdthepencilasifyouwerewritingyourname,thisanglewillproduceahardline,which

isundesirable.

DRAWINGSHADOWSHAPESWith the side of your pencil, not the point, apply value to the paper in acircular,up-and-down,aswellasside-to-side,motion.Begininthecenterof the shadow shape, and without lifting your pencil from the paper, addmoreandmorevalueuntil thegraphicshapeoftheshadowappears.If theplacementoftheshadowshapeappearstoolow,simplyaddvaluetothetopof the shadow shape to correct the location. Blot away any excess at thebottom of the shapewith a kneaded eraser. Since the resulting shapewillhave soft edges, all form-shadowedgesoccurautomatically. If the shadowshape is a cast-shadow, its edge should be hardened, or crisped, with thepointofthepencil.

APPLYINGSFUMATO.Bydrawingwiththesideofyourpencil,ratherthanthetip,youwillautomicallycreateasoftedge.However,youmaywishtosoftenthe edges, especially contours, even further to create a smokelike effect,known as sfumato. To create a smokelike contour, applymultiple strokes,rather thanasingle line.Asyouwork,yourhandmay inadvertentlysmearthe drawing and soften the edges even further. If more softening isnecessary, smear the edge with your finger; just be careful not to smearsanguineintowhitepigment.Drawingwithamuchsofterpressurewillalsomaketheedgeslessdefined.

SHARPENINGTHEPENCILIf right-handed,hold thepencil inyour lefthandand theX-Actoknife inyourright.Placethethumbofyourlefthandontopofthethumbnailofyourrighthand.Whileholding theX-Acto knife stationary in your right hand,press against your right thumbwith your left thumb for resistance as youbringthepenciltowardyourbodywiththefingersofyourlefthand.Asyoubring the pencil back, lift the pencil up to the blade. Thiswill control thedepthofeachcut.Roll thepencilwithyourfingersasyoubringthepencilforward for each new cut. Avoid nicking the pastel pencil, since this willcause the tip tobreakoff.Gradually cutdeeperanddeeperuntil youhaveexposedthree-quartersofaninchofpastel.Then,usingthesandpad,sandtoapointbyrollingthepencilwhilesandingfromsidetoside.

Ifyouareright-handed,holdthepencilinyourlefthand.

WiththeX-Actoknifeinyourrighthand,placethethumbofyourlefthandontopofthethumbnailof

yourrighthand.

HoldingtheX-Actoknifestationaryinyourrighthand,bringthepenciltowardyourbodywiththe

fingersofyourlefthand.Rollthepencilwithyourfingers,slowlycuttingdeeperanddeeperuntilyou

haveexposedthree-quartersofaninchofpastel.

Sandtoapointbyrollingthepencilwhilesandingfromsidetoside.

Aproperlysharpenedpencil

CHAPTERONE

PRINCIPLESOFCHIAROSCURO

LINEVERSUSVALUELineisanartistic invention.Itdoesnotexist innature.Yetaschildren,webegin to draw by using lines and outlines to create stick figures and basicshapes.Mostlikelyyouwerepraisedatanearlyageforyourabilitytoneatlyfill in between the lines in coloring books. Even later, in high school orcollege, many of you may have been encouraged to develop your skillsthrough contour and cross-contour drawings. And shading becomes asuperficial attempt to lose the unwanted line. Chiaroscuro, the drawingmethod I will teach you to use in this book, provides an alternative, andmore convincing, way to give the illusion of three dimensions on a two-dimensionalsurface.Onceyou’vebecomeproficientwiththetechniqueandgrasped its principles, you will clearly see the foolishness of teachingstudents to describe nature through line and then have them struggleunsuccessfullytolosethelinethatshouldneverhavebeenthereinthefirstplace.

Structurewasdefinedwithshadowshapes,notline.

In reality the illusion of a line is a common edge shared by the twocontrastingvaluesoflightanddark.Contouristheoutsideedgeofform.Itisnot and should never be treated as a line. An outline is a solid line thatfollowsthecontourofaform.Andthoughoutlineisusefultodefineaform’scontour, it canneverdescribe its three-dimensional structure.That iswhycertaincartoondrawings, those thatmakeheavyuseofoutline,appear flatonthepage.Toduplicaterealitytheartistmustdescribeformthroughvaluerelationships.

Structurewasdefinedincorrectly,withline.

Thisdrawingisanexampleofwhatnottodo.1.Anoutlinewasusedtoseparatetwoformsthat

shouldhavebeenseparatedbyvalue.2.Whitewasappliedtothefaredgeoftheform,whichflattened

it.3.Theform-shadowedgeswererenderedhard,whichmakesroundedformsappearsquare.The

transitionbetweenlightandform-shadowsshouldhavebeenindicatedasasoft,blendededge.4.

Finally,cast-shadowsareeitherabsent,vague,orsoft-edged.Theyshouldhavebeenconsistently

definedwithahardedge.

“LOST-AND-FOUND”LINEThoughlineisessentiallynonexistentinchiaroscurodrawings,thereisoneexception. A graceful and sensitive “lost-and-found” line can be usedsparingly as a decorative element. It should not be used as an outline toseparatetwoforms,butasawaytocreatevarietyinthecontour.Theamountof pressure you apply to the stroke controls the range and grace of yourlines.Tryapplyingaverysensitiveandlightpressurewherethecontourofform is illuminated and bold pressure along the contour where it is inshadow. I refer to this as lost-and-found line. It disappears, or becomes“lost,” in the light areas and then bold, or “found,” in the shadows. Thespeedatwhichtheeyetravelsaroundthecontourofaformisregulatedandvariedbytheweightofaline;theeyetravelsslowlywhenisitlost,fastwhenit is found. Note that even lost-and-found lines, if used at all, should beadded last, after you’re confident that yourmodel’s features are correctlyplacedandarerenderedinperspective.

Variationinlinecreatesinterestwhereasacontinuous,equallyweightedlinedeadenstheeffectof

subtlerendering.

VALUEANDFORMDrawing,andpaintingforthatmatter,istheprocessofestablishingvalue,ortonal, relationships—everything is either lighter or darker than somethingelse.Value,whichissometimesalsoreferredtoastone,existsonascaleofnine tonal ranges from the lightest to darkest, with gradations of valuebetween them. Value number five is referred to as the middle value, orhalftone.Ifanartistattemptstorenderallninevaluesforeachoftheobjectswithinacomposition,thevaluepatternandcompositionwillfail.Therangeofvalues thatanartistuses todescribe formdependsonthe localvalueoftheobjectswithinacomposition—meaningthateachobjectwillhaveitsownvaluerangerelativetoothers.Commonlyfivevaluesareusedtorenderlocalvalueinlightandshadow:

two inhighlight, two in shadow,andahalftone in themiddle.Themiddlevalue for a light object is value number three on the value scale, for amiddle-valueobjectitisvaluenumberfive,andforadarkobjectitisvaluenumber seven. Note that the darkest shadow value of the light object,numberfive,isthesamevalueasthehighlightofthedarkobject.

Typicallyfivevaluesareusedtorenderlocalvalueinthetwomassesoflightandshadow:twoin

highlight,twoinshadow,andahalftoneinthemiddle.Wewillusefourvalues—twointhelightmass

andtwointheshadowmass.

The“VelvetGray”paperIrecommendisnotthehalftone(valuenumberfive) on the value scale. It is actually lighter in value. It is, however, the

halftone between your white and sanguine pencils.Wewill be using fourvalues, not five, to describe local value: two in the light (highlight andhalftone,orthepapervalue)andtwointheshadow(reflectedlightandthedarkervalueofboththecast-shadowandtheform-shadowcore).

Four-valuescale

PAPER+TWOPENCILS=AFULL-VALUERANGEUsing the “Velvet Gray” paper and the white and sanguine pencils is themostefficientwaytoachieveafullrangeofvalues.Sincethepaperservesasthemiddlevalue, thepaperautomaticallydoesagreatdealof theworkforyou. Using only the paper surface with the white and sanguine pencils,whichrepresentoppositeendsofthevaluescale,youwillbeabletorenderafullandrichrangeofvalues.

Intherectangularpieceofpaper,thetopsquareofwhiteshadinggraduallyblendsintothepaper

valuetowardthecenter.Thesanguinesquareatthebottomgraduallyblendsintothepapertoward

thecenter.Thevalueofthepaperinbetweenthetwoisthehalftone,ormiddle,valueofthedrawing.

Thepapervalueinthecenterofthetopsquareistrapped,orenclosed,bythewhitevalue,makingit

appeardarkerthanthemiddlevaluebetweenthetopandbottomsquares.Theoppositeistrueofthe

papervalueinthecenterofthebottomsquare,whichistrappedbysanguine.

OnValueYourwhitepencilshouldalwaysbereservedforhighlights;thetoneofthepapershouldbe

usedforthemiddlevaluesinyourdrawing.

If themiddlevalueof thepaper is trapped,orenclosed,byahardwhiteedge,thepaperwillappeardarkerthanthemiddlevalue.Thiswillallowyoutodarken a formon the light sideof theheadwithoutusing the sanguinepencil,whichdescribesshadowvalue.Ifthepapervalueistrappedbyaharddarkedge, thepaperappears lighter than themiddlevalue.Thiswillallowyou toadvanceahalftoneon the light sideof the formwithoutusingyourwhitepencil,whichshouldbereservedfordescribinghighlights.

Ifthepapervalueistrappedbyawhite,hardedge,thepaperwillappeardarkerthanthemiddlevalue.

Thiseffectallowsyoutodarkenaformonthelightsideofamodel—suchasthelowerlidofthe

model’seye—withoutusingthesanguinepencilthatisusedtodescribeshadowvalue.Ifthepaper

valueistrappedbythesanguinepencil—suchasthemodel’slips—itappearslighterthanthemiddle

value.

THESHADOWSHAPESANDTHEIREDGESIt is not the contour of forms that the artist must observe and draw withaccurate precision, rather it is the shape of the shadows that fall across aform,sinceitistheythatdescribethestructureofform.Startingwithvalueonly,yourgoalistoattainalikenessofyourmodel.Detailisaddedonlyafteralikeness isachieved.Thestructureofform-createsashadowbasedonitsposition to the source of light. Therefore if you recreate the exact shadowshapeusingvalue,youhavedescribedthestructure,orfeatureinthecaseofthe human head, that created the form-or cast-shadow. Also, if you havecorrectlyrenderedtheshadow,itwilldescribethelocationanddirectionofthe sourceof light,which ismost oftenoutside thepictureplane.Shadowshapesarenotshadingortoneappliedinageneralway!Since the key to duplicating reality is to draw the exact shape of the

shadows, both form and cast, with careful attention to their edges, it iscentral to your success that you learn to identify the shadow shapes andunderstandtheprinciplesthataffect them.Thegoodnewsis thattherearecertainconstantsthat,iffollowed,willmakeyourworkeasier.Thefirsttruthtokeep inmind is thatyourrenderingofashadow’sshape,size,andedgemustbeprecise.Avagueorgeneralshadowshapewillnotconveylikeness.Second, cast-shadows are always hard and form-shadows are always soft.Third,allshadowsbeginasform-shadowsandendascast-shadows,fallingaway from the light source.Youwill begin to recognize these constants asyoustudylightandshadowonform.

FORM-SHADOWSWhen the form curves away from the source of light, the light graduallygiveswaytoshadow.Asoftgradationoccursas the lightontheformgivesway to shadow. It is therefore called a form-shadow.This type of shadowbeginsatanobliqueangletothelightandhasasoftedge.Aform-shadowisalmostalwayscomprisedoftwoparts:reflectedlightandtheshadowcore.The portion of the form-shadow that contains reflected light is

illuminated either by ambient light or light that has bounced off anotherform.Reflected light isnever as strongas theoriginal sourceof light.Theareabetweentheweakerlightoftheshadowandthestrongeroriginalsourceof light compresses the form-shadow intoacore,which iswithout lightofanykind.Itisthedarkestpartoftheform-shadow.Thecoreblendstowardboththeoriginallightsourceandthereflectedlight.The amount of reflected light a form-shadow contains is guided by two

factors: the strength of the primary light source and the distance of thereflectingform,orsurface,fromtheform-shadow.Thegreaterthedistancebetweentheform-shadowandthereflectingform,theweakerthereflectedlight. If the distance between them is too far, the form-shadow may notreceiveanyreflectedlightatall.Also,thebrightertheprimarylightsource,thegreaterwillbetheamountofreflectedlightthatisgenerated;theweakerthelightsource,theweakerthereflectedlight.However,rememberthatnomatterhowbrightthereflectedlightis,itwillneverbeaslightinvalueasthehalftonevalue,whichisalwaysreservedforthelightsideoftheform.

CAST-SHADOWSWhen a form is illuminated, it intercepts the light and prevents it fromstriking adjacent forms. However, the contour of the form that hasinterceptedthelightwillcastitsshadowonanadjacentform,orforms.Thusacast-shadowsimultaneouslydescribesthecontouroftheilluminatedform,thedistance the first form is to the second, and the contourof the secondform.Like the coreof the form-shadow, a cast-shadow iswithout light ofanykind.The form-shadowcore and cast-shadoware thusboth renderedwiththedarkestvalueinthefour-valuescale.When a cast-shadow merges with the core of a form-shadow, the two

shadows become one. Though this may seem confusing at first, you willlearnovertimetotrusttheshadowshapetocommunicateconvincingly.Youwillnotlosethestructurebydrawingacast-shadowoveradjacentforms.Ashadow is the result of the structure of form in relationship to the lightsource.Therefore the drawing of the precise shadow shapewill reveal thestructure,notcloakitinobscurity.The following scenario describes how a cast-shadow and the core of a

form-shadowmightmerge.If thefrontplaneof theheadwere illuminatedandthesideplaneoftheheadwereinshadow,thefrontplaneofthecheekwouldbeilluminatedandthesideplanewouldgivewaytoaform-shadow,creatingasoftedgebetweenthetwoplanes.Ifthehard-edgedcast-shadowfrom the nose did not end before it came into contact with the cheek, itwouldmergeintotheform-shadow.Asthecoreoftheform-shadowandthecast-shadowarethesamevalue,theywouldbecomeoneshadow.Thecast-shadowfromthetipofthenosewouldnotbevisiblebeyondthecoreoftheform-shadow,sinceitdisappearsintoit.

Thesphereistheperfect,simpleshapefordemonstratingtheanatomyoflightandshadows.Onthe

spheretheshadowbeganasasoftform-shadowtowardthesourceoflightandendedonanadjacent

surfaceasahardcast-shadowawayfromthelightsource.Thispairingoftworoundshapes—aball

andaneye—demonstrateshowthesameprinciplesregardingform-andcast-shadowsapplytoboth,

regardlessofsubjectmatter.

THESHADOWEDGESThekeytodrawingshadowshapesisedgecontrol,thatis,knowingwhenashadow’s edge is hard or soft. Remember that all shadows begin as form-shadows,whichhavesoftedges,andendascast-shadows,whichhavehardedges.Beforeplacinghighlightsonthelightsideofyourmodel,youshouldalwaysbesatisfiedthatyourshadowedgesareaccuratelydefined.Onceyoufeel satisfiedyouhaveachieveda likeness,crisporharden theedgesofallcast-shadows.Thiswilldefinethestructure.

Linesindicatethesoftedgesofform-shadowsandthehardedgesofcast-shadows.

OnShadowEdgesSomecast-shadowsmayappearsoftbecauseofatmosphericlight,andsomeform-shadows

mayappearhardifthecurveofaformisabrupt.However,cast-shadowsarealwayshardand

form-shadowsarealwayssoft.

form-shadowsarealwayssoft.

Thetopdrawingofanoseandmouthislitfromaboveandtheleft.Thebottomdrawingislitfrom

aboveandtheright.Notewheretheedgesofeachshadowaresoft(form)orhard(cast).

THEFORMINLIGHTA combination of both halftone and highlight creates variation on theilluminatedsideoftheform.Halftoneontheportionoftheheadthatisnotinshadow(thelightside)iscreatedautomaticallybythevalueofthetonedpaper.Highlightsarecreatedwithyourwhitepencilandappearonlyinthelightest areas on themodel.When lit from above, the lightest area is themodel’sforehead,becomingsomewhatlessintensetowardthechin.Justastherearetwotreatmentsofshadowedges,thatistosay,bothhard

andsoft,therearetwotreatmentsofhighlights.If,forexample,ahighlightmeets a cast-shadow edge, it will begin as a hard edge. It will becomeprogressivelysofterasitfadesanddisappearsintothehalftoneofthepapersurface, which will give way to the soft edge of a form-shadow. Whenhighlightssharethecommonedgeofacast-shadow,theyshouldalwaysbeclearly distinguished from halftone. Doing so will help emphasize thedifference between form-and cast-shadows, and give your drawing visualclarity.

Thetransitionbetweenahighlightandaform-shadowisasubtlegradationfromlighttoshadow.

OnReflectedLightSincereflectedlightispartoftheshadowmass,itcanneverbeaslightastheoriginallight

source.Itisthereforeindicatedbyalightapplicationofthesanguinepencil.Thepapervalue,

ontheotherhand,isreservedforthehalftoneonthelightsideofyourmodel—thesidethatis

facingthelightsource.Justrememberthatnoareaontheshadowsidecanbeaslightasthe

papervalue.

ANALYZINGFORMIt is important tocultivate thehabitofanalyzing form—that is,notonly tosee form but also to study the individual elements of a shadow as it fallsacross a form. These individual elements make up what we will call the“anatomy of a shadow.” Once artists have understood the principles ofchiaroscuro, themajordifference in thequalityandaccuracy in theirworkreflects how closely they look and how much care they have taken toaccuratelyrecordwhattheysee.Manyartistsattempttocapturetheirsubjectinlineandthen,withouttrulystudyingform,addvalueinageneralway.Yetifyoutakethetimetolookcloselyatyoursubject,toanalyzetheshapesofshadows and their edges, and to record them in terms of value, you willachieveaconvincing likeness.Youwill come to intuitivelyunderstand thismost basic point: It’s all there—the sitter’s sex, age, facial structure, andexpression—intheshapeoftheshadowsandtheiredges.

Thefirstthreedrawingsarequickheadstudies.Imadethemdeliberatelysmall—twoinchesinheight

—todiminishdetailandconcentrateonshadowshapes.Thesequickstudieshelpedtowarmupmy

handandeyecoordination.Forthefourthandlargerdrawingthemodelisposedinathree-quarter

view,andIdrewhimatadistanceoffivefeet.Themodelispositionedabovemyeyelevelandislit

fromabove,causingthefrontandsideplanestobeequalinsize.

Shadow is the result of the absence of light, which is caused by theroundnessofformortheinterceptionoflight.Asformturnsawayfromthesourceoflight,agradualtransitionfromlighttoshadowoccurs.Atthepointwhere the light has been intercepted, and becomes a cast-shadow, thetransitioniscomplete.Theshadoweventuallyendsonanadjacentformasa

hard-edgedsilhouetteofthefirstform.Thusallshadowsbeginasformandendascast,andeachshadowprogressesfromsofttohard.Shouldacast-shadowcontinueintoaform-shadowonanadjacentform,

the cast-shadow merges into the core of the form-shadow and the twobecomeone.Inotherwords,ashadowcannotfallacrossanothershadow,forwithoutlighttherecanbenoshadow.The next several drawings were made with the same model and light

source. However, in each drawing the model’s pose and my position inrelationtothemodelchange.SometimesI’vedrawnthemodelfromabove,sometimesfrombelow,andsometimescloserorfartheraway.Notehowtheshadows differ in each drawing as the model’s pose and my viewpointchangedyetineachcasedescribethestructureofthesameforms.

Inthisdrawingthemodelisposedinanear-profile,three-quarterviewtomyright.Theheadis

positionedataninwardtiltandisbacklit,makingitdifficulttocenterthelight.Idrewthemodelata

distanceoftenfeet.

Inthisdrawingthemodelisposedinanear-profile,three-quarterviewtomyleft,andispositioned

belowmyeyelevel.Themodelseemsremote,anddoesnotrelatetotheviewer.

Themodelisnowposedinaslightthree-quarterviewtomyleft,withhisheadsubtlytiltedtomy

right.ThistimeIdrewhimfromafartherdistanceoffifteenfeet,whichcausedthedrawingtobetoo

small(aboutthreeincheshigh).

Inthefinaldrawingallthevariables—poseandattitudeofthemodel,lighting,andmydistancefrom

him—areideal.Themodelisposedinaslightthree-quarterviewandhasananimatedtilttomyright.

Thelightsourceispositionedabove,tomyleft,andtowardthefrontofthehead,allowingforthe

fullestillusionofthree-dimensionality.Ipositionedmyselffivefeetfromthemodel,whoislookingin

thegeneraldirectionoftheviewer.

NEGATIVESHAPESBynowyou’velearnedthatshadowshapes—the“positive”shapes—mustbecorrectinsizeandshapeforalikenesstooccur.Theportionoftheheadthatis illuminated createsnegative shapes between the shadow shapes. Alongwith the shadow shapes, they too must be correct in size and shape. Forexample, if the negative shape between the shadow of the eye and theshadow of the nose is too far apart, the nose will appear too long. Thusnegative shapes are useful guides to judging if your shadow shapes arecorrectinsizeandshape,andiftheyarecorrectlyplaced.Inthisregardtheyareasimportantasshadowshapes.Thinkofnegativeshapesaspuzzlepiecesthatmustfitbetweentheshadowshapesiftheconfiguration(andhencethelikenessofyourmodel)istobecorrect.

Negativeshapescanbeusedaspuzzlepiecestodeterminecorrectplacementofshadowshapes.This

diagramidentifiessomenegativeandpositiveshapesonthemodel’shead.Negativeshapesarethe

areasoftheheadthatarenotinshadow.Theedgesofnegativeshapesarelessdefinedthanpositive

ones(shadowshapes).

CHAPTERTWO

PRINCIPLESOFDRAWINGTHEHEAD

TWOMASSESOFLIGHTANDSHADOWWhenusingonelightsource,theheadanditsfeaturesaredividedintotwomajormassesoflightandshadow.Theeasiestwaytoseetheheadassimplebutseparatemassesoflightanddarkvalueistolookatyourmodelthroughhalf-closedeyes.Thiseliminatesalldetailandallowsyoutoseethesimpledark graphic shapes of the features. Themore precisely you duplicate thedarkmassesandshadowshapes,themoreaccuratewillbeyourrenderingofthe underlying structure. This is your key to achieving a true structurallikeness.Conversely,thelessaccuratelytheshadowshapesarerecorded,thelesslikelyalikenesswillbeachieved.Withinthelightmassestherearetwovalues:thehighlightandthemiddle

value, also called halftone. The shadowmasses also have two values. Thedarkestvalueintheshadowmassissharedbythecast-shadowandthecoreof the form-shadow. Both are devoid of any light. The other value isreflectedlightintheform-shadow,whichiscreatedbylightbouncingoffanadjacentobject.Itisthelightestareaintheshadowmass.The twomajor masses of light and shadow, and the values assigned to

them,mustremaindistinct.Neverallowthedarkestareasofthelightmass,thehalftone,tobeasdarkasthelightestareaofthedarkmass,thereflectedlightinaform-shadow.Reflectedlightcanneverbeaslightasanyvalueonthe light side of the form. If that occurs you will lose the two-valuerelationship,andthestructurewillbreakdown.

Thelightendsandtheform-shadowbeginsontheroundnessofthenosetip.Theshadowbecomesa

hard-edgedcast-shadowbeneaththeprotrudingnoseform.Youcanseetwovaluesonthelightside:

highlightinwhitepencilandhalftoneasthepapervalue.Withintheshadowyouseethecompressed

coreoftheform-shadowandthecast-shadow,thedarkestvalues.Withintheform-shadowthere

existsalightervaluecalledreflectedlight.Althoughthisareaisilluminated,itislessintensethanthe

areailluminatedbydirectlight.Thereforereflectedlightfallswithintheshadowareaandispartofthe

darkmass.

LIGHTINGTHEHEADWhen lighting the head, it’s best to use only one light source. Thoughrestrictingyourself toone light sourcesimplifiesyourwork, this isnot themainreasonfordoingso.Unlessyouareextremelyskillfulwith lightsandlighting design, when using a second light source, you risk introducinganother set of form-and cast-shadows coming from a different direction.Theclear light-and-shadowrelationship that youare seeking to convey tothe viewer will suddenly become confused, and your ability to create anillusionofthreedimensionsonatwo-dimensionalsurfacewillbethwarted.The position of the single light source should be above, slightly to the

front,andto the leftorrightofcenterofyourmodel,dependingonhisorherpose.Thislightingarrangementwillproducelightandshadownotonlyfromthetoptobottomofyourmodel’shead,butalsofromsidetoside.Withthispositionyouareusinglighttohelpseparatenotonlythefrontplaneofthe head from the side planes, but also the top from the bottom plane, acrucial factor in creating the illusion of three-dimensionality. If the frontandsideplanesarelitequally,andthereforeofthesamevalue,therewillbenostructureandtheheadwillappearflat.

Positionasinglelightsourceabove,slightlytothefront,andtotheleftorrightofcenterofyour

model.Thiswillproducelightandshadownotonlyfromtoptobottom,butalsofromsidetoside,on

yourmodel’shead.

A light source that is positioned above the model will add a strongercontrastaroundtheeyes;thiswilldrawtheviewer’sattentiontotheeyes,thefocal point in aportrait.The lightwill become somewhat less intense as itmovestowardthechinandneck.Thiswillgiveasenseofroundnesstothefrontplaneof thehead.Closeyoureyeshalfway todeterminehowrapidlythelightdiminishesasitmovesdownandacrosstheplanesofyourmodel’shead.

ARTIFICIALANDNATURALLIGHTWhen using artificial light, use a seventy-five-watt flood lamp with areflectorshieldplacedapproximatelyfourtofivefeetaboveandtothefrontandsideofyourmodel.Ifyouareusingnaturallight,positionthemodelsothelightcomesinhighfromanorth-facingwindow(northlightisthemostconsistent intemperatureandintensity).Whetherthesource isartificialornatural,thepositionofthemodeltothelightremainsthesame.Whenusingartificiallight,movethelightinrelationtothestationarymodel;whenusingnaturallight,positionthemodelinrelationtothelightsource.

LIGHTADVANCES;DARKRECEDESWhenamodelisbacklit(alsocalledrimlit,orrimlighting),thelightsourceispositionedtothesideandslightlybehindthemodel,appearingbrighteston theedgeof theoutsidecontour.Since lightadvancesanddarkrecedes,thispresentsaproblem.Whenrimlit,theoutsidecontourislighterthanthecenteroftheform,causingthecentertorecedevisuallyandthecontourtoadvance.Theresultisflattenedform.Rimlightingwillalsocausemorethanhalfofthefrontplaneandallofthesideplanestofallintoshadow.Thisalsoemphasizesaflattenedappearance,sincethefrontandsideplaneswillsharethesamevalue.

Thelightsourceiscenteredontheformtoadvancethecorneroftheintersectingplanes,whichisthe

lightestareaontheform.Thefrontandsideplanesgraduallydarkenandrecedefromtheviewer.

Toavoidtheeffectsofrimlightingwhenusingjustonelightsource,asweare, it is necessary to bring the light off the edge toward the center of theform.Thiswillmaketheedgedarkerandcauseittorecedefromtheviewer’seyes.Sinceyouareusingonlyonelightsource,youmustcenterasmuchaspossible—thatis,bymovingittothefrontandsideofthemodel.

Sincethelightwasfirststrikingtheformonthedistantcontour,thelightwascenteredtodarkenthe

contourandthereforecausethedistantedgeofthefrontplanetorecede.

OntheContourHighlightplacedonthecontourflattensform.Thecontourcanbemadetoappeardarkerand

softerifyoufadethewhitepencilintothehalftoneofthepaperbeforereachingit.

Thismodelwasrimlit,whichdirectedthelighttothedistantcontouroftheform.Thelightingalso

placedmuchoftheheadinform-shadow.Sincethereisnotacombinationofform-andcast-shadows,

theeffectislessdimensional.Ispentaconsiderableamountoftimesimplytryingtocorrectthe

problemscreatedbythepoorlighting.Nonetheless,theoverallresultsarenotasgoodastheywould

beifthemodelwereproperlylit.Forexample,sincetherewerefewcast-shadowstohelpdescribe

depthandstructure,thebeardappearsflat.

Intheseconddrawingofthesamemodel,Imovedtotheoppositesideofthemodelwherethelights

wasplacedslightlyoffcenter.Nowthelightcreateddesirablecast-shadowsandcausedthecenteror

nearedgeofthefrontandsideplanestoadvance.Thisdrawingwascompletedinaquarterofthetime

ittookmetodrawthemodelwhowasrimlit,withmuchbetterresults.

Inthisexample,thelightispositionedabovethemodelandthereforeisstrongestontheforehead,

becominglessintenseasthelightfallsacrossthecheek,chin,andneck.Thisisthemostdesirable

positionforthelightsource.Ifthelightiscenteredontheedgeofthefrontandsideplanes,both

planeswillrecedesincelightalwaysadvancesanddarkalwaysrecedes.

SINGLEFOCALPOINTThehumaneyecannotfocusontwodepthsoffieldatthesametime,orontwoobjects inthesamedepthoffield.Stereoscopicviewingprovesthatweseedoubleimagesslightlyoutofregistrationexceptforthefocalpointthatisinfocus.Thismeanseverythinginyourvisionthatisperipheraltothefocalpointwillbeblurryoroutoffocus.Tryfocusingonanobjectwithoneeyeclosedandnotethepositionofsurroundingobjects.Nowclosethateyeandopentheother,focusingonthesameobject.Theobjectfocusedonremainsstationary. The surrounding objects, however, including those in front aswellasthosebehind,moveorshift.Takingthesenaturalphenomenaasaguide,everythinginyourdrawing,

except for the focal point, should be rendered out of focus and have adiffusededge.Thesofteryouredgesarethemorerealistictheresult.Infact,if you treat edges, and especially hair, so softly as if they were about todisappearlikesmoke(seediscussionofsfumato),youwilldirecttheviewer’sattentiontothecenterofinterest,whichwillbeinsharpcontrasttotherestofthedrawing.Theimportanceoftheeyesasthefocalpointinaportraitisalsobasedonhumanpsychology.Toengageanotherperson,eitherinfleshand blood or in a drawing, we look him or her in the eyes. Evenwithoutwordsmuchcanbecommunicatedthroughtheeyes.Itisthemostcommonfocal point, not the nose, forehead,mouth, or any other part of the head.Have you noticed how uncomfortable it can be when someone you arespeakingwithavoidsyourgaze?Whenthishappens,wefeelasifwearenotmaking a connection with that person. When the center of interest in aportraitistheeyes,asenseofcommunicationiscreatedbetweenthemodelandtheviewer.

Everythingexceptthefocalpoint,inthiscasethelittlegirl’sheadand,inparticular,herclosedeyes,is

outoffocusandsoft-edged.

Theviewer’seyewillgravitatetotheareayouhavemostsharplydelineated.Inthisdrawingthe

model’seyeshavedarkcast-shadowswithcrispedgesagainstthelightforehead,providingcontrastof

bothshapeandvalue.Thenoseandmouthhavelessvaluecontrastandthecontouroftheheadand

thehairisoutoffocus.

PERSPECTIVEANDTHETHREE-QUARTER

VIEWI prefer a slight three-quarter view to the static profile or a symmetricalfrontalview.Itallowsmetocenterthelightonthecornerofboththefrontand side planes of the head and create foreshortened perspective, whichallowsfordiminisheddetailanddiffusion(sfumato)ofcontour.Yetperhapsmostimportantly,thethree-quarterviewplacesanemphasisontheeyeonthenearsideasthefocalpoint.

PERSPECTIVELater in the same century that it was “discovered,” Leonardo da Vinciasserted that “perspective is the rein and rudder of painting.” He wasreferring to a scientific system of perspective known as linear perspectivethat was developed by the architect and artist Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) intheearlypartof thefifteenthcentury.InhistreatiseDellaPittura(On Painting) of 1435, the theoretician and architect Leon Battista Alberti(1404–1472)codifiedthenewsystemforotherartists’use.Thoughartificial,andpredicatedontheviewer’sstationaryvantagepoint,thesystemoflinearperspectiveisstillregardedbymosttodayasbeinga“truthful”waytorenderwhattheeyesees.Linear perspective is a mathematical system for creating the illusion of

space and depth on a two-dimensional surface—that is, tometaphoricallyturn the picture plane into a picture window. Variations on linearperspective include one-point, two-point, and three-point perspective.One-pointperspectiveshouldbeusedonlywhenthefrontplaneofaformisperpendicular to theviewer’sgaze.If theformispositionedsothatnooneplaneisparalleltothedrawingsurface,asinthree-quarterviews,thentwovanishing points are necessary—thus called two-point perspective. Three-point perspective is the most complex of the three and is used for aerialviewpoints. Since the three-quarter view is used consistently in this book,weuseonlytwo-pointperspective.When using linear perspective, the artist employs a horizon line,

vanishing point, and orthogonal lines. The horizon line runs across thepictureplaneattheeyeleveloftheviewer.Inalandscapethehorizonlineiswhere the sky appears to meet the ground. In one-point perspective thevanishingpoint shouldbe locatednear the centerof thehorizon line.Thevanishing point is where all parallel lines (orthogonals) appear to cometogether. Orthogonal lines are “visual rays” that help the viewer’s eye toconnectpointsaroundtheedgesofaformtothevanishingpoint.In two-point perspective the vanishing points are often not within the

pictureplane,but in the imaginarydistanceoff to the left and rightof thedrawing surface. This is the casewhen drawing the head in three-quarterview,sincetheheadfillsthedrawingsurface.Consequently,whenyoudrawaheadintwo-pointperspective,therewillnotbeadistantpointatyoureyelevel toward which parallel lines converge. Instead, simply apply the

principles of perspective, knowing that parallel lines, like railroad tracks,appear to converge in the distance. Therefore the eye and corner of themouthwillappearfartherapartverticallyonthenearsidethanonthedistantside.Howrapidlytheeyesandmouthdiminishcanbeobservedthroughsight

measuring. If right-handed, lean your head into your right shoulder andclose your left eye. Then, while holding a pencil between the second andthird fingers, sight down your arm, which should be locked at the elbow.Place the top of the pencil at the corner of themodel’s eye and run yourthumbupthepenciltothecornerofthemodel’smouth.Nowcomparethatmeasurement to the samepoints of referenceon thedistant side.Youwillnot have actual perspective lines to correctly place features. However, aslongasthefeaturesappeartoconvergeatadistantvanishingpoint,theywillappear to be in proper perspective. If they do not, the features will notappeartobeinproperperspective.

OnPerspectiveDonotchaseshadowshapesorperspective.Aftertakingabreakyourmodelmaynotreturnto

theexactsamepose.Oncethegestureandproportionshavebeenestablishedandarein

perspective,donotmovethemtoalignwithachangeinpose.Adjustyourmodelinstead.

Thismodelispositionedbeloweyelevelwithherheadtiltedslightlytoourright.

Hereyesandmouthconvergetowardtheeyelevel.

PLANESOFTHEHEADIt’simportanttorememberthatasitter’slikenessispredicatedontheartisthaving firstdepicted the three-dimensionalstructureof thehead,which isoften described as theplanes of the head. The rendering of structure andresultinglikenesscanbeachievedbyduplicatingtheshadowshapescreatedbythestructure,orform.Theedgeofaform-shadow(whichissoft)andtheedge of a cast-shadow (which is hard) can be identified by analyzing thestructureoftheformcreatingtheshadows.Fromexperiencetheartistknowsthat all shadowsbegin as form-shadowsnearest to the source of light andendascast-shadowsfarthestfromthesourceoflight.Theshapeoftheheadconsistsofsixplanes:top,bottom,front,back,and

two sides. Both the front and side planes of the head recede from theviewer’s eyes when in a three-quarter position. According to the rules ofperspective,thefeaturesonthefrontandsideplaneswilldiminishinsizeastheyrecedefromtheviewer.

Theverticallinerepresentsthecommonedgeofbothfrontandsideplanes.Itistheareaofthehead

thatisclosesttotheviewer.Thecombinationofthemodel’spositionandthestrengthandpositionof

thelightsourcewillcausethisedgetovisuallyadvancetowardtheviewer,accentuatingthethree-

dimensionalstructureofthehead.Thehorizontallinesrepresentorthogonalsthatareconverging

towardadistantvanishingpoint.

OnStructureStructureismadevisiblethroughlightandshadow.Alllightandnoshadows=Nostructure;all

shadowandnolight=Nostructure.

FORESHORTENINGForeshorteningisatechniqueusedindrawingandpaintingtorenderfiguresor objects convincinglywithin a spatial, pictorial field. It is essentially theprocess of applying linear perspective to the figure or objects. As youforeshortenyourmodel’sheadina three-quarterview,keeptwoconstantsinmind.Thefirst is that, regardlessof the tiltof themodel’sheadoryoureyelevel,parallellines,wheninperspective,willconvergeatonlyoneofthetwodistantvanishingpoints.Second,iftwoormoreobjectsofthesamesizeareviewedatdifferentdepths,theywillappearprogressivelysmallerastheyrecedeinthedistance.These principles can be seen in the two drawings of the same female

modelhereandhere.Theheadsareshowninathree-quarterviewandarein two-point perspective. The eyes and mouth, which are parallel, willconverge at a distant vanishing point in perspective regardless of theviewer’seyelevel.Thereforethedistancebetweentheeyeandcornerofthemouthonthenearsidewillbefartherapartthanthesamemeasurementonthe farside. If youreye level isbelow, andyouare therefore lookingupatyour model, the eye on the nearside of the model’s head will be placedslightlyhigher than the eyeon the farside.Conversely, if your eye level isabove,andyouarelookingdownatyourmodel,theeyeonthenearsideofyourmodelwillbeplacedslightlylowerthantheeyeonthefarside.

Thismodelwasviewedfrombelow.Fromthisviewpoint—lookingupatthemodel—herneareyeis

higherthanherfareye,andhereyesandmouthconvergeatadistantvanishingpoint.Thedistance

fromeyetochinappearslongerthanfromeyetocrown.

Thismodelwasviewedfromabove.Fromthisvantagepoint,herneareyeappearslowerthanherfar

eye,andhereyesandmouthstillconvergeatadistantvanishingpoint.Thedistancefromeyeto

crownappearslongerthanfromeyetochin.

Inadditiontothefrontandsideplanesofthehead,thedistancebetweenthetopandbottomplanesisalsoaffectedbyperspective.Ifyoureyelevelisabove, andyouare lookingdownat yourmodel, thedistancebetweeneyeand crown will appear greater than from eye to chin. If your eye level isbelow, thedistancebetweeneyeandchinappearsgreater thanfromeyetocrown. Although equal in measurement, each is viewed at a differentdistance and angle. The next two drawings of a male head illustrate, by

comparison,incorrectand-correctforeshortening.

Thisheadhasnotbeencorrectlyforeshortened.Theoutsidecornerofthemouthistoolowforthe

angleoftheeyes.

Inthisdrawingthemodel’seyeandmoutharecorrectlydrawn.Theyconvergeatadistantvanishing

point.

VALUEPATTERNSinceeveryobjecthasalocalvalue,orcolor,allshadowsonallobjectswillnotbeof the samevalue,norwill allhighlightsonall objectsbe the samevalue. The lighter an object’s local value, the lighter its highlight andshadow. The darker the local value, the darker the shadow and highlight.Thelocalcolorofthesitter’shairmight,forexample,beaspecificcolorofbrown;itwillalsobeaspecificvalue—thatis,alight,middle,ordarkshadeofbrown.Moreimportantly,anobject’svaluemustbecomparedtothevalueofadjacentobjects.Anobjectmaybedark,buthowmuchdarkerorlighterisitthanotherobjectsnearit?Value pattern is the arrangement of local values so shapes separate

visuallywithouttheadditionofline.Yourarrangementofvalueswillnotbeguided by light and shadow, but by the local value of the objects in yourcomposition.Withoutvariationinvaluebetweenobjectsorshapes,youwillnot have composition. For example, the color of hair might be blond orbrunet.More importantly the local value is light or dark. Light hair is notvisible against a light background, just as darkhair is not visible against adarkbackground.However,simplybyusingvaluepattern,as illustrated inthis pair of drawings, dark hairwill separate from a light background andlighthairwillseparatefromadarkbackground.Eventhoughobjectswithinyourcompositionwillbedividedintomasses

of light and shadow, theymust never lose their local value relationship tooneanother.Imaginethisscenario.Asitterwearsalight-valuecollarundera dark,middle value coat.Her skin is a lightmiddle-value andher hair adarkvalueagainstamiddle-valuebackground.Herlightmiddle-valuefacesurroundedbyherdarkhairwouldbe the strongest contrastofvalue, andthefocalpointofthecomposition.Sincetheothervaluesarecloserinvalue,they produce less contrast and thus do not compete for interest. Todownplay the chance thatothervaluesmightdistract from the focalpoint,the common edge between values can be further diffused by applying thetechniqueofsfumato.

OnLocalValueTheeyesincludeadditionalelements—theeyebrows,lashes,pupils,andirises—thatareofa

Theeyesincludeadditionalelements—theeyebrows,lashes,pupils,andirises—thatareofa

darklocalvalue.Thesedarkelementswillvisuallyconnectwiththeshadowsformedinthearea

oftheeyeandbecomeonegraphicshape,ordarkmass.Yettheywillremainvisiblesincethey

aredarkerinvaluethantheshadowvalue.

Thispairofdrawingsshowstheuseofvaluepatterntoseparatemiddle-valuehairfromadark

backgroundanddarkhairfromamiddle-valuebackground.

ADDRESSINGTHEBACKGROUNDValuepatternisbutoneaspectofasuccessfulcomposition.Theartistmustnotonlybesensitivetothearrangementofshapesbasedontheirlocalvalue,butalsotothesizeandconfigurationofshapes.Varietyissaidtobethespiceoflife.Soit iswithcomposition.Iftheshapesarerepetitive,acompositionwillbeboring.Variety applies both to positive and negative shapes, or space. Positive

spaceisthatwhichyoucanidentify.Negativespaceistheareabetweenthepositiveshapes,orspace,evenifthespaceconstitutesaportionofanobjectthatcanbeidentified.Forexample,thenegativespacebetweentwotreesonahillmightbe sky. If there are anumberof trees on thehill, variation ingrouping, size, and shape of the trees will be a concern. However, thenegative space between the trees must also be addressed since it is anintegralpartofthecomposition.Inaportraittheplacementoftheheadonthe picture plane will fragment the background and dictate the distancebetweenthecontourof theheadandtheperimeterof thepictureplaneonthe top and both sides. For this reason I do not place a head in the deadcenterofmydrawingsurface.Tovary thenegativespacearoundthehead,andthereforemakeitmoreinteresting,Iplacetheheadslightlyabovecenterand to the left or right of centerwith thehead facing the larger, negative,backgroundspace.

Tovarythenegativespacearoundthehead,placetheheadslightlyabovecenterandtotheleftor

rightofcenterwiththeheadfacingthelarger,negative,backgroundshape.

CHAPTERTHREE

THEDRAWINGPROCESS,STEP-BY-STEP

SCULPTINGTHEHEADThe stages of development in a drawing parallel the same sequence assculptinginclay.Youwouldneverbeginbysculptingthefeaturesfirstandthen attempt to build a clay head around them. Likewise, do not begin adrawingwith the features.When sculpting, you begin by applying clay toform the general shape, or gesture, including hair, neck, and shoulders.Oncetheshapeisachieved,exactproportionsaremeasured.Bycarvingoutand applying clay, the forms take shape. The details, if any, come last. Adrawingisapproachedintheexactsamesequence.

Thisportrait,likeallthedrawingsinthisbook,isdrawninvalue.Litfromabove,itappearsthree-

dimensionalasthoughsculptedinclay.Thestructureismadevisiblethroughlightandshadow,which

makesbothsculptureanddrawingcomealive.

GESTUREGesture iswhatmakes thesitter’spose interestingandcaptures thesitter’sattitude,orair. It is the tiltof thehead—forwardandbackward,aswell assidetoside—andtheplacementofthehair,neck,andshoulders.Theslightforward and side tilt of a head, the angle at which the hair falls, is bodylanguage and communicates expression. The gesture drawing is your firstattemptatplacingthemodel’smostgeneralcharacteristicsonpaper.Since,whendrawing,thebestpracticeistomovefromthegeneraltothespecific,thegestureshouldalwaysbecapturedfirst.Thiscannotbeachievedlaterasyoudevelopthedrawing.Youmustbeginwiththesitter’sgestureandneverlosesightofit,alwaysstrivingtomaintainit.

Themodel’spositioniscapturedinthegesturedrawing.

Inthefinisheddrawing,thegesturedrawingwillalwaysbevisibleifithasbeenmaintained.

A gesture is not an outline but consists of multiple soft strokes thatindicatethecontour.Thestrokesshouldholdthecontourofaformsosoftlythat itnearlydisappears.Ahard,pressuredoutlinewillnotdisappear,andcannot be easily corrected. Since a gesture drawinghas no detail, it is notpreciousandcaneasilybecorrected.Onceyou’vegotthegesturedown,youcan then judge if the size and placement of the head are correct. Beforemoving on to the next step, ask yourself, “Do the surrounding negativeshapes vary in size and shape? Could the placement be improved? Did IunintentionallycropoffdesirableelementsbecauseIdrewtoolarge?”

Themodel’sgesturehasbeencapturedwithaloosecontourdrawing.

Thefinisheddrawingrevealsthemodel’sgesture,whichisthefoundationforallsubsequentdrawing

steps.

THETILTThegestureinaportraitdrawingmustcapturethetiltoftheheadnotonlyfromsidetoside,butalsofromfronttoback.Thetiltdictatestheplacementof the features,which in turnoftenneed tobe foreshortenedaccording tothe tilt. Ifyoubeginyourdrawingbyplacing the featuresbeforecapturingthetiltofthehead,thefeatureswillarbitrarilydeterminetheattitudeofthehead.

Thegesturedrawingalsocapturesthetilt.Thismodel’sheadistiltedbackwardslightly.

Inthefinisheddrawingthegesture,includingthetilt,willstillbeapparent.

PROPORTIONSTheproportionsof theheadthatweuse todaywereappliedasearlyas the1500s.Proportionsarenotanarbitrarysystembutratherhelpfulrulesthatwerebornfromobservation.Forexample,atonetimesomeonenoticedthatthe length of an ear is equal to the distance between the eyebrow and thebottom plane of the nose. Most importantly it was observed that theproportionofthefeatureswasnearlyidenticaloneveryone,regardlessofsexornationality.Whenanyone,artistornot,saysthereissomethingwrongwithadrawing

of the human head, he or she is most likely referring to the proportions.Perhapsoneeyeisplacedtoohighorthenoseistoolong.Ifthefeaturesarenot correctlyplaced, the faceappearsdeformedand the likenessdistorted.To avoid characterizations, it is more appropriate to begin with standardproportions and modify them as you refine the features. When artistsobserveanexaggeratedfeatureonamodelthatappearstobeanexceptiontothe standard rulesofproportion, theycommonlyand instinctively reactbyoveremphasizing that feature. The result will be a caricature, not a subtlerendering.

Theheadisdividedintoproportionalincrementsofone-half,one-third,andtwo-thirds.

Malemodel:EdwardKnight

Thisdrawingillustrateshowtheproportionalincrementsofone-thirdappearprogressivelysmallerin

foreshortenedperspective.Theone-thirddivisionalincrementsonthemaleareequalsincehishead,

whichtiltsforwardbutonlyslightly,isnearlyperpendiculartotheviewer’seyelevel.Theone-third

incrementsonthefemale’sheadgraduallyreduceinsizeastheyrecedefromtheviewer’seyelevel

sinceherheadisseverelytilted,andthusrequiresforeshortening.

PLACINGTHEFEATURESThemost commonmistake is the placement of the eyes. Eyes are locatedhalfway between the top of the head and the bottom of the chin. Theplacementof theeyebrowsis locatedvisually.Oncetheeyesandbrowsareplaced,dividethedistancefromthebrowtothebottomofthechininhalf.This determines the location of the bottom plane of the nose and theplacement of the hairline. The mouth, or more precisely the divisionbetween the lips, is locatedone-thirdbelow thebottomplaneof thenose,with a two-third increment to the bottom of the chin. The ear is equal indistancetothebrowandbottomplaneofthenose.Thedistancefromthetopedgeof thewingof thenose to the insidecornerof theeye isequal to thewidthofaneye.Thedistancebetweentheinsidecornersoftheeyesisalsoequaltothewidthofaneye.Always beginwith the standardproportions and then adjust as required

for your particular model’s facial structure. In the three-quarter viewforeshorteningwillalwaysoccur.Alsonote that ifyouare lookingdownatyourmodel,thehalf-distancewillappeargreaterfromthetopoftheheadtotheeye than fromtheeye to thechin.Conversely, ifyouare lookingupatyourmodel, thehalf-distancewillappeargreaterfromthechintotheeyesthanfromtheeyes to thetopof thehead.Afteryouhavedividedtheheadproportionally, you will begin drawing the shape of each shadow thatdescribestheindividualfeatures.

Thisdrawingillustratestheproperplacementoftheeyes.Thetopoftheheadisneitherthehairlineof

theforeheadnorthestrandsofhair.Ifyouuseeitherasvisualpointsofreference,theeyesonyour

modelwillbeplacedtoohigh.Onlythecrownoftheskullshouldbeusedforplacementoftheeyes.As

aresultofthethicknessofhair,orahairstyle,amodel’seyesmayappeartobewellbelowthehalfway

point,whichistrueinthisdrawing.

Onceyou’veplacedtheeyeshalfwaybetweenthetopoftheheadandchin,begintheone-third

incrementswiththeplacementofthebrow,whichisvisuallydetermined.Notethattheeyebrowis

slightlyhigheronthefemalethanonthemale.

Dividethedistancebetweenthebrowandthebottomofthechininhalftolocatethebottomofthe

nose.Thedistancefrombrowtonose,nosetochin,andbrowtohairlinewillbeequal.Theeyebrowis

slightlyloweronthemalethanonthefemale.

Twomeasurementsofone-thirdandtwo-thirdsdividethespacebetweenthebottomofthenoseand

thebottomofthechin.Thedivisionbetweentheupperandlowerlipsislocatedone-thirdbelowthe

bottomofthenose.Thatdistanceisrepeatedtwicefromthedivisionbetweentheupperandlowerlips

tothebottomofthechin.

SeeingIstheBestKnowledgeInthischapterIamgivingyouaminimalamountofdetailedinformationregardingthe

anatomyofthehumanheadanditsfeatures.Thisinformationismeanttohelpyou

understandtheanatomicalstructurethatcreatestheshadowshapesofeachfeature.Youmay

usetheanatomicaldescriptionsanddrawingdetailstohelpyouanalyzeyourowndrawings

aftertheyarecomplete.Mostimportantly,theanatomylessonsIgiveyoushouldnothamper

yourabilitytoseeduringthedrawingprocess.Ifyoufocusonwhatyouknowaboutanatomy

whendrawingamodelratherthanfocusonseeingthemodelbeforeyou,theresultwillnotbe

alikenessbutratherageneralizeddrawing.Further,itcanbecomequiteeasytodraw

preconceivedideasoutofhabit,makingthesamemistakesoverandoveragain.Thebest

approachtodrawingaheadanditsindividualfeaturesisoneofdiscovery—togazeuponthe

formsasthoughyouhaveneverseenanythinglikethembefore.Andsinceeachhumanheadis

unique,trulyyouhaven’t.Sodonotletexperienceoryourintellectdestroythejourney.Let

yourmindgoblank,andletyoureyestellyouwhentheshadowbeginsandends.Letthe

resultingshadowshapesrevealthestructuretoyou.

Another common mistake that artists make is to place the lips halfwaybetween the bottom of the nose and the bottom of the chin, and the eyesone-third from the top of the skull. The result is a long upper lip, and isconsequentlymoreapelikethanhuman.Inthefirstdrawing,themouthhasbeen improperlypositionedhalfwaybetween thebottomplaneof thenoseand the bottom of the chin. In the second drawing the mouth has beenproperlypositionedone-thirdbelowthebottomplaneofthenoseandtwo-thirdsabovethebottomofthechin.

Themouthisincorrectlypositionedhalfwaybetweenthebottomplaneofthenoseandthebottomof

thechin.

Themouthiscorrectlyplaced.

THEANATOMYOFTHEEYESOfallthefeatures,Ihavedevotedthegreatestamountofinstructiontotheeyes. This emphasis reflects both their importance as the focal point in aportrait and their visual complexity, especially in comparison to the nose,mouth, ears, and hair. Since all measurements should be taken from andadjusted to theeyes, theyare the first feature Idraw. (It ismucheasier tolineupthenosetotwoaccuratelyplacedeyesthantolineuptheeyestoanaccurately placed nose.) Also, when eyes are completed first, it is mucheasier todetermine thedegreeofdetail tobeapplied to theother features,whichshouldalwaysbesubordinatetotheeyes,thenaturalfocalpointinaportrait.Aftertheshadowshapesofeachfeatureareduplicatedandrefinedand the dark accents or highlights are applied, follow the same drawingsequenceforeachfeature,movingfromeyesandbrowstonose,mouth,andhair.

THEORBICULARCAVITYTheorbit(eyeball)ishousedinsidetheorbicularcavity(eyesocket),whichissomewhat rectangular in shape, though with curved corners. The orbitmakesclosecontactwiththetop,bottom,andoutsideedgeofthecavity.Theinsideupper corner creates a deep triangular depression that is horizontalbelow the brow, vertical toward the bridge of the nose, and diagonal backagainfollowingthecurvatureoftheorbit.

Thisdrawingofaskullclearlyshowstherectangularshapeoftheorbicularcavity.

Theorbitmakescontactwiththetop,bottom,andoutsideedgesoftheorbicularcavity,creatinga

dark,triangulardepressionattheinsideupperportionofthecavity.

Theconcave,triangulardepressioncreatesasignificantshadowshape.

Acommonerrorwhendrawingtheeyesinthree-quarterviewistoneglecttoindicatethebonycavity

betweenthecheekandbrow.Ifthisisnotincluded,theeyeballwillappeartoprotrudefromthehead.

THENATURALSLANTSOFTHEEYEThepositionof theorbicularcavity isatadownward,outward,andinwardslant. Thedownward slant provides protection and runoff of perspiration.This creates a downward droop that would visually convey a depressingappearance.However, both thebrowandoutside cornerof the eyelids areraised,whichcompensatesforthedroop.Thebrowbeginsinsideandunderthebonycavity,archinguptotheoutsidebeforeitanglesdowntowardthetemple.Theoutsidecorneroftheeyelidsishigherthantheinsidecorner.Theoutwardslantof theeyeallowsustoseeperipherally.Theorbicular

opening is angled slightly to the side, since the orbicular cavities arepositionedonacurvedfrontalplane.Thisisespeciallyimportanttonoteonathree-quarterview.Theeyenearesttoyouwillbenearlyatarightangletoyourposition.Thedistanteyewillbeseverelyforeshortened.The inward slant positions the eye somewhat downward, allowing

simultaneous observation of objects slightly above the head and obstaclesdirectlybeneaththefeet.Notealsothatwhenportraitsarelitfromabove,theamountoflightreachingtheorbitislimitedbothbythebrow,whichcastsashadowoverthearea,andbytheinwardslantoftheeyeitself.Thereforeyoushouldreducetheintensityoflightstrikingthisareainyourdrawing.Ifyouallowthecavitytobeover-illuminateditwilladvance,flatten,andlosetheinwardslant.

Thetopdrawingillustratestheoutwardslantoftheeyeinathree-quarterview.Thebottomdrawing

illustratestheinwardslantinaprofileview.Sincebotharedrawninvalue,thethree-dimensional

structureoftheeyeisemphasized.

THEEYELIDS,PUPIL,ANDIRISTheeyelidsareequalinthicknessattheinsidecorner.However,becausetheupper lid is functional, it is twice the thickness of the lower lid, which isstationary.Theupperlidoverlapsthelowerlidattheoutsidecorner,whichisslightlyhigherthantheinsidecorner.Theyarenothorizontal.

Thethicknessoftheupperlidisatanobliqueangletotheartist’sview.Itisindicatedbythelengthof

theshadowcastbythelidupontheorbit.Thisproducesacast-shadowundertheupperlidacrossthe

orbit.Thethicknessofthelowerlid,whichisatarightangletothesourceoflightwhenitis

positionedabovethemodel,isdescribedasalightvaluetrappedbetweenthedarkenedportionofthe

orbitthatcurvesawayfromthelightandthedarkenedundersideofthelowerlid.Thelowerlidalso

cupstheundersideoftheorbit.

Theeyelidsmustbedescribedinvalueandnotinlineortheywillappearaslinesdrawnonaball.

Thepupilandirisarecoveredbythecornea,whichprotrudesfromtheorbitandiscurvedlikea

contactlens.Thecorneagentlyrisesandlowerstheupperlidastheeyemovesfromsidetoside.

POSITIONSOFTHEEYESAlternative positions of the eye are approached no differently than thepreviousexamples.Thestructure isdefinedby the shadows,aswell as thenegativedistancebetweenthem.Astheeyeglancesdownward,theupperlidextends, creating a greater negative space between the shadow from theorbicularmuscleandtheshadow-massedgeoftheupperlidandlashes.

Thiseyeisshowninadowncastposition.

DRAWINGTHEEYESAfteryouhaveidentifiedtheplacementofthegraphicdarkshapeoftheeyebydividing thegestureof thehead into itsproperproportions, indicate invaluewiththesideofyourpencil,notthepoint,theexactshapeandsizeofthedarkmass.Remembertobegininthecenteroftheshape,addingvalueuntil youhaveduplicated the shape:Donotdrawa line around the shapeandfillitin.Startbydrawingthetriangulardepressionlocatedattheinsideuppercorneroftheorbicularcavityalongthebridgeofthenose.Thebrowisattached inside the orbicular cavity andwithin the triangular depression—thedarkshapecontinuesasabrowthatrisesaboveandarchesoutfromtheorbicularcavity.Theorbicularmuscleislocatedbetweenthebrowandtheupperlid.Since

itsshapeisconvex,itcreatesaform-shadowalongthebottomoutsidecurve.This dark value cups around the outside end of the orbicularmuscle andback to the inside, therebyseparating theorbicularmuscle fromtheupperlid.Onceyouhaveindicatedthisvaluecuppingofthelowerlid,describethethicknessoftheupperlidbyindicatinginvaluethecast-shadowacrosstheball.The lid slides partially over the cornea,which covers the iris and pupil.

Thecast-shadowisgenerallyequaltothethicknessoftheiris;thereforetheirisandcast-shadowmergeasone.Indicateiris,pupil,andcast-shadowasone graphicmass or shape. Do notmake this graphic shape too dark toosoon.Workvery lightly at first, continually correcting the shape, size, andplacementuntilalikenessappears.Cuptheundersideof theorbitby indicatingtheshadowvalueunderthe

thicknessof the lower lid.Nowcompare thecompletedsoft-edgedgraphicdarkshapetothatofthemodel.Adjustplacementandcorrectshape.Thisisbest done after the eyes, nose, andmouth have been indicated. Themoreinformationyouhaveforcomparison,thebetteryourjudgment.Ifyouhaveindicatedalldarkshapeswiththesideofyourpencil,producingsoftedges,correctionscaneasilybemade. Ifyouhave indicated theshapewitha lineand filled in with value, changes will be impossible. The likeness of themodelshouldappearatthisstage.Ifyoudonothavealikeness,continuetocorrectthedarkshapesuntilyoudo.Once you have achieved a likeness, crisp the edges of all cast-shadows.

Remember that all shadows begin soft as form-shadows and end hard ascast-shadows fromeither top left or right of themodel, depending on thelocation of the source of light. At this point you now add detail in theshadows; include, forexample,adarkenedcoreat thesoftedgeofa form-shadowto indicate thereflected lightwithin them.The lighterportionofaform-shadow(theareacontainingreflectedlight)willautomaticallyappear,merelybycontrast,asyoudarkenthecore.Itisnecessarytodarkenthecoresince it contains neither direct nor reflected light. The core of a form-shadowandthecast-shadowarethesamevalue,asbotharedevoidoflight.

OnComparingtheEyesIfyouareright-handed,begintodevelopthemodel’srighteye,whichwillbetoyourleft.Then

developthemodel’slefteye.Thiswillenableyoutousethefirsteyeforcomparisonasyou

developthesecond.Ifleft-handed,dotheopposite.

Theshapeofthetriangulardepressionandbrowarerenderedinvalue.

Thecast-shadowfromtheuppereyelidisseparatedfromtheoutercurveoftheorbicularmuscle.

Thepupilandirisarecombinedasasingleshapeofvalue;theshadowfromthecurvedlowerlidis

indicated.

Thepupil,lashes,andbrowaredefined.

HIGHLIGHTSONTHEEYESHighlightsontheeyesgivevitalitytoaportrait.Ifyouneglecttoaddthem,yourmodelwill seemdull and lifeless. Just as there are two treatments ofshadowedges—that is tosay,bothhardandsoft—therearetwotreatmentsofhighlights. If, forexample,ahighlightmeetsacast-shadowedge, itwillbeginasahardedge.Itwillbecomeprogressivelysofterasitfadesintothehalftone of the paper surface or before it meets the soft edge of a form-shadow.Thehighlightabovetheform-shadow,whichbeginsatarightangletothe

sourceoflight,mustdisappearintothehalftonebeforethesoft-edgedform-shadowbegins.Thisisagradualtransitionfromlighttoshadow—adelicatemerging.Thehighlightblends intohalftone,which in turndisappears intoshadowastheformturnsawayfromthesourceoflight.Theoppositeistruewhen the highlight is placed next to and touches the hard edge of a cast-shadow. Without light there is no shadow. The surface under the cast-shadow would have been illuminated by the source of light if the objectcasting the shadowhadnot intercepted it. Thehighlight beginswhere theshadowabruptlyends.Keepthehighlightcenteredontheorbicularmuscletoforcethereceding

edges(byappearingdarker)towraparoundtheorbicularcavity.Theupperlidslidesaportionover thecornea.Thecast-shadowfromtheupper lid isgenerally tangential to the top of the pupil. Thehighlight is located at thebase of the cast-shadow, which begins in the iris, not the pupil. Thehighlightthenfadestothecorneroftheorbitasitrecedesfromtheartist’sview.Thehighlight,thoughverysmall,appearslightsinceitissurroundedbya

dark cast-shadow from the lid above, a dark pupil turning away from thesourceoflight,andadarkenedirisjustbelowthehighlight.Theirisappearslighterasitapproachesthecast-shadowfromtheupperlidontheoppositesideofthepupil.Gravitydrawsfluidtothecenterbelowtheirisandabovetheinsideedge

ofthelowerlid.Ahighlightreflectsoffthefluid.Theorbitbecomesdarkerasitrollsunderandapproachesthelowerlid,whichisilluminatedatarightangle to the source of light. Remember, this separation is visible onlybecausetwocontrastingvaluesshareacommonedge.Therearenolinesinnature!Describetheseparationascontrastingvalues.Avoiddrawingadark

linebetweentheorbitandtheinsideedgeofthelowerlid.

Highlightsarecenteredontheorbicularmuscleandplacedattheinsidecorneroftheintersectinglids

andattheedgeofthecast-shadowbelowthelowerlidandorbicularmuscle.Ahighlightisalsoplaced

abovethebrow,butdoesnottouchit.

Highlightsareplacedontheorbitbelowthecast-shadowfromtheupperlid,aswellastheirisand

thicknessdelineatingthelowerlid.

Adetailofaheadwiththeeyecompleted

Theeyesseeninpropercontextonafinishedhead

USINGTHEPAPERVALUEBygiving thewhiteabove thecheekboneacrispedge, themiddlevalueofthe paper appears darker below the lower lid at the inside corner. Thisopticaleffect,causedbytrapping(seethispage),enablesyoutoturnthelidawayfromtheviewerwithoutusingthedarkpencil,whichshouldbeusedonlyfortheshadowvalue.Bycrispingtheloweredgewithadarkpencil,thepaper value will appear lighter in the thickness of the lower lid near theoutsidecornerwherethelidsmeet.Thevalueofthepaperisdarkerthanthehighlightabovetheiris,yetlightincomparisontotheshadow,andthuswillappearlightandrecedesimultaneously.

Ascanbeseenbytheshapeofthedarkmass,thefemalebrowistypicallyarchedhigherthanthemale

brow,risingabovethecavitytoexposemoreoftheorbicularmuscle.

EXAMPLESOFEYESThereisnoformulafordrawingfeatures.Therearedifferencesbetweenthesexesaswellastheraces.Thekeytostructureandlikenessistobeginwiththe graphic shape of the dark areas first. For the eye this consists of theshadows, brow, lashes, pupil, and iris. Although each of the followingmodelswasdrawn in the identical sequenceusing thesameprinciples, thegraphic, soft-edgeddarkmasses or shadow shapes differ in eachdrawing,mirroring, as they do, the unique structural characteristics of eachindividual.Ifyourshadowshapesarecorrectinsize,shape,andplacement,anexactlikeness—includingnationality,sex,age,andfacialexpression—willbecaptured.

Valuedescribesthetriangulardepressionandbrow.

Separationoftheorbicularmuscleandtheupperlid,withaslightindicationofthelashes

Thecast-shadowfromuppereyelidandthepupilandirisareindicatedasasinglevalueshape.The

shadowbelowthelowerlidhasalsobeenaddedinvalue.

Theshapeswereadjustedanddarkaccentswereadded.

Aclose-upviewofthecompletedeyeincludingthehighlights

Theeye,asseenincontextofacompletedheaddrawing,withtherestofthefeatures

Thetriangulardepressionandlowerbrowofthemale

Theseparationandoutsidecurveoftheorbicularmuscle,andthecast-shadowfromtheuppereyelid,

areindicatedinvalue.

Thepupil,iris,andlowerlid

Theshapeshavebeencorrected,darkaccentshavebeenaddedtothepupil,andthebrowandoutside

cornerofthelidsdefined.

Theeyesarecompleted,includingtheadditionofhighlights.

Thefinishedeyesseenincontextofacompletedheaddrawing.Themalebrowfollowsthebonyedge

ofthecavity,exposinglessoftheorbicularmuscle,asisthecasewiththismodel.

Thearchedbrowisdescribedinvalue.

Theseparationoftheupperlidfromtheorbicularmuscleandthecast-shadowfromtheupperlid,

includingthelashes,havebeenindicatedinvalue.

Thepupilandirisaretreatedasasingleshapeandareattachedtothecast-shadowfromtheupperlid.

Theshadowunderthelowerlidhasbeenaddedinvalue.Rememberthatthedarkmassoftheeye

consistsnotonlyofshadow,butincludesalldarklocalvalue:forexample,thebrow,lashes,pupil,iris,

mascara,eyeliner,etc.

Thelongershadowbeneaththethicknessofthelowerlids,andalongtheorbicularmuscleandupper

lid,receivemorelight,givingtheorbittheappearanceofprotrudingforwardfromaflatplane.

Adetailofthecompletedeyeincludinghighlights.Thetriangulardepressiononthisparticularfemale

modelisquiteshallowandherbrowisfull.Thereforethereislessshadowalongthebridge,exposing

moreoftheorbicularmuscletothelight,especiallytowardtheinsidecornersoftheeyes.

Theeyesseenincontextofacompletedheaddrawing.Highcheekbones,ascanbeseenonthismodel,

givethefaceabroadappearance.Thisappearanceiscreatedbythelargenegativeshapeoflight

betweentheoutsidecorneroftheeyeandtheform-shadowofthecheekonthenearside.

NOSEANDMOUTHJust as in the case of the eyes, thenose andmouth are described throughlightandshadow.Thenostrilopeningislocatedonthebottomplaneofthenose and therefore is in shadowwhen thenose is illuminated fromabove.Theareaabovetheupperlipisinlight.Theundersideoftheupperlipisinshadow,butthelowerlipisinlight.Thenextshadowbeginssoftatthecurveofthebottomedgeofthelowerlipandendshardabovethechin,whichisinlight. The last shadow begins soft as the chin curves away from the lightsourceandendshardontheneckoutsidethepictureplane.Light,shadow,light,shadow,light,shadow,fromtoptobottom.Fromadistanceaform-shadowedgeonasmallroundobject,suchasthe

tipofanose,willsometimesappeartohaveahardedge.Nonetheless,itisaform-shadow andmust be rendered softly, regardless of how hard itmaylook. Remember, all shadows begin as form-shadows and end as cast-shadows.Because thenose tip issosmall, the turningof the form(that is,wheretheshapeofthenosetipturnsawayfromthelight)takesplaceinlessthanone-sixteenthofaninch.

Asequenceoflightandshadowrepeatsfromthetoptothebottomofthenose.Theleadingedgeof

eachshadowissoftandthetrailingedgeishard.

Thewingoneithersideofthenosehasabackplane.Manyartistsindicatetheedgeseparatingthewingfromthecheekwithline.Inrealitytheedgeisacast-shadow.Theedgesofall cast-shadowsshouldalwaysbedefinedwithvalue, not line. Lines around the nose ormouthwill destroy the sensitivenatureofyourdrawingandturnitintoacartoon.Threedifferentplanes,requiringthreedifferentvalues,mergeatthenose

wing.Thefirst is thewing,asideplanethatgradually turnsawayfromthesourceoflightintoshadow,resultinginahard-castedge.Thesecondisthecheek, which is at an oblique angle to the light and therefore often ahalftone. The third is the area above the upper lip and beneath thewing.Thisarea is at a rightangle to the sourceof lightand is the lightestof the

three.

Threevaluesintersecttoseparateforms.

THESTRUCTUREOFTHENOSEANDMOUTHA nose consists of top, front, bottom, and side planes. Each plane is at adifferentangletothelightsourceandthereforediffersinvalue.Theseptumcartilage is thickerwhere it attaches to bone, then tapers, ending betweentwobulbscalledthe lower laterals.Theseparationbetweenthebulboustipcan be quite pronounced on some heads and hardly visible on others.Becausethebulbsareroundinshape,theshadowbeneaththemisaform-shadowandisthereforesoft.Theoutsidecornersofthemouthareshapedlikedoughnutsonedge.The

heavier themodel, themore pronounced the doughnuts. The thinner, theless pronounced. The light describing the top of the doughnut graduallydisappearsas itapproachesthedoughnuthole,whichisdescribedasasoftform-shadow. The form-shadow ends as a hard cast-shadow. The lightbeginsonceagainattheedgeofthecast-shadowandgraduallydisappearsasthedoughnutrollsbackintoaform-shadow.Theform-shadowendsagainasacast-shadow.Drawinginvaluearoundthemouthcreatestheunderlyingstructureofthebarrelshapeoftheteethandgums.Incorrectlydrawn lipsappear tobesittingona flat surfacedisconnected

fromthecornersofthemouth.Thisistypifiedbyadarkupperlipthatseemssuspendedaboveaflatwhitefieldonthenearside.Correctlydrawnlipsareattachedtosurroundingtissueandappeartogrowoutoftheform.Itisthesoft transition from light to form-shadow that connects the lips to thesurroundingtissue.

Thinkoftheoutsidecornersofthemouthasdoughnuts.Thiswillhelpyoudrawthemcorrectly.

Acommonmistakeindrawingthethree-quarterviewisfailingtoaccountforthedoughnutshapeon

thefarsideofthemouth.

Thismouthisdrawncorrectly.Iusedthedoughnutconcepttovisualizethestructureonboththenear

andfarcornersofthemouth.

EXAMPLESOFTHENOSEANDMOUTH

Theundersideofthenose,theupperlip,andthecast-shadowofboththenoseandmouthcombineas

onegraphicshape.

Thecast-shadowsweredefined.

OnPlacementAcommonmistakeistoplacethemouthhalfwaybetweenthebottomofthenoseandchin,

andtoplacetheeyesone-thirdfromthetopofthehead.Itistheeyes,notthenoseasyou

mightautomaticallythink,thatarelocatedhalfwaybetweenthetopoftheheadandthe

bottomofthechin.Correctingtheplacementoftheeyesandmouthalonewillvastlyimprove

yourdrawing.

Highlightsanddarkaccentswereappliedtoboththenoseandmouth.

Thenoseandmouthseeninthecontextofacompletedheaddrawing.

Theshadowunderthenose,themustache,theupperlip,andthecast-shadowbelowthelowerlip

mergeasonegraphicshape.

Shadowshapeswerecorrectedandthecast-shadowsdefined.

Additionalrefinementsweremade,includingthehighlightsanddarkaccents.

Thenose,mustache,andmouthseeninthepropercontextofafinishedheaddrawing

Thebottomplaneandcast-shadowofthenose,theupperlip,andtheshadowbelowthelowerlip

havebeenindicatedinvalue.

Thewingsofthenoseweredefinedinvalue.Shapeswerecorrectedandthecast-shadowsdefined.

Highlightsanddarkaccentswereadded.

Thenoseandmouthasseeninthecontextofacompletedheaddrawing

Theundersideandcastshadowofthenose,theupperlip,andtheshadowbeneaththelowerliphave

beenindicatedinasinglevalue.

Theshadowshapeshavebeenfinessedandthecast-shadowsdefined.

Thecompletednoseandmouthincludingdarkaccentsandhighlights.

Thenoseandmouthseenincontextofacompletedheaddrawing

EARSVariety iswhatcreates interest inadrawingandreflects theuniquenessofyourmodel.Thoughperhapslessreadilyapparent,earsarenoexceptiontothis “rule” of variety. No two individuals’ ears are alike—there are alwaysvariationsinshape,size,andangle.Evenearsonthesameindividualarenotshaped alike. After seeing numerous students neglect the ears, to thedetrimentoftheirdrawings,myadvicetoyouistotakethetimenecessarytodrawthemwell.Itisespeciallyimportanttopayparticularattentiontotheouterrim,called

the helix cartilage. Varying greatly in width, it begins above the canalopening, follows theoutercontour,andendsat the lobe. Ifyou learnonlyone thing from this book about drawing the ear, it should be this:Donotdrawtheear’sshapethesamewidthallthewayaround.

Liketheotherfeatures,earsaredescribedthroughlightandshadow.

Ifthereisastrongcontrastofbothlightandshadowontheear,diminishthecontrastbymakingtheshadowlighter.Sincetheearsareatadifferentdepth than the eyes, they will be soft-edged and out of focus, as well asdiminishedincontrast.(Rememberthatthehumaneyecannotfocusontwodifferentdepthsatthesametime.)Sincetheeyescontainhard-edged,darkcast-shadows set beneath a brightly lit forehead, they will be the naturalfocalpointandcenterofinterest.

Theouterrimoftheearvariesgreatlyinwidthandshouldneverbedrawnthesamewidthalltheway

around.

PLACEMENTOFTHEEARThephysicallocationoftheearcanalisequalindistancefromthecornerofthe eye to the bottom of the jaw directly beneath it. You can check thisyourself by placing your index finger on the corner of your eye and yourthumb at the edge of your jaw beneath it. If you pivot your thumb up, itshouldslideintothecanal.Thevisualplacementoftheearisexactlyhalfwaybetweenthetopofthe

browand thebottomof thenose.Aspeople age, both theirnose and earslengthen. Therefore the proportional relationship remains the sameregardlessoftheageofyourmodel.Althoughthismeasurementisequal,theear will appear slightly smaller as it is seen in perspective in the three-quarterview.

Inathree-quarterviewtheearwillappearsmallerthantheproportionalmeasurementfrombrowto

nosesincetheearisforeshortenedinperspective.

Thisgroupofthreedrawingsillustratestheinitialstepsalongthewaytoacompleteddrawingofthe

ear.Highlightsanddarkaccentsareaddedlater.1.Thegestureiscaptured.2.Theshadowshapesare

indicatedinvalue.3.Thecast-shadowedgesaredefined.

Adetailofthecompletedearincludinghighlightsanddarkaccents.

Theearseeninthecontextofacompletedheaddrawing.Notethatthebackedgeofthejawisdirectly

beneaththefrontedgeoftheearcanal.

Thoughtheearisdifferent,theverysameinitialstepstocompleteadrawingarefollowed.1.The

gestureiscaptured.2.Theshadowshapesareindicatedinvalue.3.Thecast-shadowedgesare

defined.

OnSeeingDonotfallintothehabitofdrawingallmodelsinthesamepose,forexample,alwaysfacingto

theright.Youwillstoplookinganddrawsimplyoutofhabit.Inthesameway,approacheach

earasthoughyouhaveneverdrawnonebefore.Thesameearcanbeanewchallengeevery

timeyoudrawitbecausetheangleandshadowswillchangewitheachnewpose.

Closeupofacompletedearwithdetail—highlightsanddarkaccents—added.“Detail”isessentially

strongercontrast.Someareasmayneedmorecontrast;othersmaynot.Strongcontrastwillgivemore

clarityandemphasistoaparticulararea.

Theearseeninthecontextofacompletedheaddrawing

HAIRTreat both the inside and outside contours of the hair as if they have nodefinableedge,likesmoke.Though,inthisexample,thecontourofthedarkhair appears distinct against the light background, it has in fact beenrenderedinsfumato(smokelike)sothatitremainssoftandoutoffocus.Thehair should serve as an indistinct frame for the face and should neverdistractfromthecenterofinterest,thesitter’seyes.Drawing the hair is best described by telling you what to do and, even

moreimportantly,whatnottodo.Accumulatedfromyearsofteaching,thesetipsfordrawingthehairshould increaseyour learningcurveandhelpyouavoidthemostcommonmistakesstudentsmakewhenlearningtodrawhair.Following the formof thehead, thehairmasshassixplanes—afront, top,back, bottom, and two sides. To convincingly render the three-dimensionalityofhaironatwo-dimensionalsurface,hairshouldbetreatedasamassof lightandshadow.Use thedirectionof the light sourceon theforehead as a guide for placing highlights on the hair mass. Remember,though white can be used to describe highlight and sanguine to describeshadow,neithershouldbeusedtodescribealocalcolor.

Thoughitmaybetemptingtotreathairasindividualstrands,don’tdoit!Instead,treatitasclumpsof

lightandshadow.

Donotdelineatehairlinefromforeheadwithacontourline.Distinctlinesseparatinghairfrom

foreheadgivestheeffectofawig,orhairpiece.Naturalhairgrowsinavisibleblendofbothhairand

scalp,ascanbeseeninthepartandabovethetemple.Asthehairbecomesthicker,thescalp

disappears.

Inthisdrawingthemodel’shairisblond.Themodel’shairwasnotfilledinsolidlywithwhite,as

temptingasitmayhavebeen.Thehairwastreatedaslightandshadow.Therearedarkshadows,but

theoverallvalueismuchlighterthanthedrawingofabrunet.

Themodelinthisdrawingisabrunet.Notethatthehairwasnotfilledinsolidlywiththedarkpencil.

Thehairwasrenderedaslightandshadow.Sincethelocalvalueofthebrunet’shairismuchdarker

thanthemodelwithblondhair,thehighlightsareadarkervalue.Infact,thehighlightsonthe

brunet’shairaretheapproximatevalueoftheshadowsontheblond’shair.

Donotdrawthemustacheonthefaceorthatishowitwillappear,drawnon.Themustacheisamass

offront,bottom,top,andsideplanesofdifferingvalues.Thinkofitasalargerupperlipthatwraps

aroundthedoughnutshape,producinglargershadowshapes.

Renderthebeardasathree-dimensionalmassoflightandshadow.Followthelightandshadowon

theheadiftheplanesarenotreadilyvisible.Forexample,ifthecheekfallsintoshadow,sowillthe

beard,assumingtheyareatthesameangle.Ifthefrontplaneoftheheadisinlightandthesideplane

inshadow,thebeardwillfollow.Ifthebottomplaneofthenoseisinshadow,sowillbethebottom

planeofthebeard.

TROUBLESHOOTINGEXAMPLE

Thereareseveralproblemswiththisdrawingofacouple.Theman’sforeheaddoesnotappeartotilt

forward.Thewoman’slefteyeappearsflat,andherforeheadisnarrow,causinghereyestoappeartoo

closetogether.Theforeshorteningofthewoman’sheadistoosevere,causingherheadtoappear

small.

Basedontheprinciplethatlightadvancesanddarkrecedes,Isolvedtheproblemwiththemalemodel

bymakinghisforeheadlighterthanhischinandhisneckdarkerthanhischin.Tosolvetheproblem

withthefemalemodel,Iaddedmorevaluebelowherlefteyeatthepointwherethebottomofthe

lowerlidcurvesbehindandabovetheorbitasittransitionstotheorbicularmuscle.Ithenarchedthe

browtocreateadditionaldimension.Iextendedthebrowandorbicularmuscleofherrighteyetoadd

width.Tocorrecttheforeshorteningonthefemalemodel,Iexposedmoreofherforehead,thus

makingtheupperone-thirdincrementofbrowtohairlinevisible.

CHAPTERFOUR

PUTTINGITALLTOGETHER

THEFIVEESSENTIALDRAWINGSTEPSHaving been introduced to the principles of chiaroscuro and drawing thehead, includingtheproportionandplacementof thefeatures,youarenowready to put all that you’ve learned into practice. This chapter focuses ondoing. You will find four demonstration drawings, suggestions on how toconstructively criticize your ownwork, practice ideas, and thoughts abouthowtotakeyourdrawingtothenextlevelofsubtlety.Beforebeginningthedemonstrations,Iwillreviewthefiveessentialdrawingsteps.

REVIEWAt first there will be nothing on your drawing surface. As you addinformation (shadow shapes), youwill be able todetermine if the size andplacementoftheshapesarecorrect.Aboveall,donotoutline.Adjustmentscanbemadeeasily as longas theedgesof the shadowshapes remain soft.Before beginning to draw, make sure your model is placed in correctrelationshipto the lightsource,whether it isartificialornatural.Onceyouaresatisfiedwiththelighting,begintodrawthegesture.

GESTURE.It iscriticaltovisualizeandindicatethegestureinthebeginning.Once the features aredeveloped, the gesturewill be impossible to correct.After the gesture has been indicated, determine if its placement on yourdrawingsurface isdesirableand if thesurroundingnegativespacesvary insizeandshape.Thegestureisdrawnwithmultiplesoftstrokes,notasingleoutline.

PROPORTIONS.Featuresmayappearforeshortenedinperspective,dependingon the position of the model in relation to your point of view. Once theforeshortenedproportionsarecorrectlyplaced,youwillindicatethefeaturesassimpleshadowshapes.

SHADOWSHAPES.Record theexact sizeandshapeofeachshadow.Begin inthe center of the shadow and continue to add value. Do not apply singlemarkswithyourpencil,andbesuretokeeptheedgessoft.Oncetheshadowshapesof theeyes,nose,mouth, chin,ears, andhair are inplace,youcanmore accurately determine if they are correctly positioned. For accuracy,measure the distance of negative shapes between shadow shapes on yourdrawingandcomparethemtothesameareasonyourmodel.Inadditiontocorrecting the location of the shadow shape, adjust the size of shapes asneeded.Forexample, if theshadowshapeofaneye is too low,simplyaddmorevaluetothetopanderasevaluefromthebottom.If it istoohigh,dothereverse.Gatheralltheinformationyoucanatthisstagetohelpyoumakejudgmentcalls.Doingsowillgiveyouconfidenceinyourdecisionmaking.Theimportantthingtorememberisnottocommittoosoon.Keepalledgessoftsothatyoucancontinuallycorrectuntilalikenessisachieved.Onlythenshouldyoudarkenthevaluesormaketheedgeshard.

EDGECONTROL.Inthisstepyouwilldefinetheedgesofeachshadowshape,which will strengthen the structure and likeness of your model. Firstdetermine the nature of each shadow. They will be either form or cast-shadows. Soft edges are unique to form-shadows. If the shadow isdetermined to be a cast-shadow, crisp or make the shadow edge hard.Strengthenthecoreoftheform-shadows,butkeeptheedgessofttowardtheprimarylightsourceandthereflectedlight.Remember,allshadowsbeginasform-shadowsandendascast-shadows,fallingawayfromthelightsource.

DETAIL.Beforeaddingthefinishingdetailtoyourdrawing,stepbackaboutten feet from it to better judge what is needed. If you add detail to yourdrawingupclose,youriskoverworkingit.Detailisaddedcontrast,whetherit consists of highlights on the light side of a form or dark accents on itsshadowside.Notalldrawingsrequireadditionalhighlightsordarkaccents,andsomemayrequireonebutnot theother.Onlyyoucanbethe judgeofwhatisnecessarytofinishadrawing,ortowhatistobeleftout—whatIliketocall“editing.”

THEDEMONSTRATIONSEachof the fourdemonstrationdrawings that follow includes fivedrawingsteps that never vary: 1. gesture, 2. proportion, 3. shadow shapes, 4. edgecontrol, and 5. detail. You can complete all five steps in one or severalsittings. It does not matter, so long as all five are completed in the sameorder. I finished the first female and male demonstration in four sittingseach, combining two of the stages in one sitting. I finished the last twodemonstrationsinfivesittingseach.Foreachofthedemonstrations,beforebeginningtocapturethegesture,I

firstmadesurethelightsourcewasabovethemodeland,dependingonthethree-quarterview,slightlytotherightorleftofthemodel.(Ifthemodelislookingtoyourleft,thelightshouldbetotherightofcenter,andviceversa.)Thiswillensure that the light iscenteredon themodel.Beforecompletingthefifthstep—addingdetail—Itookabouttenstepsbackfromthedrawingsto better determine if further contrast was necessary. If I finished thedrawings without viewing them from this distance, I would have riskedoverworkingthem.

DemonstrationOne

DemonstrationTwo

DemonstrationThree

DemonstrationFour

ShadowShapeReminders•Lookattheshadowasashape;thinkonlyshape.

•Donotoutlinetheshapeoftheshadowandthenfillitinlater.Rather,beginbyapplyingvaluewith

thesideofyourpencilatthecenteroftheshape.

•Definetheshapeinonevalueandthenaddcontrastwithintheshadowshapefordetail.Butbe

carefulnottogotoodarktoosoon.

•Strengthenthecorebyaddingadarkervaluewithintheform-shadow,butkeeptheedgessoftboth

towardtheprimarylightsourceandreflectedlight.

•Useyourinitialandverylightapplicationofsanguine—appliedtobuildthebasicshadowshape—

toindicatereflectedlightintheform-shadow.Thehalftoneofthepapersurfaceshouldnotbeused

forreflectedlight.

•Includedarkshapesthatbecomepartoftheshadowvalue,forexample,thebrow,eyelashes,pupil,

andiris.

•Onceyoufeelsatisfiedthatyouhaveachievedalikeness,crisporhardentheedgesofallcast-

shadows.

DEMONSTRATIONONE

STEP1:GESTURE.Isetthismodelatathree-quarterview,facingtomyleftateye level.While visualizing the completed head on paper, I gestured in aloosecontourofthehair,head,neck,andcollar.Icreatedthegesturewithmultiplesoftstrokes,notasingleoutline.Ipositionedtheheadhigherthanhalfway to avoidplacing it at dead center of thepaper. Iwant a variety ofnegativespacearound theperimeterof thehead.Evenat thisearly stage Ihave indicated the general shapeof thehair in value to begin establishingvaluepattern.Ihavealsoincludedthelargecast-shadowunderthechinandonthenecktogivethesenseofadimensionalmass.

Step1.Icapturedthegestureinthefirstsitting.

STEP 2: PROPORTION. When the model posed for the second step—establishingtheproportions—sheseemedmorerelaxed.Sheheldherheadwithaslighttilttoherleftandtowardme.Toadjustforthisslightchange,Ibroughtthedistantcontouroftheforeheadtomyrightandpushedthepointofthechintomyleft,adaptingthecontourtothegesture.Ithenplacedthefeatures on the correct axis in proper proportion. Since the features areindicated invalueas shadowshapes, it is important tonote thepositionofthe light source. As I apply the principles, I askmyself several questions,“Aretheeyesontheproperaxistomaintainthesubtletiltofthehead?Aretheeyesdrawnhalfwaybetweenthecrownoftheheadandthebottomofthechin? Is themouthplaced at theproperupper-thirddistancebetween thebottomplaneofthenoseandthebottomofthechin?Dotheeyesandmouthappeartoconvergeatsomedistantvanishingpoint?Finally,haveIachievedlikeness?”Iftheanswerisno,Imusttakethetimenowtocorrectwhiletheshapeshavesoftedges,arelightinvalue,andcaneasilybeadjusted.

Step2.Iestablishedtheproportions,incorrectperspective,inthesecondsitting.

STEPS 3&4: SHADOW SHAPES AND EDGE CONTROL. Having established thecontour and achieved the likeness, I now refine each feature by visuallyidentifying each shadow, both form and cast. Remember that all shadowsbegin as form and end as cast, so that alone will indicate the source. Butcast-shadows can merge into form-shadows, and their edges can quicklychange from a hard cast-shadow to a soft form-shadow.For example, theshadowontheeyeclosesttotheviewerbeginsasaform-shadowabovethebrow,endsasacast-shadowbeneaththebrow,thenmergesintotheform-shadowof theorbicularmuscle, finallyendingasahardshadowcast fromtheupperlidontheorbit.Thelowerlidfallsintoaform-shadowonthesidenearest thenoseandendsasa cast-shadowon the farsideof the lower lidalongwiththecast-shadowfromtheupperlidandorbicularmuscle.Here,all these shadows converge into a single shadow shape. The lower lip andsurrounding tissue are convex toward the corners of the mouth. Thisproduces a form-shadow that quickly becomes a cast-shadow when thetissuebecomesconcavebeneaththecenterofthelowerlip,beforemerginginto the form-shadow of the distant jaw. Once I’ve drawn the shadowshapes,Icompletethembyaddressingtheedges—leavingtheform-shadowedgessoftandcrispingthecast-shadowedges.Theanatomicalstructureofthefeaturewillbecomevisibleasyoudothis.Ihavealsoaddedaslightvaluetothesideplaneof thenoseandcheektoforcethesideplanetorecedeinperspective.

Steps3&4.InthethirdsittingIdevelopedtheshadowshapesanddefinedtheshadowedges.

STEP5:DETAIL. In the lastsittingI finishedthe lightsideandaddeddarkaccentstotheshadowshapes.Usingthewhitepencil,Iappliedhighlightstothe forehead, since it is closest to the light source. I know that the frontalplane of the head is rounded, not flat, and that the chin also curves awayfromthe light.Havingproperlycentered the lightsourceabove themodel,thefrontplanediminishesinlightintensityfromthetopoftheheadtothebottom,whichcausesthechinandnecktovisuallyrecedeinperspective.IhavethereforerestrainedtheamountoflightI’verenderedonthechinandnecktovisuallyforcetheneckfartherbelowandbehindthechin.Theresultshouldbeaheadthat isdimensionalnotonlyfromtoptobottombutfromside to side aswell. I placed dark accents on all the features to add detailwithintheshadows.

Step5.Iaddedthedetails,bothhighlightsonthelightsideandaccentsintheshadows,inthelast

sitting.

DEMONSTRATIONTWOSTEPS 1&2:GESTURE ANDPROPORTION. Withvery lightpressure I looselydrew in a gesture that includes a rather large tricornered hat. I paidparticularattentiontothevariationofeachcornerofthehatanditsdistanceto,orcroppingat,theedgeofthedrawingsurface.Ipositionedtheheadataslightangletomylefttoavoidsimilarityofnegativeshapesbetweenthehatand edges of the picture plane.Mypoint of view iswell below themodel,necessitatingforeshortening.Ihavedividedtheproportionsforthefeaturesandindicatedthemassimpleshadowshapes.Imadesure,beforemovingontothenextdrawingstage,thatIwassatisfiedwiththemodel’sgesture,whichincludesthetiltofthehead.IalsomadecertainthatIwassatisfiedwiththevariation in the surrounding negative spaces, and that the features werecorrectly placed. I know that later, as I develop the shadow shapes, itwillbecomemuchhardertomakeadjustmentstothesepreliminarysteps.

Steps1&2.InthefirstsittingIestablishedboththemodel’sgestureandproportion.

STEP3:SHADOWSHAPES.Ihaveaddedadarkervaluetotheleftsideofthemodel’snoseandcheektoseparatethefrontandsideplanes.Valuewasalsoaddedtotheundersideofthechinandjawtoestablishabottomplanetotheheadmass.Itellmyselfconstantlytokeeppushingtheheadupandbacksoasnottolosethegesture.Then,startingwiththeeyes,IbegantodefineeachfeaturebyduplicatingtheuniqueshadowshapesIsawdescribingeachform.

Step3.Idescribedtheshadowshapesinthesecondsitting.

STEPS 4 & 5: EDGE CONTROL AND DETAIL. I revisited the shadows of eachfeaturebycomparingtherelationshipofonetoanother.Istudiednotonlytheirshapesandpositions,butalsothedistancebetweeneachshape.WhenIwas satisfied that theywereaccurate, then,andonly then,did I commit tohardedgesoncast-shadows.Iaddeddarkaccentswithintheshadowshapes,definedthehair,anddarkenedthehat.

Steps4&5.InthethirdsittingIdefinedtheshadowedgesandaddeddarkaccentsintheshadow

shapes.

STEP 5: DETAIL (CONTINUED). I added highlights to the forehead, and thebridge and tip of the nose. I faded the highlights into halftone before thefeature turned into form-shadow. I then added highlights that share thehard edges of cast-shadows along the bridge; under the lower eyelids, thenose,andthe lower lip;andfinallyonthechinwhere theshadowwascastfromthelowerlip.Highlightswereindicatedonthehatandtieaswell.

Step5(continued).Iaddedhighlightsinthefourthsitting.

DEMONSTRATIONTHREE

Step1.Icapturedthegesturewithaccuratebutloosedrawing.

Step2.Iusedsimpleshadowshapestodividetheproportions.

Step3.IkeptalltheshadowedgessoftasIdevelopedtheircorrectsize,shape,andplacement,which

willgivemealikeness.

Step4.OnceIhadachievedalikeness,Idarkenedandhardenedtheedges.

Step5.Iappliedhighlights,leavingthepaperashalftone.

DEMONSTRATIONFOUR

Step1.Forcorrectplacementandsize,Ivisualizedtheheadunderthehat.Igesturedintheentire

head(Ididnotstopattheedgeofthehat).Ithengesturedthehataroundthehead.Iplacedthehead

totherightofcenterofthepictureplane,sothesitterislookingintoalargernegativespaceonthe

left.

Step2.Iindicatedtheproportionsassimpleshadows.

Step3.Bycomparingthepositiveandnegativeshapes,Icorrectedthesize,shape,andplacementof

shadows.

Step4.Idefinedtheshadowsbyhardeningthecast-shadowedgesandleavingtheform-shadow

edgessoft.

Step5.Iaddedhighlightstothelightsideoftheform.

GOINGFORWARDTheprinciplesIappliedinthedemonstrationsarearepeatofeverythingyouhavelearnedthusfar.Thoughthefundamentalsoftheprinciplesaregeneral—inthattheyapplytoeveryheadyouwilldraw—theymustnotbeappliedblindlywithoutregardfortheuniquenessofeachmodel,orevenpose.Forexample,thecharacteristicsofform-andcast-shadowsareunchanging;buthow theyappear,and thus reveal facial structure,willdiffernotonly frommodel tomodel,butalso frompose toposeand fromlightingcondition tolightingcondition.

PRACTICEIDEASChiaroscuroisalivingtechnique,notahiddenmysteryavailableonlytotheoldmasters and their contemporaries. It is so simple, so obvious, yet it isoftenpassedover for amore complicated solution.Studentsoftenaskme,“WhatdoyouseethatIdon’tsee?WhatdoyouknowthatIdon’tknow?”And theywill say, “Theremustbemore to it than that; it couldn’t be thatsimple!”Yetitis.Therealstruggleliesinbreakingtheoldhabitofdrawingwhatyouthinkyouknowrather thanwhatyousee.There isa tendencytobecomemoreset inourwaysaswegetolder,and tobe less susceptible tochange. Instead, train yourself to be as teachable as a child, and allow thewonderofwhatyouseetoteachyou.Youcanpracticeyourskillseverydaybydrawingheadsfrommagazines,

usingshadowshapesonlytodescribethefeatures.Lookforsmallphotosinmagazines.Ifyouaredrawingaheadfromafull-lengthphoto,theheadmaybe the size of a quarter or even a nickel. On such a small scale, theprominenceofindividualdetailisdiminishedandtheshadowshapesofthefeatures are emphasized. This can be an advantage when first learning todrawshadowshapesandtoseetheheadasmassesoflightandshadow.Byworkingfromsmallphotos,youwill seeclearlyandgainconfidence in thefactthatshadowshapesalonecananddodescribelikenessandexpression.Turningaphotoupsidedownwillalsohelpyoutodivorceyourmindfromtheobjectandfocusontheshadowshapes.When you leave home, carry a small sketchbook so that you can draw

headswhereveryouare—onthebus,inarestaurant,orinapark.Thiscanbedonewithoutbeingobvious.Makearoughdrawing,capturinggestureinone glance. Using your knowledge of proportions, place the features inperspective.Thepositionofthehead,includingthetilt,whichyoucapturedin the gesture, will guide any foreshortening thatmay be needed.With asecondglance,notetheshadowshapeofeachfeature.If themodelmoves,look for another model in the same position and adjust the shadowsaccordingly.Thisiseasierthanyoumightthink,sincebasichumangesturesare universal. For example, if you have started to draw someone who iswalkingdownastreet,youwillnoticethat,astheywalk,mostpeoplelookinthedirectiontheyarewalkingwiththeirheadsinverysimilarpositions.Youmaybeinspiredbyanotherindividualwithmoreinterestingshadowshapes;simply correcting the shadow shapes can quickly change a woman into a

bearded man. Remember that shadows alone describe the age, sex, andmoodofeachindividual.

Throughpractice,andfromdrawingdifferentheads,youwilllearnthattherearenospecialdrawing

challengessincetheprinciplesofchiaroscuroapplytoallmodels.Therearejustshadowsuniqueto

eachfeature.Thetricktodrawingwellistospendmoretimelookingthandrawing,andtotakethe

timetoduplicateshadowshapesaccurately.

Whenyourhandandeyebecomeeffortlesslycoordinated,allofyouremotion,reverence,experience,

sensitivity,andpassionaretransferredtoyourwork.

SELF-CRITIQUEAfteryouhavecompletedadrawing, thebestway tocritiqueyourself is toassess,ateachstep,howwellyouunderstoodandappliedtheprinciples inthis book. How accurately you have followed them will determine yourdrawing’s success. Youmust ask yourself, “Is the headwell placed on thedrawingsupport?Isthenegativespacearoundtheheadinteresting,orisitequalonall sides?DidIcapture thegestureof thepose,ordid it turnoutstiff? Are the light and shadow shapes on the head—that is, negative andpositive shapes—correct in size, shape, and placement? Have I correctlydefinedtheshadowedgesaseithersoftorhard?Is the lightcentered?Arethe proportions correct? Do the eyes and mouth converge at a distantvanishingpoint?DidItreatthehairlikesmoke?DidIachievealikeness?Istheresensitivitytomydrawing?”Forhomework I sometimesask students towork fromphotos theyhave

takenofamodel.Ithenaskthemtopinthephotoalongsidetheirdrawing.Bycomparingthephotowiththeirdrawing,theyimmediatelyseewheretheyhavegonewrong. If, forexample, theeyesare too lowor the shadows thewrongshape,itwillbeobvious.Ifashadowshapeisroundinthephotoandtheyhavedrawn itpointed, itwillnot look like thephoto,whichcapturedthelikenessofthemodel.However,iftheyredrawtheshadowshapesothatit is round, itwill look like the photo and achieve the same likeness.Thismethodofcriticismisanexcellentself-teachingtoolthatyoucancarryouton your own. Itwill help you analyze your drawings and recognizewhereyoustillneedwork.Ihavefoundthatthemajordifferencebetweenteachersand students is not in the ability to draw, but in the ability to see andcompareshapesofvalue.

TAKINGYOURSKILLSTOTHENEXTLEVELLikeanythingnewthatmustbelearned,gettingtheproportionscorrectandin proper foreshortened perspective, recognizingwhen andwhy a shadowchanges from a form-shadow to a cast-shadow and back again is difficultandcanbefrustrating.Whenyoufirstlearnedtodriveacar,itwasdifficultto clutch and apply the throttle or brake without stalling or racing theengine.But intimeoperatingavehiclesmoothlycouldbedoneevenwhileconcentratingonotherthings,suchaschangingaCD.Oftenithasbeennotedthatthemoreapersondoesaparticulartask,the

easier that task becomes. This is not because the task becomes any lessdifficultbutbecausetheperson’sabilitytodomoreincreases.Afterreadingthisbookandputting itsprinciples into repeatedpractice, in timeyouwillbecomeproficientinapplyingtheprinciplesofchiaroscuro,somuchsothatyour understanding of and rendering of shadow shapes will be intuitive.Soon, if not already, you will see everything in terms of form-and cast-shadows. At that point you will have mastered the technique and will befreedtodeveloparefinedsensitivityandpersonalstyleinyourdrawings.Therearemultipleways todevelopnuance inyourwork.Tobegin,you

mightimaginethatyouhavelostyoursight,falleninlovewithanother,anddesire to know his or her appearance.Most likely, you would very gentlycaress the contour of your lover’s face with both hands. As your fingersgently rise and lower over the subtleties of contour variation, you arevisualizinginyourmind’seyewhatyourfingersrecord.Forthevisualartist,art making parallels the above scenario but in reverse. As the eye gentlycaressesthesubtletiesofcontourvariation,sothehandcaressesthedrawingsurfaceasgentlyandsensitivelyasifthehandweretouchingtheactualfaceofthemodel.Itisasymbioticrelationship.

CHAPTERFIVE

DRAWINGFROMMULTIPLESOURCES

COMBININGREFERENCESTaking artistic license, the same set of skills you have cultivated tosuccessfully create the illusion of three-dimensionality in conventionalportraiturecanalsobeusedtocreatewhimsicalheads.Onceyougraspthatbothform-andcast-shadowsarethebasisofrealisticillusion,youcancreateconvincing creatures by combining human and animal features from life,imagination,andphotoreferences.Youmightdecidetodressyourmodelina period costume (try using a photo reference if you don’t have access tocostumes), or you might create historical figures from your imagination.Exaggerating the expression or features of a model can create wonderfulcharacterizations.Anythingyoucanimagineispossible.

Thiscompositedrawingofafemalemodelandphotoreferencesofamonkey’smouthandelephant’s

earscreatesanexpressive,imaginarycreature.

Besides just being enjoyable to do, the additional skill you will gain bycombining two sourcesof reference (either life andphoto, or twoormorephotos),andusingyourimaginationtocombinethereferencesconvincingly,alsohasprofessionalapplications.Forexample,asaprofessionalillustrator,youmayneedtoalter thefeaturesofyourmodel tofit thecharacter inthestory or add a costume from a photo reference. Youmight be required tocreateanextraterrestrialcreatureforascience-fictionmovieorapirateforachildren’sbook.

Thisisacompositedrawingofafemalemodelandphotoreferencesofelephantears,cateyes,and

beaverteeth.Thenosewasfrommyimagination,thoughthemodelhadthepiercing.Aslongasthe

modelandthephotoreferencesareidenticallypositionedtothelightsource,thelightandshadow

willbeconsistentandthecompositeconvincing.

ADEMONSTRATIONTheprinciplesofchiaroscuro,andtheverysamefivedrawingstepsappliedin the previous chapter, are followed when combining references. Thedemonstration that follows is just one example of drawing from multiplesources. I suggest that you use it as a guide for combining a model withphoto reference. It’sa funway todevelopyourability tovisualize, inyourmind’s eye, how light on form and the resulting shadows describe theconnecting structure between two or more photo references. It will alsobuild your confidence that anything real or imagined can appeardimensional if described in form-and cast-shadows. So get creative andhavefun.

STEPS 1 & 2: GESTURE AND PROPORTION. The first step when making acomposite drawing is to find a reference that is exciting and dramatic, forexample,abearwithitsmouthwideopen.Itisimportantthatthesubjectinyourphotoreferenceis lit fromasingle lightsourcethatclearlydefines itsstructurethroughacombinationofbothform-andcast-shadows.Ifyouusemore than one photo reference, it is essential that the light and cameraanglesareidenticalineachone.ForthisdemonstrationIhaveselectedtwophotoswith the same angle of light (above and tomy right) and the samecameraangle(three-quarterviewtomyleft).Ithenpositionedthelightonmylivemodeltomatchthetwophotosandpositionedmyself toalignwiththethree-quarterviewinthereferences.Icombinedallthreereferencesinonegesturedrawingandestablishedtheproportionoffeaturesaswell.Sincethis drawing is a compilation of sources, it is necessary to determine howhightheearsaretobeplacedabovetheeyesandhowlargethemouthwillbeatthisstage.

Steps1&2.Threereferences—twophotosandthelivemodel—arecombinedinthissingledrawing.

Nonetheless,thesameorderofdrawingstepsIfollowedinthelastchapter—fromgesturetodetail—

arepracticedhere.InthissittingIaddressedthegestureandproportion.Imadecertainthatthelight

andcameraangleswereidenticalinbothphotoreferencesandthenmatchedthelightingonthe

model,aswellasmyviewpoint,tothatusedinthephotos.

STEP3:SHADOWSHAPES.Beginninginthecenterofeachshadowshape,andwith the side of my pencil, I duplicated the structure of each feature byreferring to the appropriate reference. I usedmy imagination to fill in thetransitionalstructurebetweenfeatures.

Step3.AtthisstageIdevelopedtheshadowshapesusingmyphotoreferencesandthemodelasa

guide.

STEP 4: EDGE CONTROL. Once Iwas convinced that the shadow shapes ofeach feature and the connective structurewere correct in size, shape, andplacement, I crisped the edges of all cast-shadows and blended all form-shadowedges.

Step4.Aftermakinganynecessaryadjustmentstothesize,shape,andplacementoftheshadow

shapes,Iaddressedtheiredges.

STEP5:DETAIL. Steppingaway frommydrawing, Ianalyzed thepreviousstage to access if andwhere additional contrastwas needed, though Iwascarefulnottooverworkthedrawing.Darkaccentsandhighlightswereaddedinthisfinalstage.

Step5.SoasnottooverworkthedrawingIstoodbackabouttenfeetfromit.FromthisdistanceIwas

bestabletodeterminehowmuchdetailwasneeded.

EXAMPLESOFCOMPOSITEDRAWINGSSinceshadowschangeshapeinrelationshiptothelightsource,aconvincingrealitycanseldombefakedwhenusingpoorlymatchedsources.Thinkofacompositedrawingasarecordoftruth.Ifoneareaofyourdrawingisfaked,itislikealie;whenyoulie,youeventuallygetcaught.Tobesuccessful,itisnecessary to arm yourself with a reference that describes structureconsistentlywithyourmodelorotherreferences.Coordinatingyoursourcesbeforeyoubegindrawingwillmakeyourworkmucheasier.Otherwiseyouwill struggle needlessly, and most likely fail to correct whatever isincongruous,whether it is the lightingorheadposition. If, for example, acostumereferenceisnot litwithidentical intensityof lightandatthesameangleoflightasonthemodel,yourmarriageofthetwosourceswillneverbeconvincing.

ForthiscompositedrawingIbeganbyusingthemodel’sbasicgestureandheadshape,andhiseyes

andmouth,whichgavethedrawingitspartial-humanlook.Thenoseandearswerefromdifferent

animalsources,butwithidenticallighting.Thetophornsandcostumewerecreatedfrommy

imagination.

Icombinedafemalemodelwithaphotoreferenceofapig’snose,mouth,andears.Thereferenceof

thepig’snose,mouth,andearswouldneverhaveworkedwiththepreviousmalepigheadsinceits

positionwasflopped.

Youmightalsotrycombiningamodelwithaphotoreferenceofhistoricalcostumes,asinthis

drawing.HadIinventedthecostume,mydrawingwouldnothavelookedauthentic.Bycombiningthe

modelwithanauthenticphotoreference,heappearstohaveactuallymodeledinthecostume.Asan

illustrator,Ilearnedearlyinmycareerthatanillustrationisneveranybetterthanyourreference.One

differencebetweenagoodillustratorandagreatoneistheextenttowhichtheillustratorwillgofor

thebestreference.

Here,thoughIlengthenedthemodel’shairandaddedabeard,alikenessisstillmaintained.

Eventhoughtheeyesandopen,toothlessmouthareinventedandextremelyexaggerated,alikeness

canbeseenbecauseIusedthemodel’sshadowshapestodescribetheear,nose,eyebrows,orbicular

cavities,andupperlip.

OnSourceMaterialWhensearchingforsourcematerial,lookforphotoswithclearform-andcast-shadows.If

therearenoshadows,thereisnoformstructure.

ThisportraitofJesusChristwasdoneentirelyfromphotoreferencesandfrommyimagination.The

eyesarefromonesource,thenoseandmouthfromanother.Thehairandbeardarefrommy

imagination.TogethertheycreatemyinterpretationofwhatChristmighthavelookedlike.Without

referencehewouldnothavelookedreal.

Thisdrawingofapiratestartedwithamodel,thoughI’vetakenmanyliberties.Guidedonlybymy

imagination,I’vebrokenhisnose,closedoneeye,givenhimbadteeth,andaddedanearring.Despite

thesechanges,thedrawingisconvincingbecauseitisrenderedinsoftform-shadowsandhardcast-

shadows.

CHAPTERSIX

WORKINGWITHCOLOR

FROMDRAWINGTOPAINTINGWhendrawingthehead,youhavebeenholdingyourCarbOthellopencilsasyou would a brush. And you have applied broad strokes of value as youwould inpaint.By theendof this chapteronworkingwith color, youwillunderstand that drawing is identical to painting. Thosewho say otherwiseare lookingatdrawings thathavebeendrawn in line.Whetherdrawingorpainting,youarerenderingforminvalue,notline.Havinglearnedtodrawtheheadinvalue,paintingisalogicalprogression.Usingtheprinciplesofchiaroscuro, theRenaissancemastersbegantheir

paintings with full-value monochromatic underpaintings made with anopaque, white paint and a transparent color called bitumen (asphalt).Though like drawing in terms of their monochrome palette, old-masterunderpaintingsqualifiedassuchsincetheentiresurfaceofthesupportwascovered with pigment, and because forms were rendered in full value. Incontrast, old-master drawings were usually not full-value renderings butinsteadquicksketchesdone inanabbreviated form.This iswhy theMonaLisa (see thispage), rather thanoneofLeonardodaVinci’sdrawings,wasusedtointroducechiaroscuroatthebeginningofthisbook.

Thispaintingwasdevelopedwithanunderpaintingofbrownmadder,whichcreateswarmshadows.

Brownmadderisamorestablecolorthanthefugitivebitumenthattheoldmastersused.WhenI

beginanoilpainting,I“draw”withabrushinoilfollowingthesamemethodtaughtinthisbook.I

beganthisportraitwithanunderpaintingandcompleteditusingtheglazingandscumbling

technique.

Leonardo began the Mona Lisa with a full-value underpainting thatestablishedformalongwiththevaluepattern,usingthesameprinciplesyouhave learned to draw the head. Once dried, color could be added to thesurfaceafter adark, transparent colorwasappliedover theunderpainting.This step is known as glazing. The surface was physically built up byapplyingadry, stiff, lighterandopaquecolorover thedarker,driedcolor.

Thisstepisknownasscumbling,ordrybrushing.Toscumble,abrushwithvery little medium (nearly dry) is dragged across the glazed surface. TheMona Lisa is a beautiful example of this technique. In essence the onlydifferencebetween theMonaLisa and theCarbOthellopencil drawings inthis book is the addition of color, through the steps of glazing andscumbling.Asyouworkwithcolor,youwillcontinuetouseallthatyouhavelearned

up to this point. As the old-master painters did, you will simply add theelementofcolor,literallyasanotherlayer,toyourrenderingofthemassesoflightandshadow.Thoughthechoicesofcolormediaarevast,inthischapterIwillfocusonpastelpainting.Havinggrownaccustomedtousingthepastelpencil todraw thehead,workingwithpastel sticks to createpaintings is anatural development. Before introducing you to the technique of pastelpainting, however, it is necessary to cover a few basic points about howcolorsbehave.

Thispaintingwasdevelopedwithanunderpaintingofblue,whichcreatedcoolshadows.Itwas

finishedwithadirectapplicationofoilpaintcalled“alaprima”inwhichthickopaquetouchesofcolor

areappliedoverathinunderpainting.

THECOLOR“WHEEL”Thecolortheorydiscussedinthisbookrelatestoallmediaandgenresofart.The principles are based on the harmonious relationship of one color toanother,whetheropticallymixedwithpastelpigmentorphysicallymixedona canvas with oil or acrylic. Along with learning to create a harmoniouspalette, you will learn how to control the intensity of color and toapproximateascloselyaspossiblethequalityoflight-filledcolor.Mostcolortheoriesbeginwiththethreeprimarycolors—red,yellow,and

blue.Theprimariescannotbemadebymixingothercolors together.Theymustbepurchasedfromamanufacturer.Eachprimaryisunrelated:Thereisnoredinthecoloryellow,noyellowinthecolorblue,noblueinthecolorred. Combining two primaries will create the secondary colors—orange,violet, and green. The six tertiary colors are mixtures of a primary and asecondary color. They are yellow-orange, red-orange, red-violet, blue-violet,blue-green,andyellow-green.All of these colors—the primaries, secondaries, and tertiaries—exist in

relationshiptooneanotheronadiagramknownasacolorwheel,thoughinfactthecolorsformatriangleratherthanawheel.Theprimariesarelocatedequidistant from one another, with the secondaries and tertiaries betweenthem.Itwas IsaacNewtonwho, in the early eighteenth century, first used the

color“wheel” tosetdownthecolorsof thespectrum,or light.Newtonhaddiscoveredthatwhenarayofwhitelightispassedthroughaglassprism,itisrefracted, or dispersed, as red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, andviolet.These are known as prismatic colors.When twoof these colors aremixed together, theresultingcolor is lighter;and ifallaremixed together,theresultiswhitelight.However,sinceyouaremixingpigmentsandnotpurelight,yourresults

arejusttheopposite.Ifallthreeprimariesaremixedtogether,theresultisamiddle-value gray, a color known as “mud.” If you mix from the threeprimaries, the resulting secondary and tertiary colors will be less intensethantheprimarycolors.However,throughexperienceyouwilllearnhowtomanipulatepigmenttomosteffectivelyimitatetheappearanceoflight-filledcolor.

COMPLEMENTARYCOLORSA complementary color is that color situated directly across from anothercoloronthecolorwheel,ortriangle.Complementarypairsalwaysconsistofaprimaryanda secondarycolor,or two tertiary colors.Directly across thewheelfromprimaryredissecondarygreen,fromprimaryblueissecondaryorange, and from primary yellow is secondary violet. Directly across thewheel from each tertiary is its complementary tertiary color. Red-violet isacross from yellow-green, blue-violet is across from yellow-orange, andred-orange is across from blue-green. When physically mixed together,complementarycolorsneutralizeeachother—thusacomplementarycanbeused to mute another color, or to create beautiful grays. However, whenplaced side by side, they activate and intensify each other, enliven acomposition,andcreateacenterofinterest.

Whenmixingfromthethreeprimarycolors,thesecondaryandtertiarymixturesarelessintensethan

theprimaries,creatingatriangleratherthanacircleofequalintensity.

COLORINTENSITYIntensity refers to how bright or muted a color appears. It is sometimescalleditssaturation.Atintisalighterversionofthesamecolor;ashadeisadarkerversionofthesamecolor.Whiteisaddedtocreateatint,andblacktocreatea shade. Intense, fully saturated,andbrilliantcolor isunadulteratedby the addition of other pigments. Intense colors are located on theperimeter of the color wheel. Used thoughtfully, a very intense colorsurroundedbycolorsoflesserintensitycanbeexciting.However,theuseoftoomanyfullysaturatedcolorsinapaintingcanbejarring.Learninghowtocontrol the intensityofacolor—both tobrightenormute it—willhelpyoucreatetheresultsyouwant.Secondary colors are considered straight-line mixtures between two

primaries. Straight-linemixtures give you only the color that themixtureproduces.You cannotmake the colormore intenseby addingmoreof theprimarycolor.Butasecondarycolorcanbealteredbyaddingwhitetocreatea tint andblack to createa shade.Or it canbemutedbymixing itwith itscomplementary color.We know, for example, that yellow and blue makegreen.Addingmoreblueoryellowwillnotmaketheresultingcoloramoreintensegreen.

MIXINGFROMTHETERTIARYCOLORSWiththeinventionoftubepaintsaswellassoftpastel“àl’Ecu”byGustaveSennelier in France near the end of the nineteenth century, it becamepossibletoobtainpuretertiarycolorsintubeandpastelform.Previouslyitwasonlypossibletoobtaintertiariesfromprimaryandsecondarymixtures.Forseveralreasonsthiswasagreatadvantage.Usingthesix tertiarycolors(two reds, two yellows, and two blues) rather than the primaries (one red,oneyellow,andoneblue)willgiveyouagreaterrangeofcolorsandproducethe closest approximation of light-filled color. Paintingwith tertiaries willalso insure harmony within your composition, since all colors are alreadymixturesofoneanother.Notonlythat,sincethetertiarymixturesavailablein stick pastel and tube paints are produced from selected chemicalcompounds, they produce the most intense color possible, from whichequallyintensesecondarycolorscanbemixed.Forexample,inthepreviousdiscussiononcolor intensity, you learned thataddingmoreblueoryellowwillnotcreateamoreintensegreen.However,ifyoustartbymixingyellow-green and blue-green, two tertiaries, the resulting green created is muchricher.

OnIntensityBeawareofthetruenatureofthecolorsyoupurchaseanduse.Forexample,cadmiumyellow

mediumisnotsimplyayellow,butayellow-orangeandthereforeatertiarycolor.Ifitwere

mixedwithultramarine,ablue-violet(itscomplementandalsoatertiary),theresultwould

notbegreenbutinsteadacolornearthecenterofthecolorwheelcommonlyreferredtoas

“mud.”

Thecolorsonthiswheelaremixedfromthesixtertiarycolors.Eachtertiarycolorisintensewhen

purchasedintubeform,sinceitisnotamixtureofaprimaryandsecondarycolor.Workinginreverse,

itispossibletomixsecondaryandprimarycolorsfromthesixtertiarycolors.Forexample,the

tertiariesred-orangeandred-violetaremixedtocreateprimaryred.Thetertiariesred-orangeand

yellow-orangearemixedtocreatesecondaryorange.

OnLight-filledColorMonet’spaintingsareoftendescribedasbeinglightfilled.He,andtheotherImpressionists,

madeuseofthetertiarycolorsthenavailableintubes.Forexample,Monetusedtwotertiaries

todescribefoliage.Heusedyellow-greentodescribethelocalcolorontheundersideofleaves.

Heusedblue-greentodescribethetop,shinysideoftheleafthatreflectsthebluesky,creating

adarkerandbluergreen.

COLORTEMPERATUREThe temperature of colors is a complex phenomenon that is modified bymany factors: lighting, the color itself, and the reaction with neighboringcolors. All colors, with the exception of red and yellow, have an intrinsictemperature:forexample,orangeiswarmandblueiscool.Red,however,islocated between the tertiary red-orange, which is warm, and the tertiaryred-violet,whichiscool.Thereforeredisneitherwarmnorcool.Thesameistrueofyellow;itisalsolocatedbetweenawarmandacooltertiarycolor.How warm or cool a color appears, however, is greatly affected by thetemperatureofthelightsourceilluminatingthecolorandthetemperatureofadjacent colors. For example, an object viewed indoors under a warmtungstenlightwilllookdrasticallydifferentthanwhenviewedout-of-doorsin cool daylight. It is generally accepted that warm lights produce coolshadowsandcoollightsproducewarmshadows.Thusonceyou’veidentifiedthetemperatureofthelightsource,youwillknowhowtotreatthelightanddarkmasses.

Iilluminatedthismodelwithacoolnaturallightthathascreateddark,warmshadows.Although

difficulttoseeunderlayersofflesh,thereisalayerofbluearoundtheeyes,mouth,andnose.When

youlookclosely,youwillseethatskinhasatranslucentqualityandthattheveinsunderthesurface

appearblue.Thisismostapparentonlight-complexionedmodelsinnaturallighting.

IrenderedSantainawarmartificiallightthatcreatedcoolshadows.Asoliddarkoutlinefollowsthe

outsidecontourofSanta’shatandbeard.Iaddedthelineasagraphic,decorativeelementtogivethe

portraitanillustrativeorcommercialquality.Note,however,thatthefeatureshavenotbeenoutlined

buthavebeenrenderedinvalue.

OntheTemperatureofLightDaylightiscool;however,atsunsetorsunrisenaturallighttakesonanwarm,orange

colorationthatproducescoolshadows.Commonindoorlighting,suchastungstenbulbs,is

warm.However,fluorescentlightsarecoolandthereforeproducewarmshadows.

COLORRELATIONSHIPSThe tertiary colors on either side of a primary around the colorwheel arethoughttobewarmononesideandcoolontheother.Forexample,yellow-orangeiswarmandyellow-greeniscool;red-orangeiswarmandred-violetis cool. Everyone agrees on the yellow and red tertiary, but which bluetertiary is warm and which is cool? Somemight guess that blue-violet iswarm,yetothersguessblue-green.Actuallyneitheriswarm,andcanneverbe in a composition that contains their unmuted complements yellow-orange and red-orange. Since yellow-orange and red-orange are warm(containing orange) and blue-green and blue-violet are cool (containingblue), blue-green andblue-violet couldbecomewarmer if they aremutedwith vast amounts of yellow-orange and red-orange. But they would stilllookcoolnexttoyellow-orangeorred-orange.If yellow-green is cool, then blue-green is cooler. If red-violet is cool,

thenblue-violetiscooler.Therefore,ifblue-greenandblue-violetarebothcooler, then blue is the coldest color on your palette. If red-orange andyellow-orange are both warm, then orange is the warmest color on yourpalette.Thus,addingbluewillcoolanycolor,andaddingorangewillwarmanycolor.

Colortemperaturesofthesixtertiarycolors,theprimaryblue,anditscomplement,orange.Bluewill

coolanycolor,andorangewillwarmanycolor.

WARMADVANCES;COOLRECEDESTemperaturealsoreferstoanopticaleffect inwhichacolor,dependingonitswarmthorcoolness,appearstoadvanceorrecede.Warmcolorsadvanceandcoolcolorsrecede.Bynowyouknowthatinordertocreatetheillusionthatan illuminatedobject is round, itsedgesmustappear to turnaway,orrecede,fromtheviewer.Thisisaccomplishedbydarkeningtheedgesoftheform,whichyoulearnedtodoearlierinthebookbymanipulatingthelightsourceandapplyingvalue(seeseehereandhere).Withtheknowledgethatwarm colors advance and cool colors recede, you can now also use thetemperatureofcolorstohelp“turn”theedgeofaform.

ColorCharmWarmandcooltemperaturemixesofthesamecolorwillappeartoadvanceandrecede

simultaneouslyiftheyareplacednexttooneanother.Thisnaturallyoccurringphenomenonis

knownascolorcharm,andcanbeusedtogreateffectinacomposition.Forexample,when

yellow-orange,awarmyellowthatadvances,isplacednexttoyellow-green,acoolyellowthat

recedes,thesurfacebecomesactiveandmorebeautifulthanifonlypureyellowwereused.

FAMILYOFCOLORSInpainting,harmonyreferstovisualunity.Thebestwaytoachieveharmonyistouseanalogouscolors—thatis,thosethatarerelatedandareclosetooneanother on the color wheel. All six tertiary colors exist in each analogouscolorschemeandthuswillalwaysbeinperfectharmony.Sinceeachprimaryisunrelated,eachisoutofharmonywiththeother.Ifusedinapurestate,thethreeprimarieswillfightforattentioninthesamecomposition.Thusafundamentalrule incolor theory is,Neverusemore thanoneprimary inacomposition.A“mother”primarycolorinananalogousschemeallowsyoutofollowthisfundamentalrulewithavarietyofharmoniouscolorstochoosefrom on your palette. The following story illustrates how a family ofanalogouscolorsisborn.Thisisthestoryofamotherandheroffspring.Primaryredplaystherole

ofthemother,thoughitcouldbeplayedbyeitheroftheothertwoprimariesaswell, tothesameeffect.Thestorystartswhenthemothermeets,falls inlovewith,andmarriespureblue.ThefirstchildlooksmorelikeMomthanDad. This child is named red-violet. The second child looks asmuch likeDadasMom.Itsname isviolet.Their thirdchild looksmore likeDad,butyoucanstillseesomeofthemother.Itsnameisblue-violet.

Thered-analogouspalettewithasplit-greencomplement

Theblue-analogouspalettewithasplit-orangecomplement

Theyellow-analogouspalettewithasplit-violetcomplementThemothercolorsoondiscoversthatshe

andherhusbandalwaysfightinthesamecomposition.Sherealizesthatshecan’tchangehim;heis

alwaysblue.Themarriageisdissolved,andthemothercolorkeepsthechildren.

She then meets pure yellow. He is a great color. They fall in love andmarry.Again,thefirstchildlooksmorelikethemother.Thischild’snameisred-orange. The second child is named orange, since it looks equally likeMomandDad; and the third,who looksmore likeDad, is named yellow-orange. The mother color once again decides that she can’t live with hersecondhusband.Sherealizesthatshecannotexistinthesamecompositionwitheitherofthetwoprimarieswithoutfighting.The three children from each of her marriages have something in

common.Half-brothersand-sisters,theysharethesamemother,thecolorred.Theyareanalogousredsinperfectharmonywithoneanother.Yetthemother,beingtheonlypurecolor,isreservedforaspecialplace,thecenterof interest. However, paintings made using one family of colors can lookoppressiveandmonotonous.Tomakeallthered-analogouscolorslookred,acompositionneedsthecomplementarycolorofthemother,whichisgreen.This is especially true of the yellow-orange and blue-violet, since theycontain the least amount of theirmother. In this example it will bemuchmore visually interesting and pleasing to use the green tertiaries—yellow-green and blue-green—rather than just pure green. Known as split-complementaries, these more complex greens automatically create a

sophisticated and relational palette.For example, yellow-green is closer toyellow-orange,andorangeandred-orangehaveyellow incommon.Blue-green is near to blue-violet, and violet and red-violet all have varyingquantitiesofblue,whichappear inharmonyandarecomplementary.Also,yellow-green placed next to blue-green is simply more exciting andbeautiful than if only pure green were used. Your choice of split-complementary colors will be based on whether you desire harmony orcontrastinagivenarea.

Thesplit-complementisusedtomutetheanalogouscolors.Intheredcolorscheme,theyellowinthe

yellow-greenisthecomplementtothevioletinred-violet,violet,andblue-violet.Theblueinblue-

greenisthecomplementtotheorangeinred-orange,orange,andyellow-orange.

Onewaytodividelightandshadowwhenworkinginananalogouscolorschemeisbasedona

contrastofcolor.Inthisexamplethered-analogouscolorsmakeuptheilluminatedsideandthe

complementarygreenstheshadowside.

If the role of the mother color were played by yellow or blue, eachanalogous color schemewould contain all six tertiary colors. Absent fromeach color schemewould be the two unwanted primaries, at least in theirpurestates.Theyarepresent,however, inamixedstate.Forexample, inablue-analogouscolorscheme,therewouldbetwochoicesofyellow(yellow-orangeandyellow-green)aswellastwochoicesofred(red-orangeandred-violet).An analogous color composition can be divided in two ways. A

compositioncanbedividedbasedonthecontrastofcolor.Itwouldcontainblue-violet, violet, red-violet, red-orange, orange, and yellow-orange onthe lightsidewith thesplit-complementariesyellow-greenandblue-greenas shadows.The secondmethod is todivide the compositionbasedon thecontrastoftemperature.Itwouldcontainred-violet,violet,andblue-violetplus the blue-green complement, producing cold shadows. Red-orange,orange, and yellow-orange plus the yellow-green complementwith addedorangecreateawarmolivegreen,whichproduceswarmlights.

Anotherwaytodividelightandshadowwhenworkinginananalogouscolorschemeisbasedona

contrastoftemperature.Inthisexample,thered-analogouscolorsareused.Sincetheyaredivided

downthemiddle,producingbothcoolandwarmreds,thered-analogouscolorsallowyoutodivide

lightandshadowbytemperaturewhileaddingthecomplementinbothlightandshadow.

EXPRESSIVECOLORAnalogous color schemes need not only describe reality. In the next twoportraits (see here and here) I’ve experimentedwithmy use of analogouscolorsforexpressivepurposes. (InWesternpaintingthisapproachtocolorwas first adopted by Vincent van Gogh in the nineteenth century.) Justremember, if the values are correct,meaning light and shadowmasses, aswellasvaluepattern,thecolorsneednotdescribelocalcolor,solongasyourcolorchoicesareinharmony.

OnHarmonyInanefforttoachieverichcolor,studentsoftenresorttousingtheprimariesintheirpurestate

becausetheyaretheonlyintensecolorsontheirpalette.This,however,willdestroyanymood

orharmonywithinthepainting.

InthisportraitIusedared-analogousandsplit-greencomplementarycolorscheme.Orangelips,red-

violetshirt,withdarkblue-violetcoatandhairmakeupthereds.Yellow-green,blue-green,andolive-

green(yellow-greenplusorange)makeupthefleshtones.Thebackgroundisablue-green.

InthisportraitIusedablue-analogousandsplit-orangecomplementarycolorscheme.Blue-violetand

red-violetmakeupthefacewithtouchesofblue-andyellow-greensforthebackground.Red-and

yellow-orangesmakeupthehair.

PASTELPAINTINGThe term pastel is derived from the French word pastische, because thepure,poweredpigmentisgroundintoapaste,withasmallamountofgumbinder,andthenrolledintoastick.Thetermdoesnotreferto“pale”colorsasitdoesinthecosmeticsandfashionindustries.Thecolorsavailableinthepastelpaletteareequaltoanypaintmedium.Distinctfromotherpaintingmedia,pastelsareavailableinaready-made

rangeoftintsandshadesforeachcolor.Thisisbecausethepigmentcannotbemixedonaseparatepalette.Themixingcanonlyoccuronthesurfaceofthe support itself by layering the pigment—thus creating an optical colormixture—or by smearing it with a finger or paper stumps. When pastelpigmentislayeredbutnotsmeared,pastelnaturallyhaswhatisknownasa“brittle”quality.Ifthislookisnotdesired,smearingthepigmentwilllessenitsdryorflakyappearance.

OnPastelPaintingPastelpaintings,thoughcreatedwithadrymedium,areconsideredpaintingsiftheentire

supportiscoveredwithpastel.ThedrawingsinthebookmadewiththeCarbOthellopencils,

thoughalsomadewithpastelpigment,areconsidereddrawingsbecausethepapersupportis

visible.

The luminosity of pastel is created by air molecules suspended in eachlayer of pigment. If the pastel is sprayed with fixative, the air moleculescollapse and thepasteldarkens.For this reasonpastelists generallydonotsprayafinalcoatoffixativeoverfinishedworks.Sprayfixativeis,however,usedtobuildupthepastelinaprocesssimilartoglazingandscumblinginoilpainting.Pastelpigmentwillappeardarkerifappliedoveralightsurface.Toachieveascumbledlookpastelmustbedraggedoveradarkenedsurface.Asyoulearnedatthebeginningofthischapter,glazingistheactofapplyingadark, transparent color over a dried, lighter color. Spray fixativehas thesameeffectonpastel.Ifappliedoverlightercolors,thecolorswilldarken.Ifenoughfixativeisapplied,thelightercolorswilldarkenaltogether,bringingyoubacktoapreviousstep,orapplicationofpastelpigment.

Detailoffinishedpastelpainting

THEMATERIALSFor pastel paintings I use soft pastels in stick form, which allows greatercoverage than pastel pencils. Any brand of pastel is fine, though I preferSennelier’sextrasoftconsistencyandcolorselection.Thetintsandshadesofapastel color are indicatedby anumber.Thehighestnumberdenotes thedarkest shade and the lowest number the lightest tint.White is added tocreatethetints,andblackisaddedfortheshades.Ingeneral ifyouwantapastelinitspurestform,lookforacolorwithamiddle-rangenumber.Howbigofastartersetshouldyouget?Ultimatelyitdependsonyourbudget.Butnothing is more frustrating than not having the right colors. Severalmanufacturers,includingSennelier,sellportraitsets.

WhatYouWillNeed

Softpastels,preferablySennelier’sextrasoftpastel“àl’Ecu”

6Borextrasoftcharcoalpencil RivesBFKpaper,white Sprayfixative,preferably

Grumbacher’sMystonWorkableFixative Chamois Paperstumps(optional)

IhavearrangedthepastelsIuseintwodrawersofashallowfilecabinet,whereIkeepwatercolor,

pastel,gouache,oil,andprismacolorpencils.Itislocatedtotherightofmyeasel.Thedrawersare

positionedfarenoughaparttoaccessbothlayersofpastelssimultaneously.

Charcoalpencilscomeinwoodandpaper.Eitherisfinetouse,thoughthepaperpencilsareeasiertosharpenthanthewoodpencils.Thepaperpencilsaresharpenedbypullingthepaperawayinstrips.Thisrevealsthecharcoal,whichisthensandedtoapoint.ThewoodpencilsaresharpenedwithanX-Actoknife, the sameway theCarbOthellopencils are sharpened, and thensandedtoapoint.

RivesBFK is a 100 percent cotton paper that has enough tooth to holdseverallayersofpastel.Bothsidesofthepapersurfacearethesame,soyoucanusethereversesideifyouhaveafalsestart.Thepaperisheavyenoughtoallowminimalbucklingwhenframed.ThepaperispHbalancedandacidfree,soitwillnotyelloworbecomebrittlewithage.Ionlyusewhitepaper,sinceIprefertoworkonamiddle-valuegraycreatedfrompastel.Acoloredpaper would dictate my color choices. Rives BFK comes in full and halfsheets.Ahalfsheetissufficientforadrawingofheadandshoulders.ForaspraypropellantIpreferGrumbacher’sMystonWorkableFixative.

Thepropellantdisseminatesbeforemakingcontactwiththepastel,causingonlytheresinousparticlestoadheretothesurface,whichleavesthesurfaceworkable. The more fixative that is applied, the darker the pastel willbecome. It should be sprayed eighteen inches from the drawing surface.Whenapplyingthesprayfix,trynottoinhalethevapors.Tobeextracarefulwearamaskwhenusingsprayfixative.

Chamois is traditionally used to tone the surface of drawing paper incharcoaldrawings.Once thechamois is saturatedwithcharcoaldust itwilladdtoneratherthanabsorbit.You can use your finger to smear the pastel pigment on the surface,

though I recommend using paper stumps for this purpose. Like sprayfixative,itisnothealthytoinhaleoringestpastelpigment.Therefore,ifyoudouseyour finger to smear thepastel, be sure towashyourhandsbeforeeating. (On a personal note, I avoid smearing pastel since I prefer itsnaturallybrittle quality.)Also, donot blowpastel dust from the surfaceofyourpaintingsinceparticlesofpastelpigmentintheairmaybeinhaled.

OnSprayFixativePastelpigmentcannotbewipedofforremovedwithaneraser.However,ifthepastelbecomes

“pasty”(toolightinvalue),itcanbedarkenedthroughsprayfixing.Ifalargequantityofthe

liquidpropellantinfixativeisallowedtosaturatethesurface,eventuallyitwilldissolvepastel

pigment.

CARINGFORYOURPASTELIf placed on an archival support, and properly framed, pastel is the moststableofallmedia.Toprotectitssurface,afinishedworkshouldbeplacedbehindglassassoonaspossible.Alinerattachedtotheframeisneededtoseparate the glass from the pastel. This will prevent pastel dust fromadheringtotheglasscausedbystaticelectricityandmoisturedamagefromcondensation.Sincepastelispurepigment,itwillnotfade,crack,ordiscolorover time. You can return to the work years later and continue to applypastel over previous layers tomaintain original freshness.However, if thegroundorsupportcontainsacid,theworkwillyellowwhenexposedtolight.

APPLYINGTHECHARCOALPENCILUse the charcoalpencil to establish the first fourof the same fivedrawingstepsyouhavefollowedwhendrawingtheheadwiththeCarbOthellopencils—thatis,gesture,proportions,shadowshapes,andedgecontrol.Thedetailsof the portrait—the fifth and final step of the pencil drawings—will berenderedincolorwithsoftpastel.Whendrawing,thecharcoalpencilisheldinthesamepositionas theCarbOthellopencil. Ifyoumakeamistake,youcan rub it down with the chamois, which produces a middle value. Thencontinue drawing over the middle value. Be sure to apply the charcoaldarkly.Ifyouapplythecharcoaltoolightly,yourdrawingwillbecoveredupduring the next step when the tone is applied with the black soft pastel.Whenyouhavecompletedthecharcoaldrawing,sprayfixthesurface.Makesure the drawing is properly fixed by rubbing your finger across anunimportantsectionofthedrawing.Ifanyofthecharcoalcomesoffonyourfinger,applymorefixative.

APPLYINGTHETONEAfterthecharcoaldrawingiscompleteandfixed,youwillcreateamiddle-valuetonebyslidingastickofblackpastelacrossthesurface.Youwillthenforce thepastel into thedrawingsurfaceby rubbing itwitha chamois inacircularmotion.Thenfixthislayeroftone.Thecharcoaldrawingandlayerof tone form the foundation for the color that you apply next. Everythingyou apply following these first two steps will be lighter. If you make amistake,youcanalwayssprayfixtodarkenthesurfaceandreturnittothesefirsttwosteps.

APPLYINGTHEPASTELTocreateapastelpaintingyouwillstrokethepastelsticksacrossthesurface.Thiswill cause thedrypigment tobeembedded in the toothof thepaper.Apply the pastel in a loose scribble, allowing the darker middle value toremainvisiblebetweenstrokes.Donotfillthesurfacewithflatareasofcolor.Thiswillnotonly expend thepastelbutwill also saturate the fibersof thesupportandprohibitsubsequentlayers.Avoidmakingyourstrokesofcolorat a repetitive diagonal. Right-handed artists unconsciously make marksfromtheupperrighttothelowerleft.Trytoconsciouslyfollowtheformordescribetheformwithyourstrokes.

Don’tfillthepapersurfacewithflatareasofcolor.Notonlywillyouuseupthepastelpigmentfartoo

quickly,butthepaperfiberswillbecomesaturatedandwillnotpermitsubsequentlayers.

Beginapplyingcolorusingamiddle-valuefleshcolorontheilluminatedside of your model. Most likely no single color, or pigment, will exactlymatchthefleshcoloronthelightsideoftheform.Instead,youwillarriveatthat exact color through an optical mixture of several layers of differentcolors.Colors appear to blend at a distancewhen they are applied side bysideorlayeredlooselyontopofoneanother.Thekeyis,Don’tgotoolighttoo soon. After you’ve worked up the light side, layer the shadow side,beginning with the darkest color in the shadow. Be careful to maintain a

strongvalueseparationbetweenlightandshadow.

PAINTINGTHEBACKGROUNDThe background relates the sitter to the environment. A simple rule ofthumbisthatthebackgroundvalueshouldalwaysbedarkeragainstthelightsideofthesitter’sfaceandlighterinvalueagainsttheshadowside,thoughthe difference in value should be subtle. This creates the illusion ofatmosphere so the portrait does not appear painted on the backgroundsurface. In traditional portraiture the background is often amuted green,sometimesblue,orlessoftenbrown.Agreenbackgroundwillcomplementarobustcomplexionandmakethegraysinthefleshappearricher.Whichevercolor you choose, it should appear somewhereon the flesh.Otherwise thehead will look like a cutout pasted on an unrelated environment. Thebackgroundcolormustappearineitherthehalftoneorreflectedlightontheform, though it will not always be equivalent in value to the halftone orreflected light (remember too that the halftone and reflected light are twodifferentvalues).Mostoftenthebackgroundcolorwillbeadjustedinvalue.

Thissitterisalsoilluminatedbyacoolnaturallight.Ihaverenderedthispastelmuchlooserthanthe

previousone,withoutsacrificingaccuracyofproportion,shadowshapes,oredgecontrol.Toimprove

thecompositionIplacedthemodelslightlytotherightofdeadcenter.Withaslighttilttothehead

andseverecroppingofthehatandshoulders,Ihavedividedthebackgroundintoavarietyofshape

configurations.Successfuluseofthenegativespacearoundthemodeladdsinterestandis

fundamentaltoastrongcomposition.

PASTELDEMONSTRATIONONESTEP1.Iestablishedtheshadowshapes,aswellasdark,localvaluewithmycharcoalpencil,followingtheusualsequenceofgesture,proportion,shadowshapes, and edge control. Later I will apply the details with soft pastel.Havingestablishedthesesteps,Ithensprayfixedthedrawing.

Step1.Theshadowshapesanddark,localvaluewererenderedwithacharcoalpencil.

STEP 2. To ensure a complete coverage of the paper surface—thusqualifyingtheworkasapaintingratherthanadrawing—Iappliedamiddle-valuetonebyslidingastickofblackpastelacrossthesurface.NextIforcedthepastelintothetexturedsurfacebyrubbingitwithachamoisinacircularmotion.Ithensprayfixedthislayer.

Step2.Islidastickofblackpastelacrossthepapersurfacetocoveritcompletely,thenrubbedthe

pastelintothepaperwithachamois.

STEP3.Ibegantoapplycolorbylayeringmiddle-valuecolorsonthelightsideofthemodel’shead.I looselyappliedeachcolorwitha lightpressure,beingcarefulnottosaturatethesurfacewithanysinglecolor.AfterIworkedup the light side, I then layered the shadow side by beginning with thedarkest color in the shadow, being careful to maintain a strong valueseparationbetweenlightandshadow.

Step3.TobeginapplyingcolorIlayeredthemiddle-valuecolorsonthemodel’slightside.Ithen

layeredtheshadowside,startingwiththedarkestcolorintheshadow.

STEP4.Thebrittlequalityofpastelpigmentdisappearswhenitissmeared.Sincered isneitherwarmnorcool, it isanexcellentmiddlevaluebetweenlightandshadow.Iusedittoblendthewarm,lightsidewiththecool,darkside.HadIphysicallyblendedopposite temperatures Iwouldhavecreatedmud. I alsoused red to turn the edge of the illuminated side of the form,thus creating the illusion of roundness. Though red is a middle valuebetweenthelightandshadowsides,itisdarkerthanthevalueofthecontouronthelightsideofthemodelandthusturnedtheform.Thecontouredgeontheshadowsideisalreadydark.

Step4.Iusedredtoblendbetweenthelightanddarksidlesofthemodel’sheadandtoturntheform,

creatinganillusionofroundness.

STEP5.SinceIhavechosentoworkwithawarm,artificiallight,Iknowthatmy shadows will be cool. I therefore used a violet flesh color to cool myshadowsandorangetowarmmyfleshtonesinthelight.AtthisstageIalsoaddedcoloraccents.Iaddedredtothefleshmixturesforthenose,cheeks,ears, and lips, and yellow to the forehead and chin. Using the additionalcolors in the forehead, chin, cheeks, and nose, I also blended in the redtransitionalcolor.

Step5.AtthisstageIaddedcoloraccentstothefaceofthemodel.

STEP6. Ithenaddedhighlightsanddarkaccents.Sincetheshadowswerered-violet,Imadethebackgroundawarmgreen,andintroducedthiscolorintothehalftoneofthehairandflesh.Iaddedinteresttothevaluepatternbymakingthevalueofthebackgroundlighterinrelationtotheshadowsideoftheheadanddarkerinrelationtothelightsideofthehead.

Step6.InthefinalstepIaddedhighlightsanddarkaccents.

OnTurningaFormIfred-orangeiswarmandred-violetiscoolandredisinbetweenthem,thenredisneither

warmnorcoolbutisamiddlevaluebetweenlightandshadow.Thusattheturningofanedge,

redworkswellasatransitioncolortohelpblendbetweenlightandshadow.

PASTELDEMONSTRATIONTWOSTEP 1. Having set themodel at a three-quarter view tomy right, I thenpositioned the light above and to the front and left of center. I did this tocausethesideplanetobeslightlydarkerthanthefrontplane.Incontrasttothepreviousdemonstration,Ihaveusednaturallightwiththismodel,whichcausedwarmshadows.Sincemyeyelevel isabovethemodel, theneareyewill appear lower than the far eye, and the eyes andmouthwill convergeupward toward thehighereye level.With thecharcoalpencil Iestablishedthe gesture, proportion in perspective, shadow shapes, and shadow edges.Althoughitwastemptingtorenderthehalftonevalueinblackcharcoal,Ididnot,asitwoulddisappearinthetoneofthenextstep.IfixedthislayerwithMyston.

Step1.SinceIpositionedthelightsourceaboveandtothefrontandleftofcenter,thesideplaneof

themodel’sheadisslightlydarkerthanthefrontplane,creatingasenseofthree-dimensionality.

STEP 2. I created a middle tone by sliding a black pastel stick over thedrawing surface and rubbing it into the surface of the paper in a circularmotionwithachamois.IfixedthislayerwithMystonaswell.

Step2.Tocreateamiddletone,Islidablackpastelstickoverthesurfaceandrubbeditinusinga

chamois.

STEP 3. I used a cool-gray middle-value flesh color as a base for theilluminatedside.Iusedareddishbrowndarkvalueforthelocalcolor,warmtemperature, and value of the shadow side. Green was applied as abackgroundtocomplementtheredcolorationoftheflesh.

Step3.Iusedacool-grayfleshcolorforthebasefortheilluminatedsideofthefaceandareddish

browndarkvaluefortheshadowside.

STEP 4. I addedblue-gray ashalftone aroundeach feature. Iused red, acommoncolortobothlightandshadow,toblendallform-shadowedges.Ialso applied red to turn the contour of each form. I added yellow to theforehead and green to the temples (the blue halftone and yellow creategreen).Iaddedredtothenose,cheeks,andearswithviolethalftones(bluehalftoneandredcreateviolet).

Step4.Iaddedcoloraroundortoeachfeature.

STEP5. Iuseda lighterfleshcolorto lightenandunifyall thecolornotespreviouslyadded,aswellastocrispallcast-shadowedges.

Step5.Iunifiedandlightenedallthecolorsbyapplyingalighterfleshcolor.

STEP6. Iaddedreflectedlightintheorbicularcavityandbottomplaneofthe nose. I added green to all other shadows that received bounced lightfrom the background color. To the shadows I added dark accents in darkgreen(darkgreenanddarkred-browncreateacolorclosetoblackinvaluebutwithoutthelifelessness).Sincethelightsourceiscool,itthusproducescoollightmasses.Iaddedthehighlightsinalightblue-green.

Step6.Notethetemperatureofyourlightsourcewhenaddinghighlightsanddarkaccentstoyour

painting.Acoollightwillproducecoolhighlightsonthelightsideofyourmodelandwarmaccentson

theshadowside.

FromPaintingtoDrawingThesepaintingsareexamplesofatechniquecalledPeintureàL’essence(meaning“paintingin

spirits,”or“turpentine”).TheImpressionistartistEdgarDegasinventedthetechniqueto

createartworksthatimitatedtheappearanceofpasteldrawingbutthatdidnotrequireglass

forprotection.TocreateaPeintureàL’essence,theartistappliesoilpainttoacardboard

palette,whichdrawstheoiloutofpaint.Thepigmentisreconstitutedwithturpentineand

appliedtoacardboardsupport.Theturpentineevaporates,leavingthepigmentdryand

chalklikeinappearance.Sinceitdriessoquickly,itispossibletopaintlightoverdarkanddark

overlightaswellaswarmovercoolandcooloverwarmwithoutthecolorbecomingmuddy.If

thepigmentcontainstoomuchturpentine,thefinishedworklookslikeapaintingratherthan

apasteldrawing.

Theturpentineevaporates,leavingthepaintdryandchalklikeinappearance.

Turpentine’squick-dryingpropertycanbeadisadvantage,sincethepainttendstodrybeforeit

getstothesupport.Theonlysolutionistoaddatouchmoreturpentineandworkfaster.

ArtistWilliamL.MaughangraduatedfromtheArtCenterCollegeofDesignwithdistinctionin1973.HebeganhiscareerincommercialillustrationinNewYorkin1974.Heisalsoanaccomplishedfineartistinoilandpastelmediums,producingawiderangeofpaintings—includingWesterns,CivilWarscenes,plein-airlandscapes,andportraiture.HispaintingsareshownattheGeorgeSternFineArtsGalleryinWestLosAngeles,California,andDiTommasoGalleriesinScottsdale,Arizona,andareinprivateandmuseumcollections.Examplesofhisillustrationsandfineartcanbeviewedatwww.Easelpainter.com.Maughanhastaughtadvancedheaddrawing,portraitpainting,andlandscapepaintingsince1976attheArtCenterCollegeofDesign,Pasadena,California,andtheAcademyofArtCollege,SanFrancisco,California,where,since1989,hehasdirectedGraduateStudiesinFineArtPaintingandTraditionalIllustration.HelivesinNapa,California.

INDEXAccents.SeeDarkAccentsAdvancingoflightofwarm

AlaprimaAlberti,BattistaAnalogouscolorsAnalyzingformAnatomy,ofeyesArtificiallight,2.1,6.1

Background,2.1,6.1BeardBlondhairBlue-analagouspalette,6.1,6.2Brows,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4placementof,3.1,3.2

Brunelleschi,FilippoBrunethair

CaravaggioCarbOthellopencilsCaringforpastelsCast-shadows,1.1,1.2,3.1Chamois,6.1,6.2“Charcoal”paperCharcoalpencils,6.1,6.2Charm,colorCheekbonesChiaroscuro,itr.1,1.1Color(s),SeealsoPrimarycolors;Secondarycolors;Tertiarycolors

analogouscomplementary,6.1,6.2,6.3expressivefamilyoflight-filled

ColorcharmColorintensity,6.1,6.2ColorrelationshipsColortemperature,6.1,6.2ColorwheelCombiningreferencesComparing,ofeyesComplementarycolors,6.1,6.2,6.3Compositedrawings,examplesofContour,2.1,2.2Cool,recedingofCorneaCostumes,5.1,5.2CreativeIllustrationCriticism,ofself

Dark,recedingof,2.1,2.2Darkaccents,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7,4.1,6.1DellaPitturaDemonstration(s)ofcombiningreferencespastel

Detail,3.1,4.1,4.2,4.3,4.4,5.1Downwardslant,ofeyeDrawingfrommultiplesourcespaintingtotopainting

Drawinghead,principlesofDrawingmethod,itr.1,itr.2,itr.3Drawingprocess/steps,3.1,4.1Drawings,composite,examplesof

Eakins,ThomasEarsplacementof,3.1,3.2

Edgecontrol,4.1,4.2,4.3,4.4,4.5,4.6,5.1Edges,shadowEraserExpressivecolorEyelids,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7Eyesanatomyofcomparingofdrawingofexamplesofplacementof,3.1,3.2

FamilyofcolorsFeatures,placementof.SeePlacementFeitelson,LorserFiveessentialdrawingstepsFixative,spray,6.1,6.2Focalpoint,singleForeshorteningFormanalyzingofinlightturningofvalueand

Form-shadows,1.1,1.2,1.3,3.1Full-valuerange

Gesture,3.1,4.1,4.2,4.3,4.4,4.5,4.6,5.1Glazing,6.1,6.2,6.3Gogh,VincentvanGoingforward

Hair

Halftone,1.1,1.2,1.3,4.1Hals,FransHarmony,6.1,6.2Headdrawingof,principlesoflightingofplanesofsculptingof

Highlights,1.1,1.2,1.3,4.1,4.2,4.3,6.1onear,3.1,3.2oneyes,3.1,3.2,3.3onnoseandmouth,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4

HorizonlineHumanFigure,The

Ideas,practiceImagination,5.1,5.2,5.3,5.4Intensity,color,6.1,6.2Inwardslant,ofeyeIris,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7

KneadederaserKnife,itr.1,itr.2Knowledge,seeingas,3.1,3.2

Lashes,3.1,3.2,3.3Leonardo.SeeVinci,LeonardodaLightadvancingofartificial,2.1,6.1,6.2forminnatural,2.1,6.1reflectedandshadow,massesoftemperatureof,6.1,6.2

Light-filledcolorLighting,ofheadLine(s)

Line(s)horizonorthogonalversusvalue

Lips.SeeMouthLocalvalueLoomis,Andrew“Lost-and-found”line

Masses,oflightandshadowMaterials,itr.1,itr.2forpastelpainting

Measuring,sightMethod,drawing,itr.1,itr.2,itr.3MichelangeloMixing,fromtertiarycolorsMonaLisa,itr.1,6.1Monet,ClaudeMouthexamplesofplacementof,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4structureof

MultiplesourcesMustache,3.1,3.2,3.3

Naturallight,2.1,6.1,6.2NaturalslantsofeyeNegativeshapesNewton,IsaacNoseexamplesofplacementof,3.1,3.2,3.3structureof

One-halfincrementsOne-thirdincrements,3.1,3.2,3.3OpticalcolormixtureOrbicularcavity,3.1,3.2

OrthogonallinesOutwardslant,ofeye

Paintingdrawingtopasteltodrawing

Palettes,analogousPaper,itr.1,6.1,6.2asvalue,1.1,3.1

Paperstumps,6.1,6.2PastelpaintingPastelpaintings,caringforPastels,soft,6.1,6.2Pattern,valuePencil(s)charcoal,6.1,6.2asvalueworkingwith

PerspectivePhotoreferences,5.1,5.2,5.3,5.4,5.5,5.6Placementofbrows,3.1,3.2ofear,3.1,3.2ofeyes,3.1,3.2ofmouth,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4ofnose,3.1,3.2,3.3

Planes,ofheadPositions,ofeyesPracticeideasPrimarycolors,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4,6.5,6.6Process,drawing,3.1,4.1Proportions,3.1,4.1,4.2,4.3,4.4,4.5,4.6,5.1Pupil,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7Puttingitalltogether

Range,full-value

Raphael,prf.1,itr.1Recedingofcoolofdark,2.1,2.2

Red-analagouscolors,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4References,combiningofReflectedlightRelationships,colorRembrandt,prf.1,itr.1Rimlighting,2.1,2.2RivesBFK,6.1,6.2

SandpadSargent,JohnSingerSculptingheadScumbling,6.1,6.2,6.3Secondarycolors,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4Seeing,asknowledge,3.1,3.2Self-criticismSennelier,GustaveSennelier’spastelsSfumato,itr.1,itr.2,3.1Shadowlightand,massesofvaluesin

Shadowshapes,itr.1,1.1,4.1,4.2,4.3,4.4,4.5,4.65.1,5.2edgesofstructuredefinedwith,1.1,2.1Shapesnegative

shadow.SeeShadowshapesSharpeningpencilSightmeasuringSinglefocalpointSkills,tonextlevelSlants,ofeyeSoftpastels,6.1,6.2

Sources,multipleSplitcomplementaries,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4Sprayfixative,6.1,6.2Step-by-stepdrawingprocess,3.1,4.1Strathmore’s“Charcoal”paperStructuredefinedwithshadowshapes,1.1,2.1ofmouthofnose

Substitutematerials

Temperature,color,6.1,6.2Tertiarycolors,6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4mixingfrom

Three-quarterviewTilt,3.1,3.2TitianTone,applyingofTrapping,1.1,3.1TroubleshootingexampleTurningformTwo-thirdsincrements,3.1,3.2

Underpainting,6.1,6.2

Valueandformlineversuslocalpaperas

ValuepatternVanderpoel,J.H.Vanishingpoint,2.1,2.2,2.3,2.4Velázquez,DiegoVermeer,JanVinci,Leonardoda,prf.1,itr.1,itr.2,2.1,6.1

Warm,advancingof

X-Actoknife,itr.1,itr.2

Yellow-analagouspalette