TEXAS TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE

THE SUPREME COURT

BY

RANDOLPH L. HURST

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Deqree of

Bachelor of Architecture in the Department of

. Architecture and Allied Arts Texas Technological College

Lubbock, Texas May, 1964

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PREFACE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Chapter

I. Historical introduction

Definition Ancient History Supreme Court History

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

History of Architecture in Washington

Page

iv

vi

1

II. Requirements of the Supreme Court ••• 10

The City of Washington Primary Considerations

Site Parking Personnel Daily Routine

Required Spaces Exa~ples

High Court - Chandigarh Supreme Court - Brazilia

. City Hall - Boston

III. Proposed Supreme Court •••••••••••••• 25

IV.

Statement of the Problem Solution Drawings

Conclusions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 36

BIBLIOGRAPHY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 3 8

PREFACE

"A Nation's Capitol should embody the finest in its contemporary architectural thought. Its architectural forms should reflect the dignity, enterpri~e, vigor and stability of our National Government."

For some reason, the design of most government buildings in America has lacked symbolism, and shown a lack of spirit which should be a prime consideration of the design concept. Why have we fallen behind in our development of government symbols?

The power of th2 qovernment has declined during the past 200 years. Another power, industry and business has taken over, and it is in this field that we have created our most impressive buildings. As a consequence, most of our government buildings today look very commercial in their exterior design. This only leaves one question, and that is: "What is government character in our country?"

Government character seems to be an elusive quality. We have the greatest democracy in history, and yet no symbolism of this government at all in our Federal City. There have been some good attempts, one by Frank Lloyd Wright in his Capitol of Arizona complex, and several other new embassy buildings to create "government character",. However, in Washington D.C., the seat of our National Government, there is no refreshing, new symbol of our great country.

I believe there were several fundamental thinas that contributed to the creation of "government character" in ancient times, and these things are just as important today as a design concept. First of all, a government building should be designated as "government" by being set apart from the things around it, such as being raised up on a platform. This will give the building the dignity and the nobility which it deserves. Second, the building itself should be constructed out

1John F. Kenn·edy, "A Message From The President" American Institute Of Architects J., (Jan. 1963), p. 25. -- --

2 Peter Blake, "What Is Government Character?",

Architeqtural Forum, (Jan. 1959), p. 77.

iv

of masonry materials which in itself means permanance, security, and monumentality. also, and just as important, the Supreme Court building should be pleasing and inspirational to view. These are the things that must be considered, along with the selection of a site worthy of the building, in order to achieve "government character".

v

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page 1. Plan, Basilica of Trajan-Rome •••••••••••• 4

2. High Court - Chandigarh •••••••••••••••••• 22

3. Supreme Court Building y . Era~ilia •••••••• 23

4. City Hall -Boston ••••••••••••••••••••••• 24

5. Site plan for the Supreme Court Building • 27

Definition

CHAPT~R I

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

The Supreme Court is the highest law in the land.

Article III, section 1 of the ~ Constitution of the

United States provides: •The judicial power of the

United States shall be vested in. one Supreme Court.•

The Supreme Court of the United States is distinctly

American in conception and function. 1 Being distinctly

American it should stand as a monument to the free,

democratic government under which we live.

The Supreme Court building should possess the dignity

and nobility required of a government building, and

yet have something to co.mmunicate to the society of

America. It is this communication that can make the

Supreme Court building a lasting symbol of justice

in America.

1charles E. Hughes, The Su~reme Court of the United · States, (New YorE; 19 8), p. I. -----

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Ancient History

It has been said that •law, without an adequate

system of courts and without effective administration 1

is little better than no law at all," and as far back

into history as man can go, he can find proof that

ancient man realized this fact. Even as far back as

5000 B.C, provisions were made in the Babylonian law

for a system of courts and justice. Babylonian law 2

has sometimes been referred to as "the mother of law•

because it is from this civilization that our modern

law courts evolved.

Until the Romans developed their civilization, a court

system as we know it today did not exist. The Basilicas,

which the Romans built for the purpose of a hall of

justice,3included many of the requirements which are

used in our courthouses today. First of all, the

basilica had a library; also, they provided space

for the judges, as we do for our modern day juty and

Supreme Court Justices.

1charles Herman Kinnane, ~ First Book On Anglo­American Law, (Indianapolis,-r9521; p. 176.

2 Ibid., p. 177.

3 . Sir Banister Fletcher, A HistorT Of Architecture

On The Comparative Method, New York, 1961), p. 201.

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The basilicas and forums built by the Romans were

inspiring symbols of government, and have persisted 1

throughout the ages as government character.

Little did the Romans realize that in the 20th century

the form they had created in ancient days would still

be utilized by architects to ·build symbols of government.

1Peter Blake, •What Is Government Character?•, Architectural Forum, (January 1959), p. 78.

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History of the Supreme Court

It is of little value to go into the experiences of

other countries and their judicial systems in order

to understand the historical background of the Supreme

Court of the United States. Aside from the Anglo-

Saxon tradition of law and judicial process, the

Supreme Court has very little in common with past

history.

A Federal judiciary was an essential part of the

conception of a national government of a Federal 1

type. It says in the constitution that there shall

be ~one Supreme Court,wand it has been the only high

court since it was founded in 1789. During the days

of the colonies, law and justice was administered by

a practice· carried over from England, and was fitted

to their needs by the legislature of each particular

colony. The judges were usually appointed by the

Crown of England, and many of them had no knowledge

of the law at all. Furthermore, there was no type

of Supreme Court in the colonies.

After the colonies had declared their independence,

lCharles E. Hughes, The Su~reme Court of the United States, (New York, 19 8), p. I. ------

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they set up a government under the Articles of Con­

federation. It was during the reiqn of these articles

that the leaders of our country became aware of the

necessity of defining and firmly establishing the

Federal judicial power.1

At the constitutional convention of 1787 the founders

of our government decided on one supreme tribunal,

and the provision made by the committee was as follows:

"The Judicial Power of the United States shall be

vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior

courts as shall, when necessary, from time to time 2

be constituted by the Cong ress of the United States."

Today, after many years of controversy, the Supreme

Court is the highest power of the Federal judicial

system. Its main purpose is to maintain balance

between State and Nation through the maintenance of 3

the rights and duties of individuals.

Supreme Court Buildings

The Supreme Court has had many different homes during

1 Charles E. Hughes, The Su~reme Court of the United States, (New YorE; 19 8), p. 8. -----

2 ~., p. 11.

3Ibid., p. 2.

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its nearly 200 years of existance. The first term

of the Court was held in the Exchange on Broad Street

in New York City. When the Capitol moved to Philadelphia

so did the Supreme Court, and there it stayed in : the

old City Hall until 1800 when the Capitol moved to

Washington D.C. From this time until 1860, the Court

held sessions in various rooms in the basement of the

Capitol building, none of which were fitting for a

Supreme Court. The next home was the former quarters

of the United States Senate, and it was not until

1935 that the Supreme Court acquired a home of its

own opposite the National Capitol building.

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History of Architecture in Washington

Washington, our National Capitol, must reflect in its

architecture the meaning of the United States and the 1

insurmountable greatness of our country.

To understand the history of architecture in Washington,

we must first try to understand a little bit of what

caused it. During the period in which the city of

Washington was being conceived and plans prepared,

very little was done in architecture, and thus, our

Capitol got off on the wrong foot. Around 1900, after

a sudden awakeninq, a commission was set up to invest-

igate the situation. Although they did modify several

areas, the Commission failed to come up with anything

new, so they stuck mainly to the original plan. As

a result, architects of today are still searching for

ways to improve our Capitol City.

Perhaps the best architecture in Washington are those

buildings which were inspired by Greek temples. But,

is this the kind of architecture we want in Washington?

Surely the buildings are a symbol of government and

very monumental, but still do they show the kind of

1 Roy F. Larson, "Federal Architecture", AmericaR

Institute of Architects J., (January, 1963), p. 94.

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government we have. There has been a recent flood

of architecture in Washington, most of it bad. It

shows a lack of good design, and a great deal of

ignorance on the part of the government. Hardly

any of these new buildings show any continuity to

the already established city of Washington. Continuity

is an import·ant factor in the design of Federal buildings,

and can be achieved in a modern way. A building does

not have to be of the same style in order to achieve

continuity; there are other factors that can give

the same results. There should be a likeness in

materials for one thing , likewise scale, mass, color·,

and texture. By approaching continuity in this way,

the Federal buildings would have a personality of their

own and yet be in harmony with the existing architecture.

Washington is a treasure of historic buildings, shrines,

and museums, and it is essential that t hese be preserved

in all of their inspirational glory for other generations 1

to see, study, and appreciate. Today, we need more

imaginative and creative design for our Federal buildings.

Our new buildings must not reflect the past, but more

the future of our great country.

1Henry L. Wright, •The Architect And Washington•,

American Institute of Architects J., (Jan. 1963), p. 24.

CHAPTER II

REQUIREMENTS OF THE SUPREME COURT

The City of Washington

The Supreme Court of the United States is located in

Washington D.C.

It has been said that the city of Washington is many

cities in one, for it is a city of national government,

a city of world diplomacy, a city of shops and business,

and a city of historical memories. However, to many

Americans Washington is a monument, a place to visit,

with things to see and do. It is the home of exciti~g

international airports; furthermore, it is the home

of fine colleges, as well as the Smithsonian Institute,

an exhibit of the progress of American industry and

history, encompassing every aspect of American life

over two and a half centuries.

Each season in Washington brings new life to its

beautiful surroundings. The spring, which averages

about 55 degrees, brings the famed Japanese cherry

blossom into bloom. In the summer the average

temperature is about 77 degrees, then drops off to a

pleasant 56 degrees in autumn when the whole city is

painted in autumn colors. On the other hand, the

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winter temperature hardly ever drops below the freezing

mark and maintains a brisk 37 degrees.

Primary Considerations

The Supreme Court building houses the highest court

in the United States. It is the symbol of justice

to people not only in the United States, but to free

pe9ple all over the world. Because of this, it must

be outstanding in its des-ign and transmit a feeling

of security to those who believe in it.

The site in itself is of areat importance to the -- ... success of the building . It must fit into the overall

plan for Washington, as well as the future plans.

Also, it should be easily reached from most government

buildings, and accessi.hle to the major transportation

systems used in Washington {air, bus, automobile, etc.).

The site should reflect in some way the position of

the Supreme Court as the third arm of government in

the United States.

Parking is an important factor in the design because

of the necess ity of the automobile. However, outside

"lots" tend to spoil the design of the building because

of their very pres~nce. In view of this, outside "lots"

should be used to a minimum. The parking requireme~ts

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of the Supreme Court come under the following divisions:

Justices: Complete privacy is needed for the Justices upon their arrival and departure from the building. This suggests the possi­bility of underground parking a"t-1ay from the public.

Staff: There is no need for as much privacy as for the Justices, except for possibly the higher offices such as the Marshall, or the Attorney General. Outside parking should probably be considered in some cases.

Members of the Bar and Reporters: Adequate space muST ne-provided for the professional people who frequent the building . Besides members of the bar and reporters, there would be congressmen, law officers of the government, etc. They should have easy access in and out of -t he buildinq at all times. -

Visitors: Approximately 1000 people enter the Supreme Court building each day. This will necessitate parking space for them as well as for visitors to the courtroom when it is in session.

The Supreme Court houses a vast organization of people;

these people carry on their own functions independently

of each other in most cases. Even the Justices work

largely in isolation, except when they choose to seek

consultation with others. Only the messengers, page

boys, etc. go from organization to organization doing

work for their particular office. Therefore, the

personnel of the Supreme Court can be divided into

the following major parts: The Justices, the Marshal,

the Clerk, the Attorney General, the Solicitor General,

and the Librarian.

1h! Justices

There is one Chief Justice and eight Associate

Justices in the United States Supreme Court. Each

Justice has his own staff to carry out his own

individual activities. A staff consists of two clerks,

a secretary, and a page boy, or runner as he is more

commonly termed. The staff of each justice is the

same except for the Chief Justice who has a separate

office for a law clerk.

The Marshal

The Marshal of the Supreme Court has a suite of offices

occupied by his secretary, about three assistants each

with a secretary, and several runners and pages. His

office is the administrator of the Supreme Court.

The Clerk

The duty of the Olerk is to keep all records, reports,

etc., concerned with the Supreme Court. To ·-do this

his staff consists of his secretary, about 10 assistants,

and several stenographers available for any of their

use.

The Attorney General

The Attorney General of the United States has a small

staff consisting of himself and his secretary, and

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an assistant and his secretary.

The Solicitor General

The Solicitor General also has a small staff consisting

of himself and his secretary, and an assistant with

a secretary.

The Librarian

The staff of the Supreme Court Library consist of a

librarian, an assistant, and several other library

workers.

Daily Proceedure

There is one session annually of the Supreme Court,

commencing the first Monday in October and lasting

until the last week in May of the following year.

Decisions of the Court are handed down on Mondays only.

Shortly before'noon, each day the Court is in session,

the Justices assemble in a small robing room, where

an attendant helps them into their robes. As each

Justice enters, he shakes hands with every other Justice,

a custom started more than half a century ago. This

was done in hopes that it would keep the Justices on

favorable terms. At exactly twelve noon, the crier,

being signaled that the Justices are approaching,

strides his gavel and calls, •The Honorable Chief Justice

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and Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the

United States:• Immediately, the Justices enter in

threes by seniority, and take their respective places.

The Judges hear arguments for two weeks, and then

separately study cases and write opinions for the

next two weeks. However, at 11 o'clock every Friday,

the Judges gather in their conference roo~, and as is

custom, again shake hands. This conference, where

they argue, consult, and decide on opinions usually

last from 6 to 8 hours. After a decision has been

reached, the Chief Justice assigns the case for opinion

to one of the members of the Court. The researching

and writing of an opinion is an intricate process,

usually taking about three weeks, but has been known

to take 5 or 6 months.

Lawyers may deal with the Court and with individual

Justices only through the clerk. Because of tradition,

the Justices never grant interviews, never discuss

politics, and never discuss cases with anyone except

their colleagues.

The inner organization and routine of the Court brings

all the Justices together on only two occasions: at

the public sessions, and at their secret conferences.

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The Justices work quite a lot on their own, depending

on their staffs for assistance. As Justice Robert H.

Jackson said, •The fact is, that the Court functions

less as one deliberative body than as nine, each Justice

working largely in isolation except as he chooses to

seek consultation from others.•

The daily routine of the Justices cannot be complete·

without mention of the importance of privacy. They

must have complete privacy upon their arrival and

departure from the buildina, along with absolute

privacy away from the public at all times of the day.

This is the way of the Justices, and is by this rule

that they carry on their daily business.

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Space Requirements

It is important that the function of each space be

considered in space arrangement because of the specific

requirements of some spaces. Generally, the space

requirements of the Supreme Court fall under four

.divisions. These divisions are as follows: the

courtroom, the Justices rooms, the offices, and the

library.

The courtroom is where the Justices hear the arguments

and where the biggest concentration of people occur.

Being the focal point of the building, the courtroom

must stand out in design and be the most exciting ' part of the building. It must be large enough to

provide for the Chief Justice, eight associate Justices,

court reporters, members of the bar, newspaper repor.ters,

and visitors to the Court. The courtroom shouid be

easily accessible from most all areas of the building

because it is around this Court that everything else

revolves.

The Justices work a great deal of the time in isolation.

They depend a great deal on their personal staff, and

on their freedom to move about without being disturbed.

Their work consist of hearing cases, writing opinions,

and handing down decisions. To do this a great amount

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of study, research, and consultation is done on the

part of each Justice. Furthermore, their success

or failure depends a lot on being able to use the

Supreme Court building successfully.

The Justices should have a private means of entrance

to the courtroom and library, and should be able to

enter or leave the building at any time without being

noticed. Their suite of offices should provide enough

room for the staff with lounge and waitiRg areas

adjoining. Also the Justices need a conference room

for their private conferences, a robing room adjoining

the courtroom, a lounge with toilets, and a private

lunch room accessible to most of their spaces.

The offices of the Supreme Court include various

officials who have suites in this building, and

must be provided for. These officials include: the

Marshal of the Supreme Court, the Clerk of the Supreme

Court, the Attorney General of t he United States,

and the Solicitor General of the United States.

The Marshal of the Supreme Court is the administrator

of the Court. His activities consist mainly of

management of the building, keeping books, taking

care of visitors, etc. It is up to him and his staff

to see that everything is running properly and smoothly.

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His needs are a suite near the courtroom which include

a general business office, a private office, and

several offices for his assistants.

The Clerk of the Supreme Court is in charge of all

records, reports, etc. of the Court. He deals directly

with the Justices and must keep them up to date when­

ever necessary.

The staff of the Clerk is rather large in comparison

with the other officials; therefore, his space

requirements are larger. He needs a suite containing

a private office, several smaller offices for assistants,

room for stenographers, a large file room for current

records, and a library of records.

The Attorney General of the United States is the chief

law officer of our National Government~ He is the

head of the Department of Justice and responsible for

all activities within that department. His other duties

include a responsibility for the internal security of

the nation, ·and those ·of the legal advisor to the

President.

The space requirements of the Attorney General include

a private office, a business office, and an office

for the Assistant Attorney General.

The Solicitor General ranks next below the Attorney

General in the Justice Department. His chief

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responsibilitys consist of conducting Federal cases

in the Supreme Court, and also deciding whether or

not Federal cases should be appealed from lower to

higher courts.

The space requirements of the Solicitor General are

the same as for the Attorney General. His suite

consist of a private office, a business office, and

an office for .his assistant.

The library of the Supreme Court has available

approximately 100,000 volumes. It is important that

provision must be made for future expansion to number

about 200,000 volumns. This library is used by the

pub~ic only with the permission of the Marshal. Also,-, ;

housed in the Supreme Court building is the Law Library

of the Library of Congress. This library has a

capacity of approximately 300,000 volumns and is open

to the Justices, members of Congress, mernbers.of the

Bar, law officers of the executive and other departments

of the government. Required along with adequate shelf

storage are reading rooms for Justices and members

of the Bar, general reading rooms, office of the librarian,

assistants office, and catalogue room.

Other required spaces

adequate toilets

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room with lockers · for pages room with lockers for messengers large room for members of the bar with small offices

· for consultation and study. at least three rooms for reporters away from visitors room for the press (40 or 50 on Mondays} rooms for superintendent of building and grounds assembly rooms

CHAPTER III

PROGRAM

If we are to improve the quality of buildings in our

National Capitol, we must not rely on ancient forms

and character. Today, we need to create a symbol

of our .present day government with the knowledge

and the tools that we have a~ailable.

It is my purpose to design a United States Supreme

Court Building situated in our National Capitol.

Most of the architecture in Washington was borrowed

from past civilizations and it is time that we started

thinking more about t he results in the future. For

this and other reasons previously stated, I believe

that a new Supreme Court Building is a good place to

start a new concept of architectural design for

Washington.

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Site

The present location of the Supreme Court is not

worthy of the highest court in the United States.

Therefore, it should be moved to a more suitable

location along the mall. There are several important

reasons that make this move necessary. One of the

most important of these is that it is out of the way

of the main stream of business. Somehow the ~upreme

Court Building wound up not as an intergral part of

the Capitol, but at the rear of the Capitol Building.

Because the Supreme Court is the third branch of our

government, its site should reflect this position.

Also, a new site would give the Court the visual

effect it should have. The Supreme Court should be

something to view, such as the Washington Monument,

or the White House. Therefore, it is quite evident

that this move would be advantageous both to the

Supreme Court and the Capitol area.

Space Requirements

1. Justices

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Suite of offices for each justice Lobby for each suite Conference room with library Robing room Retiring room Private lunch room (20 prople) Waiting room adjacent to lunch room Rest rooms for Justices and staff Private means of entrance

2. Court Room

Ante room for members of the bar Ante room for the public Rest rooms Adequate space for as many as 400 attorneys and

visitors

3. Marshal

General Business office Private office Offices for assistants (2)

4. Clerk

Space for current records Private office Offices for assistants and stenographers (10) Large file room Library of Supreme Court reports

s. Members of the Bar

Large room close to court room Cloak room Small offices adjacent to large room

·6. Attorney General

Business office Private office Assistant's office

7. Solicitor General

Business office Private office Assistant's office

8. Library

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Lavr Library - 200,000 volumns , Supreme Court Library - 100,000 volumns

Reading rooms (general and private} Office for librarian Office for assistant Catalogue room

9. Miscellaneous spaces

Public lobby areas Public rest rooms Reporters rooms (for writing and reporting news} maintenence rooms assembly:. rooms

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Solution

I · felt like one of the prime considerations in the

design was the selection of a site suitable for our

Supreme Court. In order to obtain the visual eff ect

needed, I placed the building at the west end of

Constitution Avenue where it meets 23rd street. By

doing this, a triangle symbolizing our three governmental

bodies was formed consisting of the Capitol Buildin~

the White House, and the Supreme Court. This site

is worthy of the Supreme Court Building and would

add a great deal to the beautification of the mall.

Par~ing was another consideration that was important

. to the overall design of the building . The staff

parking was placed under the building mainly for

convenience of entering and leaving the building ,

and also to be used as a defense shelter. However,

the public must have the experience of .making a

grand approach to the building before entering it.

Therefore, the public lots were placed accross 23rd

street and tunnels provided to get the people accross

to the Supreme Court. I felt t hat the area around

the building should be kept as open as possible,

particularly that area between the Lincoln Memorial

and the Supreme Court. By placing the parking lots

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in this area both objectives wexe solved; that is,

the grand approach and the open feeling.

The function of the Supreme Court Building is many

functions in one. Basically, however, everything

revolves around the Court. A symetrical plan was

used with all the f unctions grouped around two light

wells (also sculpture courts) which in turn were

placed on each side of the Court. To emphasize the

Court, it was raised two floors above ground level,

with this emphasis carried · through in the exterior

design. This syrnetrical plan also proved successful

in creating the privacy needed in the Justices area.

Privacy was a key factor in planning because of the

necessity for it. All public spaces and areas are

clearly defined and clearly accessib le from the public

lobby which is six feet above the g round floor, and

staff circulation is obtained t h rough private stairs,

corridors, and elevators·.

The exterior design of the Supreme Court Building

became important because of its monumental and

symbolizing effect on the public. Yet a certain amount

of dignity is required for this type of building.

I t hink this degnity was obtained mainly through the

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use of material {marble) on the exterior, alona with

its symetrical appearance. A monumental effect was

obtained by raising the public entrance six feet above

the ground with columns running the full height of

the building. Emphasis of the Court was obtained by

using glass and being able to see the Court hanging

between the two massive elements on either side.

The structure is concrete construction with (in some

cases) precast-prestressed beams to span the Courtro~m.

Marble is used on the exterior along with exposed

concrete in some cases. The mechanical equipment was

zoned into two areas with two mechanical rooms in the

basement. These mechanical rooms are connected with

each floor with one vertical chas e on each side.

The design of the Supreme Court was a gradual process

of trial and error study on circulation with the

emphasis placed ·oh privacy·. The study developed into

a plan "'hich I think is a good, well organized design

of space arrangement, which was of foremost importance.

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSIONS

It has been said that experience is the best teacher.

In a way, this thesis I have just como leted can be

thought of as an experience where many things were

learned.

First of all, designing a workable solution is much

harder than at first anticipated. I think this will

prove invaluable in the solving of future design

problems. Although we were allowed a shorter time

for solving the problem than those students in the

past and no model was required, I believe that the

problem was more demanding and harder to decide on

a solution.

Second, I found that everyone is of different

opinions, and it is hard to please everyone. We as

architects must make our own decisions, and carry on

with that idea in mind. To do this is sometimes hard,

but I believe the project would turn out for the best.

Third, a.fter research and study on this type of building,

I believe that a lot of work needs to be done in this

area of desion (government character). We have borrowed

our character from past civilizations and it is time

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that something be done. Perhaps the best example of

government character in the United States today is

the new Boston City Hall. I believe that this building

truly expresses the idea of government character with

in a modern way~ and this is what we need. There are

too many poor examples of governm,ent character with

no spirit at all. If we are to progress at all,

we must progress in government design.

This was one of the basic reasons for this study, and

along with the others stated perhaps it will point

out the need for other such studies which I'm sure

will happen in the near future.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Federal Writers' Project. Washington, Ctt~ and Capitol. Washington: United States Governmen rinting Office, 1937.

Fletcher, Sir Banister. A Histor' of Architecture on the Comparative Methoa. New orE: Charles --Scribner's Sons, 1961.

Hughes, Charles Evans. States. New York:

The Su~reme Cou~t of the United ~uiDbia Universit~ress, 1928.

Kinnane, Charles Herman. A First Book on Anglo-American · Law. Indianapolis: rEe BObbs-Merriil CO. Inc., 1952.

Saloman, Leon I. The Supreme Court. Vol. 33, No. 1. New York: 196~

Periodicals

Blake, Peter, •New Symbols ot Governmentw, Architectural Forum, (January, 1963).

Blake, Peter, •What Is Government Character•, Architectural Forum, (January, 1963). ·

Kennedy, John F., •A: Message From The President•, American Institute of Architects I·, (January, 1963).

Kerr, Robert J. II, nHistoric Preservation in the Federal City•, American Institute of Architects J., (January, 1963).

Larson, Roy F., •Federal Architecturew, American Institute of Architects J., (January, 1963).

Wright, Henry L., •The Architect and Washington•, American Institute of Architects J., (January, 1963).

Encyclopedias

Meine, Fran~lin J. The American Peo~les Encyclopedia~ Vol. 18. Chicago:- The Spencer ress, Inc.~ 1954.

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Documents

Senate Document No• 88. 76th Congress, 1st Session. Final Report of the United States Supreme Court Building. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1939.

United States Government Organization. National Archives and Federal Register. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, l9b3.

Correspondence

General Services Administration National Archives and Records Service Office of the Federal Register Washington 25, D.C.

Mr. J. George Stewart Architect of the Capitol Washington D.C.

United States Marshal United States Supreme Court Building 1 First Street, N.E. Washington, D.C.

Unites States Geological Servey Destribution Section Silver Springs, Maryland

•

High Court

Chandigarh

This building, designed by Le Corbusier, symbolizes government character. Here he used concrete forms to express the stability and the security of the High Court . I t hink the buildinq is outstanding in its design and in the feeling that it creates.

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This Supreme Court Building, designed by Nervi, is only one part of the governmental project at Brazilia. It is a clean, impressive design nearly opposite from Corbu's Chandigarh, but still symbolizing government character.

City Hall

Boston

I think this building is the bes t example ot government characte1 1n the United States. It is massive in f o rm and quite monumental; yet it has the dignity t hat it deserves. More of this type of design should be sought after for our government symbols.

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