Canisius College Model United Nations 39th Annual Conference

Terror in Europe Contemporary Security Council Overview

The theme of terrorism has played a significant role in Europe, whether in the supranational1 European Union (EU), its constituent member states, or states without membership in the European Union. Terrorism has manifested itself in many forms, not just as shown by media outlets and not just in its current forms today. Terrorism has involved many forms and issues, all taking roots in social cleavages. These social cleavages will be discussed in further detail throughout the topic guide.

To analyze the subject “Terror in Europe” in an accurate light, the term “terrorism” must be accurately defined. In this sense, terminology in United Nations Security Council Resolution 1566 will be used, whereby terrorism is defined as:

criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act, which constitute offences within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other similar nature.

This topic guide will first give a historical background of terrorism in a European context, followed by a discussion of various social cleavages used in Europe and then a discussion of efforts to address – or even exploit – this issue at both a European and United Nations level.

(N.B.: All sources will be detailed at the end of this document.)

Historical Background Terror, and its subsequent terrorism, have played important roles in European history. Many historians have argued that Gavrilo Princip, an ethnic Serb, used tactics indicative of terrorism to assassinate Archduke Ferdinand and Archduchess Sophia of Austria-Hungary (thus leading to World War One). This act was commensurate with similar movements advocating for anarchism, or the absence of government, which was relatively popular at the beginning of the twentieth century.

After the end of World War One, social upheaval remained in states like Weimar Germany, which allowed for right-wing governments to take hold in these countries. Actions

1Thatis,abovethenationallevelofitsindividualmember-states.

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Canisius College Model United Nations 39th Annual Conference undertaken by the National Socialist (Nazi) government of Germany before and during World War Two, such as Kristallnacht, for example, were also indicative of terror. During this part of European history, general patterns of terrorism changed from often favoring anarchic movements to those favoring right-wing, state-sponsored terrorism, a trend largely ending at the end of the war throughout Europe with the switch to either democratic or one-party totalitarian states.

After World War Two, many European citizens and politicians became tired of excess nationalism, which they viewed as excessively selfish and leading to warfare. This led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which sought to create a common market and thus eliminate warfare, and eventually the European Union. This, however, was not able to entirely curtail extremism and terrorism, which began to take many forms throughout various parts of Europe. Most notably, strife between Catholic and Protestant citizens of Northern Ireland led to “The Troubles” (1968-1998), a period in which demands for republicanism (unification of Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland) and loyalism (preservation of the union between Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom) violently clashed.

Sources:http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/archivhttp://www.news.com.au/world/europe/despite-recent-attacks-the-70s-and-80s-were-deadlier-in-europe-for-terrorism/news-story/acf1f5f4d3b7e7d5e7bffadded166aef

In other parts of Europe, such as along the border between Spain and France, demands for greater autonomy amongst the Basque population were not met by their respective governments, prompting certain individuals to engage in acts of terrorism to make their demands known to the public. Their organized group, ETA, an acronym for Euskadi Ta Askatasuna, is a separatist, nationalist organization that occasionally used acts of violence between 1959 and its disarmament earlier this year.

European involvement in other parts of the world also led to terror tactics used against European citizens. Such is the case with Algeria, where demands for Algerian independence met with resistance from the French government and resulted in the Algerian War from 1954 to 1962. Both sides committed serious atrocities during this time, with upwards of 350 thousand people killed. This conflict would mark a temporary truce to terrorism, to be brought back with The Troubles in Northern Ireland some six years later.

Amidst a milieu of growing tensions between a perceivably-corrupt government and a discontent student group, the popularity of left-wing movements grew in some European states, notably Germany and France.

Canisius College Model United Nations 39th Annual Conference Forms of Terrorism in Europe According to Europol,2 there are five main types of terrorism in Europe. They are as follows: Ethno-Nationalist and Separatist Terrorism The main goal of this form of terror is to use tactics deemed necessary to bring greater autonomy or even independence to a group of people. This group of people usually perceives itself to be discriminated against by a larger government. Examples of this include the Basque separatist group ETA and the Irish Republican Army, both of which have respectively committed terror attacks in Spain and the British Isles throughout latter parts of the twentieth century.

With multiple initiatives designed to address complaints surrounding ethno-nationalist and separatist terrorist organizations, such as granting greater autonomy and rights to minorities throughout Europe, ethno-nationalist terrorism has seemingly been on the decline. However, ethno-nationalist terrorism could be on the rise again in the future as a response mechanism against asylum seekers and refugees entering the European Union. Religious-Based Terrorism Although referred to as “jihadist terrorism” by Europol, this terminology has been avoided in this topic guide because the term “jihad” has had a contested definition between people within and outside of the Islamic community. This form of terrorism takes into consideration three aspects, according to terror expert Bruce Hoffman: the perpetrators must incorporate religious scripture/text into supporting their actions; there must exist a relationship between actors and the religious hierarchy (e.g. involvement of clerical positions in inspiring actors to commit acts of terror); and there must be an incorporation of an apocalyptic destruction to justify the goals amongst actors.

Though many people attribute such acts of terror with Islam, it is important to note that other belief systems have had offshoots associated with terrorism. For example, the Ku Klux Klan has affiliate organizations in several European countries and exhibits qualities indicative of both religious-based and right-wing terrorism. These organizations are grouped together under the European White Knights of the Burning Cross. Other organizations suspected of religious-based terrorism within Europe are the Brussels ISIS Terror Cell, still suspected to have at least twenty members, and there are some fears that Buddhist terrorism currently impacting Sri Lanka and Myanmar could affect Europe in the future, although currently other forms of religious-based terrorism beyond Christian- and Islam-influenced types are negligible. Left-Wing/Anarchist Terrorism Though this term encompasses two seemingly-different concepts: left-wing ideologies and anarchism. This form of terrorism refers to the desires of associated terrorists to overthrow seemingly corrupt governments and replace them under the framework of a socialist government. It is the belief of these actors that socialist governments would only be temporary and the need

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Canisius College Model United Nations 39th Annual Conference for a government would dissipate, creating an anarchy in the process. This form of terrorism was initially the defining movement in the beginning of the twentieth century, and often overlapped with desires for nationalism, especially in multiethnic states like Austria-Hungary where many Slavic people (for example, Czechs and Slovenes) felt disenfranchised and discontent, and saw ideals like socialism and its egalitarianism via anarchy to repressive hereditary monarchies with minimal interference from elected legislatures. Many historians regard World War One as ultimately started through a left-wing/anarchist terrorist. Whether contemporary anarchist movements will have as significant an impact on the future of Europe remains to be seen.

In the 1960s and 1970s, left-wing terrorism took another course, its course different for each respective country. In Germany, for example, the Baader-Meinhof Group was formed to react against a government which had perceivably remained unchanged from the National Socialist government in power before and during World War II. This group eventually became the Red Army Faction, responsible for the deaths of 34 people between its formation in 1970 until its disbandment in 1998. Similar organizations exist in other European states, such as France, where widespread discontent with the Gaullist government in place throughout much of the 1960s prompted student protests and some to eventually form Action Directe (Direct Action). This organization was active between 1979 and 1987. Similar organizations existed in Spain, Portugal, Greece, Italy, Turkey and Belgium.

After some time, many people involved with these organizations seemed to “grow up.” This, combined with negative

media coverage across the world, led to decreased popularity amongst these groups within Europe throughout most of the 1980s: A common feature between left-wing terrorist groups during this time was that the same people involved in these organizations from the beginning still played key roles. To some individuals, these organizations became a victim of their own creation, with the last major left-wing terrorist group disbanding in 2008 after over ten years of inactivity. However, there are some worries that left-wing terrorism is on the rise again: In Germany, various manifestos have been printed saying that the Red Army Faction is back, for example, and the left-wing SYRIZA government in Greece has had affiliations with left-wing terrorism in the past.

Right-Wing Terrorism Right-wing terrorism is difficult to define due to the diversity of beliefs professed by these groups. Broadly speaking, these groups are against communism and favor neo-fascist and/or neo-Nazi governments throughout Europe. These terrorist groups peaked in popularity in Western Europe as popularity for left-wing terrorist groups declined throughout much of the 1980s. In Eastern Europe, these terrorist groups peaked in popularity with the fall of communist regimes in the early 1990s. This coincided with higher unemployment rates and stagnant standards of living juxtaposed against increased standards of living in Western and Northern Europe.

Canisius College Model United Nations 39th Annual Conference

Right-wing terrorist groups often seek an “escape goat” to further their beliefs. This often takes form in the form of a minority. These minorities are often formed based on different religious beliefs or ethnic backgrounds.

Some people regard terrorism committed by people with immigrant backgrounds in Europe as right-wing terrorism. Such classifications are incorrect because of their foreign perception – that is to say, their heritage lies outside of what is traditionally viewed as Europe. Single-Issue Terrorism Perhaps the most famous single-issue terrorist organization is the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), which seeks to bring to light issues surrounding animal rights through some seemingly interesting tactics. Though these attacks seldom bring bloodshed, their employment of scare tactics indicates their desires to make their demands known to the public. Eco-terrorism and nuclear-technology terrorism are also other forms of single-issue terrorism evident in Europe. These seek to radically address issued posed by global warming or the more-encompassing climate change as well as risks associated with increasing reliance on nuclear energy.

Terrorists can incorporate qualities derived from multiple types of terrorism: it is theoretically possible for ethno-nationalist terrorist groups to also have a religious-based nature, or they can advocate for left- or right-wing issues. In fact, many ethno-nationalist terrorist groups overlap along these lines: political beliefs are important for these groups to maintain membership from generation to generation. Single-Issue terrorism does not overlap well with the other ideologies, as it focuses on one issue (for example, animal rights) and does not necessarily adhere to – or advocate for - total transformation of societies. It is difficult for left- and right-wing terrorism to overlap, as the ideologies advocated by these distinct groups would be nearly in total contrast to one another (for example, it could happen if a group sought to create a socialist state and blamed immigrant communities for the lack of its existence), and it is difficult (though not impossible) for left-wing and religious-based terrorism to intertwine. This is largely because left-wing terrorist groups are largely atheistic.

Far-Right Parties in Europe In many member states of the European Union, far-right parties have seen increased popularity. In the most recent elections for the European Parliament in 2014, for example, far-right political parties won an unprecedented number of seats. In upcoming federal elections in Germany, it is expected that the far-right Alternative für Deutschland (Alternative for Germany) will enter the national parliament for the first time. Far-right groups such as Front National in France have also reported increased success, despite losing the presidential election earlier this year.

These parties have common themes: anti-Europeanism and anti-immigration. They believe that cooperation on multiple issues, such as asylum policy

Right-wingdemonstratorshijackedaprotestagainstterrorismfollowingthe2016attacksinBrussels,Belgium.http://metro.co.uk/2016/03/27/right-wing-protesters-hijack-rally-to-remember-victims-of-the-brussels-terror-attacks-5778704

Canisius College Model United Nations 39th Annual Conference and “invisible borders” through the Schengen Agreement, have led to the situation faced by Europe today. These parties are anti-immigrant, and not only through the lens of other religions but other areas of the European Union. They generally view multiculturalism as a threat, and some advocate for the forceful removals of people unwilling to integrate into their society.

Far-Right parties have received criticism because some view them as taking advantage of situations posed by increasing multiculturalism and immigrant populations within many European parties. These parties have received an increasing amount of monetary donations and percentages of votes. But the proceeds gained here have not been adequately used to combat the issues they address, in the opinions of some people.

What has been done to address terrorism? European Union Throughout the European Union, many actions have been undertaken to address terrorism. Arguably the most important comes with the formation of Europol, which seeks to assist cooperation between member states in fields of international crime. It is important to note that this is not a formal police agency: its main tasks revolve around intelligence sharing and do not result in any arrests by Europol itself. That is a function left to individual member states. Other European States For many states outside of the European Union, there are unfortunately minimal supranational organizations to assist in intelligence sharing, which ranks as one of the most important steps to address this issue. Regarding recent attacks in Barcelona, London, Paris, Turku and Brussels, numerous news sources have indicated that these people were under investigation in one European Union member state, and other member states had information regarding them. But this information was not shared, leading some to speculate that this had a major influence on the results of these attacks.

Many European states have also issued travel bans to states deemed unsafe. Terrorism ranks as one of these reasons, especially in the context of traveling to Syria. For example, France has issued a six-month ban from reentering the country if respective persons have traveled to Syria. Other nearby countries such as Belgium and Germany have begun to do the same. Within many European countries, there is a free-travel area called the Schengen Zone. Within this travel zone people can theoretically travel between constituent states without having border checks and thus without having to produce forms of identification. In light of attacks throughout Europe, some states belonging to the Schengen Agreement have instituted temporary border controls. Examples of these states include Austria, Germany, Denmark and Sweden.

Canisius College Model United Nations 39th Annual Conference United Nations Involvement

The United Nations has sought multiple times to address terrorism. This effort had increased vigor after the 9/11 terror attacks in 2001, but it existed before that occasion, and the efforts have aimed at improving international cooperation to counter and prevent terrorist attacks. Doing so has remained difficult for a variety of reasons, in large part because of discrepancies between member states of the United Nations in what they define as terrorism. For example, state-sponsored terrorism has proven to be problematic for drafting a definition for terrorism at an international level. It has also proven difficult within Europe, especially during the times of the Troubles. During this time, the United Kingdom was criticized through supporting Ulster Unionists at the expense of lives of Irish separatists. The greatest successes have come through the United Nations Security Council, where various directives like United Nations Security Council Resolution 1566 have provided a definition of terrorism. Member states of the United Nations have been rather slow to adopt this definition, however, and similar successes have been minimally attained in the General Assembly.

The following is a list of pertinent UN Security Council resolutions addressing terrorism, some specifically in the European sphere. There is also a plethora of statements from the UN Security Council and other bodies addressing the issue of terror in Europe.

• Resolution 2370 (2017): http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2370(2017)

• Resolution 2368 (2017): http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2368(2017)

• Resolution 2354 (2017): http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2354(2017)

• Resolution 2341 (2017): http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2341(2017)

• Resolution 2322 (2016): http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2322(2016)

• Resolution 2309 (2016): http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2309(2016)

• Resolution 2255 (2015): http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2255(2015)

• Resolution 2253 (2015): http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2253(2015)

• Resolution 2249 (2015): http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2249(2015)

• Resolution 2199 (2015): http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2199%20(2015)

• Resolution 1566 (Oct. 2004): This resolution has provided a description of terrorism. Member states of the United Nations have been rather slow to adopt this definition, however, and similar successes have been minimally attained in the General Assembly.

Canisius College Model United Nations 39th Annual Conference Note too that the 9/11 attacks against the United States in 2001 prompted the UN Security Council to adopt Resolution 1373, which for the first time established the Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC). Member States in the General Assembly in 2006 agreed on a common framework to fight the problem of terrorism: the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, which is an instrument designed to facilitate the efforts of the international community to counter terrorism in four ways:

1. Addressing conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism;

2. Preventing and combatting terrorism; 3. Building Member States’ capacity to prevent and

combat terrorism and to strengthen the role of the United Nations system in this regard;

4. Ensuring the respect for human rights for all and the rule of law as the fundamental basis for countering terrorism.

The General Assembly also endorsed the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (CTITF), established in 2005 by the Secretary-General in the Department of Political Affairs. The CTITF is an umbrella organization spanning 38 UN entities and affiliated organizations. CTITF promotes coordination within the UN System on counter-terrorism, and provides

assistance to Member States. This task is shared by the UN Counter Terrorism Centre (UNCCT), which helps build Member States’ capacity for fighting terrorism, and carries out counter-terrorism projects globally in line with the four parts of the Global Strategy.

The newest development is the United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism, which was established through the adoption of General Assembly resolution 71/291 on June 15, 2017. The office is intended to have a close relationship with Security Council bodies and Member States, and will work to strengthen existing and develop new

partnerships. Find more information here: http://www.un.org/en/counterterrorism/index.shtml -- this is the UN’s main web page for the UN Office of Counterterrorism, as well as for the project of counterterrorism more generally.

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Canisius College Model United Nations 39th Annual Conference Questions for Consideration

• Has your member state defined the concept of terrorism? If so, what is the definition and how does it relate with other

internationally-recognized definitions of terrorism?

• Is your member state also a member state of the European Union? When did they join the European Union? Is your member state also a member of the Schengen Agreement? If yes, when did they join the Schengen Agreement?

• If your country is not part of Europe, how are the relationships between the European members of this Council and your country? How has your country worked towards combatting terrorism?

• Have there been any recent terrorist attacks in your member state? If so, what have been the responses from your country towards making sure that these attacks never happen in the future?

• How welcoming have the citizens of your country been towards immigration and populations with immigrant backgrounds? How does this compare made to international legislation made by supranational organizations (e.g. the European Union)?

• What are the interrelationships between immigration, far-right groups, and terrorism? What can be done to minimize the risks of terrorism while also preserving and protecting human rights?

• Is the issue of a terror incident within a sovereign state also an issue of a supranational body like the United Nations? Should the UN Security Council discuss and attempt to prevent future attacks? If so, what is the role of the UN in such situations in comparison to that of the individual country?

• To best address terror in Europe, should the UN step aside and allow European institutions – the EU, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Europol, etc. – take the lead on counterterrorism, or should the UN seek to play a larger role? Why? If you believe the UN could and should play a larger role, what might the UN do to help combat and prevent terror in Europe, while remaining consistent with the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy?

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Canisius College Model United Nations 39th Annual Conference Further Resources

• http://time.com/4268579/brussels-attacks-islamist-terrorism-isis/ (Time magazine, “These 5 Facts Explain Why Europe Is Ground Zero for Terrorism” [warning: graphic photos])

• https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/articles/2017-09-19/why-is-europe-seeing-so-many-terrorist-attacks

• https://www.rand.org/blog/2016/03/fighting-terrorism-and-radicalisation-in-europe.html (RAND Corporation expert’s opinion on terror and radicalization in Europe)

• http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/1566 (United Nations Security Council Resolution 1566)

• http://www.un.org/en/counterterrorism/index.shtml (United Nations Office of Counterterrorism)

• https://www.interpol.int/Crime-areas/Terrorism/Terrorism (Interpol)

• https://www.europol.europa.eu/ (Europol)

• https://www.icct.nl/ (International Centre for Counterterrorism)

• http://www.osce.org/secretariat/terrorism (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe; special concentration on terrorism and what is done about it)

• https://diplomatie.belgium.be/en/policy/policy_areas/peace_and_security/terrorism/fight_against_terrorism (Kingdom of Belgium’s Counterterrorist initiatives)

• https://www.un.org/counterterrorism/ctitf/en/plan-action-prevent-violent-extremism (“Plan of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism”, UN Secretary General)

• http://www.npr.org/2017/08/19/544641077/counterterrorism-efforts-in-spain?ft=nprml (Spain’s counterterrorist initiatives)

• http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/french-foreign-policy/defence-security/terrorism (France’s counterterrorist initiatives)

• https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/97995/strategy-contest.pdf (UK and counterterrorist initiatives)

• https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/crisis-and-terrorism_en (EU Home Affairs and counterterrorism)