Terminology

• The sugar in wine is mainly glucose and fructose, with traces of arabinose, xylose and other sugars that are not fermentable by yeast,but can be attacked by bacteria.

• Each country has its own system for measuring the sugar content or ripeness of grapes, known in English as

• the “must weight”.

Terminology

• Residual sugar is the sugar left after fermentation has finished or been stopped, measured in grams per litre. A dry wine has virtually none.

• Alcohol content (mainly ethyl alcohol) is expressed in per cent by volume ofthe total liquid. (Also known as “degrees”.) Table wines are usually between 11.5° and 13.5°, though up to 15° is increasingly seen.

Terminology• Acidity is both fixed and volatile. Fixed acidity consists principally

of tartaric, malic and citric acids, all found in the grape, and lactic and succinic acids,produced during fermentation.

• Volatile acidity consists mainly of acetic acid, which is rapidly formed by bacteria in the presence of oxygen.

• A small amount of volatile acidity is inevitable and even attractive. With a larger amount the wine becomes “pricked”– to use the Shakespearian term. It turns to vinegar. Acidity may be natural, in warm regions it may also be added.

• Total acidity is fixed and volatile acidity combined. As a rule of thumb, for a well-balanced wine it should be in the region of one gram per thousandfor each 10° Oechsle (see table on p.283).

Terminology• Barriques Too much of the flavour of many modern wines is added

in the• form of oak; either from ageing and/or fermenting in barrels (the

newer• the barrel the stronger the influence) or from the addition of oak

chips• or – at worst – oak essence.• Newcomers to wine can easily be beguiledby the vanilla-like scent

and flavour into thinking they have bought something luxurious rather than something cosmetically flavoured. But barrels are expensive; real ones are only used for wines with the inherent quality to benefit long-term.

• French oak is classic and most expensive;•

Terminology

• Malolactic fermentation is often referred to as a secondary fermentation,

• and can occur naturally or be induced. The process involves

• converting tart malic acid into softer lactic acid. Unrelated to alcoholic

• fermentation, “la malo” can add complexity and flavour to both red

• and white wines. In hotter climates where natural acidity may be low canny operators avoid it.

Terminology• Micro-oxygenation is a widely used technique that allows the wine

controlled• contact with oxygen during maturation. This mimics the effect of

barrelageing,• reduces the need for racking, and helps to stabilize the wine.• pH is a measure of the strength of the acidity: the lower the figure

the more• acid. Wine usually ranges from pH 2.8 to 3.8. High pH can be a

problem in• hot climates. Lower pH gives better colour, helps stop bacterial

spoilage• and allows more of the SO2 to be free and active as a preservative.

Terminology

• Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is added to prevent oxidation and other accidents in winemaking. Some of it combines with sugars etc and is “bound”. Onlythe “free” SO2 is effective as a preservative.

• Total SO2 is controlled by law according to the level of residual sugar: the more sugar, the moreSO2 is needed.

• Tannins are the focus of attention for red winemakers intent on producing softer, more approachable wines.

• Later picking, and picking by tannin ripeness rather than sugar levels gives riper, silkier tannins.

• Toast refers to the burning of the inside of the barrel. “High toast” givesthe wine caramel-like flavours.

Winemaking ...

• nurturing the natural process... By definition, wine is a drink made by the partial or complete fermentation of the juice of fresh grapes.

• Grapes are the only fruit with a high enough level of sugar and with the proper balance of acid and nutrients to sustain a natural fermentation to dryness with stable results.

• Other fruits or berries may be fermented, but without additions of sugar, acid, or various yeast nutrients, they may readily spoil.

ANCIENT AND MYSTERIOUS

•Although the biochemistry of fermentation was a mystery until the late nineteenth century, the results of the process have been known to man for over 5000 years.

• Fermentation was thought to be a spontaneous act of Nature, merely set in motion by man.

• The grapes were crushed to release the juice (must) into a fermentation vessel.

• When the fermentation was complete, the wine was pressed by some mechanical means to separate the liquid from the stems, skins, pips and pulp. It was then stored to age and clarify until it was drunk. While modern technology and methods may have refined and enhanced it, this is still the basic process today.

Fermentation

• Fermentation is a natural process. • Left alone, a grape would ripen until the skin

broke and the juice fermented. • The intervention of man is only necessary to

increase the clarity and stability of the end product.

• "Making" wine is mostly a matter of the choices and decisions of the winemaker during each phase of production, from growing the raw material grapes to bottling the finished wine. These choices determine the wine's style, flavors, and aromas to a great extent.

Yeast

• Yeast is the microscopic, single-celled fungi which causes fermentation.

• Yeast populations are present in the air, especially in and around vineyards. This indigenous yeast population is known as "wild" or "ambient" yeast.

• Yeast cells instead are concentrated around the berry stem (peduncle) and much lower in concentration than thought, in the dozens rather than the thousands.

Fermentation contd.

• When yeast comes in contact with the grape juice, it begins to feed on it, grow and reproduce.

• There are approximately 6000 yeast cells per ounce of actively fermenting must.

• An enzyme (zymase) within the yeast converts sugar in the grape juice into roughly equal parts of alcohol and carbon dioxide and also releases energy in the form of heat.

Fermentation

• C6H12O6>ZYMASE>2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + HEAT

• Theoretically, this process could continue naturally until the sugar is used up, which is most often the case.

• Occasionally, fermentation continues only until the yeast cells are no longer able to tolerate the level of their waste products: alcohol, carbon dioxide and/or heat, thus leaving very small amounts of residual sugar.

Fermentation

• It is noteworthy there were no significant changes in the methods and practices of viticulture and enology from about 1000 BC until about 1860 AD.

• Other than small improvements such as using more metal and less wooden parts in presses and equipment, the French vignerons of 1850 knew little more of the scientific principals involved than did the ancient Romans.

History of Wine

Bike Kocaoğlu

2010

History of Wine

• Certain events did occur, primarily regarding wine storage, which together marked the beginnings of serious wine collecting.

• An English print from 1778 is the first known evidence of a corkscrew. In 1797, it was first noticed at Chateau LaFite that wine that aged in bottles improved.

• A few years later, in 1815, came the first documented Declared Vintage of Port.

Neolithic period “Chateau Hajji Firuz”

• If winemaking is best understood as an intentional human activity rather than a seasonal happenstance, then the Neolithic period (8500-4000 B.C.) is the first time in human prehistory when the necessary preconditions for this momentous innovation came together.

Archeologic evidence• A major step forward in our understanding of Neolithic winemaking

came from the analysis of a yellowish residue inside a jar excavated by Mary M. Voigt at the site of Hajji Firuz Tepe in the northern Zagros Mountains of Iran.

• The jar, with a volume of about 9 liters (2.5 gallons) was found together with five similar jars embedded in the earthen floor along one wall of a "kitchen" of a Neolithic mudbrick building, dated to ca. 5400-5000 B.C.

• The structure, consisting of a large living room that may have doubled as a bedroom, the "kitchen," and two storage rooms, might have accommodated an extended family. That the room in which the jars were found functioned as a kitchen was supported by the finding of numerous pottery vessels, which were probably used to prepare and cook foods, together with a fireplace.

EgyptWine for the Afterlife

• The evidence for winemaking in the Delta during the preceding Early Dynastic Period (Dynasties 1 and 2) is more inferential.

• Rather than recording a large number of wine jars in an offering list, actual jars in large quantities were buried in the tombs of the pharoahs at Abydos and those of their families at Saqqara, the main religious centers.

• The jars are stoppered with a round pottery lid and a conical clay lump that was pressed over the lid and tightly around the rim. The clay stopper was generally impressed with multiple cylinder seal impressions giving the name of the pharoah. ...such seals have been interpreted as a primitive kind of wine label...

MesopotamiaUnder the Grape Arbors...

• It has usually been argued that barley beer was the alcoholic beverage of choice in ancient Sumer,

• since the hot, dry climate of southern Iraq makes it difficult to grow grapevines, and the textual evidence for viniculture and winemaking in Mesopotamia is minimal before the 2nd millennium B.C.

• But based on chemical evidence for wine inside jars that could've been used to transport and serve it, wine was probably already being enjoyed by at least the upper classes in Late Uruk times (ca. 3500-3100 B.C.).

• Early Dynastic cylinder seals depict the royalty and their entourages drinking beer with tubes/straws from large jars and a second beverage—presumably wine—from hand-held cups

Mesopotamia contd.

• The wine imported into lowland Greater Mesopotamia could have been brought from the northern Zagros Mountains of Iran or other parts of the Near East, at least 600 kilometers away. The 5th century B.C.

• Greek historian Herodotus describes shipping wine down the Euphrates or Tigris from Armenia at a much later period: round skin boats were loaded with date-palm casks of wine and delivered to Babylon.

Mesopotamia contd.

• River transport was also an option in the Late Uruk Period.

• But if the demand for the beverage were great enough, transplantation of grapevines to closer locales in the central Zagros and possibly as far south as Susa would be anticipated.

• When the Late Uruk trade routes were suddenly cut off at the end of the period, the pressure to establish productive vineyards closer to the major urban centers would have intensified.

Mesopotamia

• Future excavation will be decisive in tracing the prehistory of viniculture and winemaking in this region of the ancient Near East; already there is a strong indication that the domesticated grape plant had already been transplanted there as early as the mid-3rd millennium B.C.

• Elamite cylinder seals, foreshadowing similiar scenes on Assyrian reliefs some two millennia later, depict males and females seated under grape arbors, drinking what is most likely wine.

The Evolution of modern wine

• By 17th century wine was in a unique position of being the one and only wholesome and up to a point storable beverage in Europe.

• Water was not safe to drink.• Ale without hops went bad easily.• There were no spirits.• In the 17th century,chocolate came from central

America.• Then coffee came from Arabia.

Bottle and cork

• The early 17th century glass making technology advanced to make wine bottles stronger and cheaper to blow.

• Cork, bottle ande the corkskrew were also developed at the same time.

• It became clear that wine kept in a corked bottle kept longer than in a barrel.

Phylloxera

• A disease caused by a microorganism originated in America and reached Europe on steamships able to cross the Atlantic fast enough for it to survive on the botanical specimens.

• It caused the pulling up almost every vine in Europe and New World, and it seemed the end of wine production.

• American vines were resistant to it.• Grafting European vines onto American roots is

the only efective defence.

The Vine

• Wine is the fermented juice of a single fruit: the grape.

• Wine is made is made from rain (and in hotter regions irrigation of water) recovered from the ground by the mechanısm of the plant that bears grapes, the vine and in the presence of sunlight converted by photosythesis into fermentable sugar.

Vine

• The first two years of its life it creates roots and builds a strong woody stalk to bear and carry the grapes.

• Like most plants, vines will reproduce from seed but the seeds rarely turn out like their parents.

• Viticulturists propagate vines asexually instead so that they can be sure that the offspring are the same as the mother vine.

Vine

• For planting a new vineyard every vine originates as a cutting, either planted to take root on its own or grafted onto a rootstock, a rooted cutting of another species especially selected for the soil type or resistence to draught or nematodes.

• Only healthy cuttings are used.• As a vine grows older its principal roots

penetrate deeper in the ground.• Yields decline after 25 to 30 years.

The vine stages

• Stage 1. As early as March, in Northern Europe and September in the Southern hemisphere, the buds left after winter pruning start to swell and the first signs of green can be seen emerging from the gnarled wood.

• The temperaure is important 10 C, although different grape varieties vary.

The vine stages

• Stage 2.

• Within 10 days of budbreak, leaves start to separate from the bud and embryonic taendrils begin to be visible and are too vulnerable to frost which can strike as loate as mid-May or mid-November.

• Late pruning can delay budbreak.

The vine stages

• Stage 3.• Between six and 13 weeks after budbreak

the crucial flowering of the vine begins with the emergence of tiny caps of fused petals.

• These look very like miniature versions of the grapes that will be formed here once the caps fall, exposing stamens to be fertilized by pollen to create the berries.

The vine stages

• Stage 4.

• The size of the eventual crop depends on the success of pollination.

• Poor weather during the ten-14 day flowering can result in having different sizes of grapes on the same bunch.

The vine stages

• Stage 5.

• The grapes swell during the summer and in August/February undergo veraison whereby they soften and turn reddish or yellow.

• The ripening process begins and sugars start to build rapidly inside the grape.

Wine and Weather

• After the vine the weather is the second most important factor.

• Without sufficient rainfall or warmth grapes wiil not ripen enough. An excess of either may decrease the quality of wine.

• Hail or frost can also influence the quantity rather than quality.

• Cool climate wines tend to be lower in alcohol and higher in acidity.

Wine and Weather

• The mean temperatures in the final month of ripening should be 15-21ᵒC to produce fine table wines and hotter temperatures can result in good fortified wines.

• Winters need to be sufficiently cool to allow the vine its revitalizing winter sleep.

• If temperatures regularly fall below -15ᵒ C in winter then the risk of freezing occur.

Wine and water

• The vine needs water as well as warmth

• An average rainfall of at least 500 mm is generally required.

• Growers take care of it if the rain fall is not enough by dripping method.

• If a vine runs short of water, it is said to suffer water stress and tends to produce smaller grapes with thicker skins.

Wine and Wind

• Winds can be beneficial by cooling hot vineyards and drying out damp ones.

• Continous wind stress can stop photosynthesis and delay the ripening process.

• Windbreakes can be built.

Terroir

• There is no exact translation for the French word, may be terrain.

• At its most restrictive the word means soil.• The dirt, subsoil and rocks beneath it, its

physical properties and how they relate to the local climate, the macroclimate of the region.

• For example: how quickly a patch of land drains whether it reflects the sunlight or absorbs the heating

International Grapes

• Cabernet Sauvignon: Blackcurrant, cedar, high tannin.

• Synonymous with serious red wine capable of ageing. Best travelled red wine variety, since it is relatively late ripener,it is viable to warm climates.

• Chardonnay: Broad, inoffensive unless over-oaked.

• The white burgundy grape, chardonnay can be grown and ripened without difficulty almost everywhere except at the extremes.

International grapes

• Merlot: plump and plummy.– Cabernet Sauvıgnon’s traditional slightly fleshier blending

partner especially in Bordeaux where its earlier ripening makes Merlot a lot easier and it is the most planted grape there.

• Pinot Noir: Cherry, raspbery, violets.– This is the most elusive grape. It is relatively early ripening and

extremely sensitive to the terroir.

• Riesling: Aromatic, delicate, expressive– Riesling is to white wine what Cabernet Sauvignon is to red. It

can make entirely different wines in different places and can age magnificently.

International grapes

• Syrah/Shiraz: Black pepper, dark chocolate, notable colour and tannin.

• Sauvignon Blanc: Grass, green fruits, razor sharp, rarely oaked.

• Gerwurtraminer: Lychees, roses, heady, high alsohol, deep coloured.

• Semillion: Figs, citrus fruits, full-bodied, rich

Regional grapes

• Zinfandel: Warm berry flavours, alcohol, sweetness.• Considered as the California’s own grape for a century but originally

from Italy.• Malbec: Spicy and rich in Argentina, gamey in Cahors.• It has long been a blending grape all over Southwest France,

including Bordeaux. Emigres took it to Argentina where in Mendoza it was clearly at home that it became the country’s most planted red grape.

• Sangiovese: Savoury, lively variable from prunes to farmyard.• Italy’s most planted grape, common to Central Italy.

Viticulture and Winemaking in Turkey

Bike Kocaoğlu

2010

History of viticulture and winemaking in Turkey

• The Neolithic era• Grapes have been cultivated in Turkey for at least 6,000 years.• Some of the earliest known wine artifacts have been found in

Anatolia in Eastern Turkey and there is a strong belief that this region is the cradle of winemaking.

• Historians have suggested that winemaking started in Anatolia more than 6,000 years ago(where Noah was possibly the first vigneron when he planted his post-flood vineyard after the flood waters receded and his Ark lodged on Mount Ararat, on the eastern border of Turkey, near Armenia and Iran).It turns out that this Biblical reference may be more accurate than we realise.

Prehistoric times

• Prehistoric grapes is regarded as the common ancestor for our modern domesticated vines such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay.

• According to these scientists, whatever the outcome of their search, it is clear that Turkey, with over 1,000 rare species of vine, is a favoured ancestral source for modern Viticulture.

The Roman, Christian and Islamic periods

• After a turbulent period during which Alexander the Great conquered the region, the Roman Empire claimed Anatolia as a province and ruled over a diffuse population, many of whom were Christian or Jewish.

• Presumably, there were no restrictions on grape growing or winemaking at this time. In fact, it is most likely that wine production was stimulated by a new religion that considered wine more important than previous religions by accepting it as the blood of Christ in its sacraments

• When Christianity was recognized as the official religion of the Roman Empirein the 4th century A.D, the production and the consumption of wine underwent asignificant increase mainly in monasteries and other religious centres.

Influence of Islam

• The advent of Islam in the 8th and 9th centuries A.D. slowed the growth and consumption of wine but did not abolish it entirely.

The Seljuk Turks

• nominally Moslem, who ruled until conquered by the• Ottomans at the end of the 13th century, appear to have allowed a

reasonably relaxed view of religious strictures. • Omar Khayyam s famous Rubaiyat was written during this period

and it is hard to reconcile this ode to the glories of wine with a society that frowned upon drinking.

• It is more likely that it supported the (apparently contradictory) view that while the Koran exhorts an intelligent man not to drink alcohol (though it is not explicitly forbidden), it describes heaven as containing 'rivers flowing with the most delectable wine'.

Ottoman times

• Ottoman sultans, who conquered the Seljuk territories in the late 13th century, barred Muslim subjects from drinking wine during their 600-year reign*, but winemaking survived in Greek and Armenian Christian communities spread throughout Turkey.

• The upheaval following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War One, in which millions of minorities left Turkey, nearly obliterated viticulture.

• These minorities, particularly Greek, had maintained a winemaking culture for hundreds of years.

• Their departure left many vineyards untended and wineries neglected.

The Republic

• The foundation of the republic in 1923, followed by the abolition of religious courts and the termination of Islam as the state religion, allowed the development of a social environment that was more sympathetic to the making and consumption of wine.

• Turkey s 5,000-year-old winemaking tradition was rekindled by the founder of the republic, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.

• Several important wineries were established, some of which (for example Doluca) are amongst the leading wineries and brands to this day.

• Many new vineyards were planted, most often with French varieties that gave large crops but mediocre wine (e.g. Carignan, Clairette and Grenache).

Regions

• Aegean• This region, based on the districts of Izmir, Manisa and Denizli,

accounts for some 20% of Turkish wine production. Grape varieties, Red: Çalkarasi, Grenache, Cabernet Sauvignon, Carignan; White: Semillon, Sultaniye. Recent plantings of Shiraz in the Denizli region show great promise.

• Black Sea• Coastal region based on Corum and the Tokat Valley. • Grape varieties, Red:Dimrit, Sergikarasi; White: Narince.

Regions

• Eastern Anatolia• Wine production is centred on Elazig. Grape varieties, Red:

Öküzgözü, Boğazkere; White: Narince.• Mid-Anatolia• Winemaking is centred on the cities and regions of Ankara,

Kirikkale, Nevşehir,Kirsehir and Nigde. • Anatolia has very severe winters and hot summers. • Grape varieties, Red: Kalecik Karasi, Papazkarasi, Dimrit; White:

Emir, Sultaniye.• South-Eastern Anatolia• Centred on the districts of Gaziantep, Mardin, Urfa and Diyarbakir.

Grape varieties, Red: Boğazkere, Horozkarasi; White: Dokulgen, Kabarcik.

Regions

• Thrace and Marmara• The heart of Turkish wine production, accounting for

40% of the country’s production. • Centred on Tekirdag, Canakkale, Edirne, Kirklareli and

Bilecik.• Grape varieties, Red: Papazkaras, Cabernet Sauvignon,

Merlot, Gamay, Pinot Noir; White: Semillon, Clairette, Riesling, Chardonnay.

Viticulture Today

• The total vineyard area in Turkey is well over 600,000 hectares although few of the major wine producers have any significant vineyard holdings.

• The vast majority of vineyards are owned by small, independent farmers.

• In an effort to improve quality and compete on the world stage, the last few years have seen much planting of classic European varieties as well as the better indigenous varieties and the major wine companies are developing large areas of vineyards to safeguard their supplies.

• Domestic wine consumption is increasing, thanks partly to Turkey’s popularity as a tourist destination for northern Europeans.

• This has led to enormous competition for grapes and consequently many grapes are picked unripe by growers who have the controlling hand.

• This clearly has a negative impact on wine quality. Often, wineries will accept fruit from a number of small growers together but have little control over ripeness and overall quality.

Indigenous varieties

• Turkey is home to many hundreds of indigenous grape varieties, a handful of which have the potential to produce world-class wines. Approximately 22 are used for table wine production.

• From the Eastern regions, Boğazkere and Öküzgözü are two red varieties of great interest. The former is a large-berried, deeply coloured grape with extraordinary tannins (it easily rivals Nebbiolo in this regard).

• The latter is more friendly and has some similarities with Tempranillo and Sangiovese.

• Narince and Emir are two white varieties that are popular with domestic consumers. They can produce medium-bodied, fragrant wines, reminiscent of Verdelho or dry Muscadelle.

Winemaking today

• Wine consumption in Turkey is very low - per capita consumption is less than 1 litre of wine per year but is growing steadily as domestic consumers discover wine.

• As many countries with a long history of winemaking have already done (eg., Bulgaria and Hungary), Turkey is preparing to meet world quality standards and no longer rely on unsophisticated domestic consumers.

Turkish White Wine Grapes

• Emir• Grown in Central Anatolia • Refreshing and easy to drink • Suitable for producing dry, primeur and sparkling wines • Wines of this kind are greenish-yellow • Narince• Grown in the Tokat region for its sandy soil • Often consumed as table grape • Narince is good for dry white wine with a balanced structure • Wines of this kind are greenish-yellow when young and have  a

fruity aroma

Turkish White Wine Grapes

• Sultaniye• Globally known as Sultana • Seedless grape grown in the Aegean region • Sultaniye wines are light with fruit aromas • Not suitable for aging, should be consumed within a year of bottling • Misket • Grown around Izmir • Most aromatic of the white grape varieties • Both dry and sweet wines from Misket should be tasted

Turkish Red Wine Grapes

• Bogazkere (Boğazkere)• Grown in Southeast Anatolia • One of the best native grapes in Turkey,Has high tannin strong body and

the potential to age • Boğazkere is traditionally blended with Öküzgözü grape • Okuzgozu (Öküzgözü)• Grown in Elazig • The wines from Öküzgözü carries floral and fruity aromas • Medium body and soft texture • Kalecik Karasi (Kalecik Karası• Grown in Ankara region • Kalecik Karası produces medium-bodied wines with red fruit aromas • Suitable for aging (preferably 5 years).• )

Wine and Time

Bike Kocaoğlu

2010

• Most people assume that the longer that you keep a wine, the better it will get.

• How long do I keep the wine before drinking? • It is a misconception that you must age wine. The fact is,

throughout the world, most wine is drunk "young" (that is relatively soon after it is produced, perhaps 12 to 18 months), even wines that are "better" if aged.

• While some wines will "mature" and become better over time, others will not and should be drunk immediately, or within a few years.

• Eventually all wine will "go over the hill," so even the wines meant to be kept for many, many years should be drunk before its too late.

Agents of aging

• Tannin is a substance that comes from the seeds, stems and skins of grapes.

• Additional tannin can come from the wood during barrel aging in the winery.

• It is an acidic preservative and is important to the long term maturing of wine.

• Through time, tannin (which has a bitter flavor--"mouth shattering"?) will precipitate out of the wine (becoming sediment in the bottle) and the complexity of the wine's flavor from fruit, acid and all the myriad other substances that make up the wine's character will come into greater balance.

• Generally, it is red wines that are the ones that can (but do not have to be) produced with a fair amount of tannin with an eye towards long term storing and maturation. The bad news is that you shouldn't drink it young since it will taste too harsh (and probably cost too much, besides). The good news is that (with a little luck) after a number of years, what you get is a prized, complex and balanced wine.

• Remember that red wines get their color from the stems and skins of the grape.

• This gives the wine tannin and aging capacity. • White wines may have no contact with the stems and skins and will

have little tannin (though some can be added, again, through barrel aging).

• Therefore most white wines don't age well. Even the ones which do get better through time will not last nearly as long as their red cousins.

• A fair average for many "ageable" whites would be about 5 to 7 years (some might go 10). On the other hand, really "ageable" reds can easily be kept for 30 years and longer

Which wine to drink when

• In any event, the red French Beaujolais Nouveau is meant to be drunk within days. Its a light, fruity wine.

• White wine is the next least aged wine. • But here there is a range from a light wine like Sauvignon Blanc or a

light Chardonnay, to more ageable "complex" Chardonnay of good White Burgundies.

• Probably drink the former within a few years (aging isn't needed, and the latter from 3 to 7 years).

• Dessert wines like Sauternes or other late harvest wines (Riesling, Gewurztraminer, etc.) should be aged. Sauternes get better over a very long time: 10, 20, 30, 40 or more years

Reds

• Then come the reds. • While the vast majority of wines produced today can be drunk

immediately, a good number of red wines will benefit by SOME aging and some will benefit from a lot of aging.

• The ones that you open now that taste like road tar may very well be fantastic in 5 or 10 or 20 years.

• Look to some French Bordeaux (maybe up to 30 years) or Cabernet Sauvignon.

• Getting more specific about some red grapes, rules of thumb might be for the very best wines: Cabernet, 10 to 15 years; Merlot, 4 to 7 years for many; Nebbiolo, 10 years or more; Pinot Noir, about 5 years to start.

How Temperature Affects the Aging of Wine

• There are three storage conditions of concern to collectors and consumers of fine wine:

• light, • humidity and • temperature.• The storage area for wine must be dark because ultraviolet (UV)

light will damage wine by causing the degradation of otherwise stable organic compounds found in wine.

• Since these organic compounds contribute to the aroma, flavor and structure of the wine, the changes caused by UV light result in the deterioration of the essence of wine. (Note: Fluorescent lights emit a significant amount of UV light.)

Humidity

• The only reason humidity is an issue in wine storage is because of the use of the traditional cork seal.

• The relative humidity of the storage area (i.e., the amount of gaseous water in the air) can exacerbate the rate of evaporation of wine from the bottle if the cork is defective.

• Since corks are far from perfect in their ability to seal a bottle of wine, ullage (the space between the bottom of the cork and the wine level in the bottle) develops in almost all bottles stored for extended periods due to evaporation.

• If the cork (seal) is defective, low humidity in the storage area will result in wine moving out of the bottle faster over time and significant ullage will develop in less time under these conditions. Thus, the more important issue is the quality of the cork seal and not the relative humidity in the storage area.

Temperature

• The ideal temperature for wine storage is 13°C which is equivalent to about 55°F. Degrees (°) C refers to the Celsius temperature scale on which water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C. This scale is used throughout Europe and most of the world.

• The 13°C temperature makes historical sense since wine storage in France is typically in caves and the natural underground temperature is around 13°C.

• Thus, the "ideal" seems to have been the result of regional custom and practice rather than scientific study.

• and 24 years of aging at 55°F. These differences are very significant.

• What will happen to a wine stored at room temperature in a dark closet rather than in a temperature-controlled environment of 55°F, the commonly accepted "ideal" temperature increase in temperature of 18°F(10°C), doubles the rate of a reaction if it has a LOW energy barrier.

• If the reaction has a HIGH energy barrier, the rate of the reaction increases by a factor of eight for this temperature difference.

• Translated, this means if your cellar is at 73°F instead of 55°F, your wine ages 2.1 to 8.0 times faster than if it were at 55°F.

• Thus, 3 years at 73°F is equivalent to between 6.3

Temperature

• As a final thought, and in keeping with the discussion above, be sure to store your opened bottle of wine in the refrigerator.

• If you must keep an opened bottle of wine for a few days, the best place to store it is in your refrigerator which is typically at a temperature of about 41°F (5°C).

• The chemical reactions leading to spoilage (primarily oxidation-reduction) will be slowed down by a factor of 6 to 16 times compared with storage at room temperature (about 73°F).

• Therefore, a wine should last 6 to 16 times longer in the refrigerator than at room temperature.

• Red wine can be poured in a glass and allowed to slowly warm before consumption or put in a microwave oven for 15-20 seconds

Storing wine

• For any wine lover, storing wine well is very important. • There are a few simple principles that need to be understood in

order to select proper wine storage conditions.• We can logically break down the process into just 3 categories: • storing wine for the short haul, • storing wine for long term aging and storing (or saving) wines that

have already been opened.

Short Term Storage

• This is wine you will consume within 6 months.

• These may be bottles that are just home from the store and destined to be consumed shortly or bottles that have been pulled from longer storage to be accessible for spur of the moment consumption.

Short Term Storage

• Keep the bottles stored so that:• the cork stays moist • the wines are at the lowest stable temperature

possible • the location is free of vibration • the location is not a storage area for other items

that have a strong odor

Long Term Storage:

•This is wine that you will keep for more than 6 months before consumption. A good storage location for wine is generally dark, is free of vibration, has high humidity and has a low stable temperature.

• Generally accepted 'ideal' conditions are 50 to 55 degrees fahrenheight and 70 percent humidity or higher.

• The high humidity is important because it keeps the corks from drying and minimizes evaporation.

• The only problem with even higher levels of humidity is that it brings on growth of mold on the labels or the loosening of labels that have water soluble glue.

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Long Term Storage

• Temperatures lower than 55 degrees only slow the aging of the wines.

• There have been wines found in very cold cellars of castles in Scotland that are perfectly sound and are much less developed that those kept at 'normal' cellar temperature.

• A near constant temperature is preferable to one that fluctuates.

• With regard to light, most modern bottles have ultraviolet filters built into the glass that help protect the contents from most of the effects of UV rays.

• Despite the filters in the glass, long term storage can still allow enough rays in to create a condition in the wine that is referred to as 'light struck'.

• The result is that the wine picks up the taste and smell of wet cardboard.

• This is especially noticeable in delicate white wines and sparkling wines. The condition can be created by putting a bottle of champagne near a fluorescent light for a month

• Regular or constant vibrations from pumps, motors or generators should be avoided since the vibrations they cause are thought to negatively affect the evolution of the wines.

• One additional factor to avoid is storing other items with very strong odors near the wine. There have been many reports of wines picking up the aromas of items stored nearby.

• If you do not have a suitable wine cellar, there are many types of 'wine refrigerators' that will work as well.

• They differ from common refrigerators in that they work at higher temperatures (50-65 degree range) and they do not remove humidity from the air.

• There are kits available that will convert regular refrigerators into suitable wine storage units.

Storage after opening

• : This is storage for bottles of table wine that have been opened but not completely consumed.

• There are many methods for prolonging the life of opened table wines but even the best can only slow the degradation of the wine.

• These methods are for still table wines. Sparkling wines and fortified dessert wines have different characteristics and requirements.