teeb climate issues update

8/14/2019 TEEB Climate Issues Update

1/34

t

h eco

nom

ics

of ecosys

ms

& b

iodiv

rsiy

CLIMATE ISSUES UPDATE

September 2009


2/34

tHe eCoNomiCS oF eCoSyStemS AND bioDiVerSity

A teeb r. ths shuld qud as

fllws: TEEB (2009) TEEB Climate Issues Update.

S 2009

Authors

pavan Sukhdv, Jshua bsh, pack n bnk,

Haa Gundda, Kaa Kausaks, pusha

Kua, Casn Nhv, Aud Nuvll, Davd

Sknn, Alxanda Vaku, Jan-Lus W,

Shn Wh, Hd W

teeb s hsd h Und Nans envnn pga and sud h euan Cssn, h

Gan Fdal envnn mns and h UK gvnn's Dan f envnn, Fd and rual

Affas.

Acknowledgements

Scal hanks g Ggna Langdal, h teeb

Cdnan Gu, h cdnang lad auhs,

and all h auhs f h dffn teeb s, ashs uda ulds n h wk and cnuns.

Disclaimer:teeb s an ndndn sud. th vws

xssd n hs a a ul hs f h auhs

and a n n an ccusancs gadd as

sang an ffcal sn f h gansans nvlvd.

C I T A T I O N A N D D I S C L A I M E R


3/34


teeb Cla issus Uda

Executive summary

ths uda f u teeb sud sns a su-s

f al cnclusns whch la cla chang.

A full n hs and sval h aas f l-

vanc nanal and nnanal lc-aks

wll ulshd n Nv 2009. Hwv, n vw

f h cla chang cnfnc n Cnhagn,

Dnak, n Dc 2009, w hugh a-

a ulsh u cla-lad cnclusns and

cndans ugnl f lc-aks,

ngas, and h gnal ulc.

A h cls f h fs has f teeb, n ma 2008

w snd u lna cnclusns as an in-

r. in hs , w assssd h cn-

c agnud f h huan wlfa acs f

lsng naual aas, scall fss. W dscd

n cnc s h fundanal lnks wnlnang v and cnsvng dvs and

csss. W hghlghd hcal ssus undlng

h chc f dscun as valua h nfs

f wld nau f huan wlfa. W als ad

h gund f phas 2 f teeb wh s l-

na analss f h lc lcans f avalal

cnc vdnc. Lasl, w sl u u an

an f phas 2 f teeb, whch s hl

ansa h cncs f csss and -

dvs. t hs nd w a ang a chn-

sv sud f h clgcal and cnc

fundans f knwldg n hs ana, gh wh

fu ulcans agd a k gus f nd-uss:

lc-aks, adnsas, usnsss and

czns (s x n h teeb css, ag 4).

in S, w wll lac n u ws

(www.w.g) f ulc cn daf

chas n h clgcal and cnc fundans

f teeb. Hwv, hs daf ds n (and s n

an ) addss cal ssus f h scnc-

cncs-lc nfac wh whch w a als

dalng n teeb. Hnc hs TEEB Climate Issues

Update.

th ngans n Cnhagn n Dc 2009

culd a washd f h ssus addssd

teeb n u fhcng f lc-aks:

W fac h nn lss fcoral reefs du

cla chang, wh all h sus clgcal,

scal, and cnc cnsquncs hs wll nal.

Fss f a valual funcn n caung

and sng can. An al and aa

agn n forest carbon wuld a sgnfcan

un ga cla chang. i wuld als

s h sag f lad chanss wad h

css svcs f fss. th s a cllng cs-nf cas f ulc

nvsn n ecological infrastructure (s-

call sng and cnsvng fss, angvs,

v asns, wlands, c.), aculal caus

f s sgnfcan nal as a ans f adaan

cla chang.

1A h 9h Cnfnc f h pas f h Und Nans

Cnvnn n blgcal Dvs n bnn, Gan.

E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y

1


4/34


Coral reef emergency

Cal f lsss acclad sgnfcanl nc a-

shc cncnans f Co2 achd aund 320

du au-nducd cal lachng.

ths lsss w cundd xcssv Co2

dsslun n sa wa. ths causd can acdfca-

n, whch n un has f gnan. Scn-

fc cnsnsus has gd ha ashc Co2

cncnans nd sgnfcanl lw 350

f h lng- val f cal fs (ral

Sc 2009).

ecnc valuans f cal fs vd sak n-

sghs n h valu f hs naual asss. th -

nal cnc css f lsng cal fs cla

chang a nus. Fuh, hs s an c-

ss ha s cls a hshld f vsl,

a ng n nd whch cass f

css funcns. Wh an such ss s n

nugh l cnsd h nfs and h cssf agnal changs. A cls h ng n,

h ad-ffs ad a n lng jus agnal

cs-nf dcsns. th a ah n h nau

f hcal chcs ad sc, n full

cgnn f h fa-achng cnsquncs. And

w hav achd ha n wh cal fs.

Gadual ducn n fuu gnhus gas (GHG)

ssns a sav us f dangus cla

chang u wll n s h nn lss f cal

fs. evn cun lvls f ashc Co2 a

hgh f cal f suvval. W nd lag and

ann vals f Co2 f h ash.

th ask f glal ladsh n h un-u Cn-

hagn s cgnz and addss h hcal chc

facng huan whn sng nw ags f GHG

cncnans. Accng an salzan ag

av 350 Co2 all ans ha sc has

ad a dcsn ak d whu cal fs. i s

hf als a dcsn acc h sus cn-

squncs f cal f lss n dvs, n sa

fshs aund h wld, and n h half lln

l wh dnd dcl n cal fs f h

lvlhds. rvng Co2 has hus c an

av f suvval.

Explicit plans should be made for significant CO2

removals by accelerated carbon capture, either by

restoring natural ecosystems or by other safe

means.

Forest carbon for climate mitigation

th ssns g da s dnanl a wn

can g - cnls ssns f fssl-ful

us and ndusal csss, u xss us

scal lakag sks. F xal, ncnvs f

fuls ( lac fssl fuls) can ss

sul n cnvsn f fs land n ful

cland, and caus cnsdal ssns f

sl and ass can lsss han savd unnglss fssl fuls. tsal can gn can and

can can lu can a h assv can

ls whch als hav sgnfcan n fluxs wh h

ash. effcv cnl f ashc can

wll nd hs whl 'scu' f can an-

agd, and n jus n clu f can.

tcal and su-cal fss s au 25% f

h can n sal naual aas. F hs asn,

w su cla ngas n h ds

wad dvlng cuns (wh s f hs

a fund) f vd cnsvan, can sck

nhancn and susanal fs anagn

(.g. cn reDD-plus sals). in addn, hs

csss als dlv an h nfs whch

a hghl valual sc. th vd fd, f,

fulwd, fsh wa and sl nuns. th vn

fldng and cnl dugh. th f a uff

agans naual hazads. th ff sc f

c-us, and vd nuus culual nfs,


2


5/34


f s and can wsh n sacd gvs.

th cnc f pans f ecss Svcs has

vlvd wad fs cusdans f s f hs

valus, u h a als challngs: Alhugh wdl

accd as a gd wa cau h ulc nfs

f cnsvan, lnan s ld jus a fw

lcans and a handful f css svcs.

Fs can s nall a aj gan n. i

s cs-ffcv han an alnav asus,

and dlvs sgnfcan c-nfs ha duc n

css sll fuh. Hwv, has anh valu.

includng fs can as a aj cnn f a

fuu cla g ss an an cdn. i

can sv as a nal laf f h dvln

f h ans f css svcs (peS). F

a teeb scv, h ucng cla cnfnc

n Cnhagn s h fs aj, wd, n-

nanal un ca a funcnng, ffcv,

ul glal fawk f 'pans f ecss

Svcs'. F hs asn, w lv ha h valu fsuch an agn, f dsgnd accdngl, schs

fa nd can, and ndd fss. A succssful

glal agn wuld ak scs n n a nw

a whch ansas h cncs f csss

and dvs: n jus dnsang css

nfs, u caung h hugh cd wads.

in hs wa w gn nnalz h vas xnals

f naual caal.

TEEB strongly supports efforts to reach consensus

at Copenhagen towards accelerated implementa-

tion of an appropriate forest carbon agreement that

recognizes ecosystem service values.

National accounting for forest carbon

W cann anag wha w d n asu. ths

dcu als gnall css svcs and

naual caal, whch a lagl ssng f xsng

sss f nanal accuns. Hwv, cs

an da ncss f lnng glal

navs wad css svcs, ncludng

cla gan. t ln a fs can

Agn, h us lal sss f a-

sun and accunng f can sag and

squsan n a va f csss. Sval ans-

nanal navs a und wa ak nanal

accunng chnsv, u h s an ugn

nd f a glal accunng sandad flc fs

can valus and h css svcs n

nanal accuns.

TEEB recommends rapid upgrade of the UNs SEEA

(2003) manual to reflect the urgent need to include

ecosystem services and especially forest carbon in

national accounts.

Ecosystem investment for climateadaptation

bdvs and h svcs vdd cssscan cnu sgnfcanl and cs-ffcvl

ffs ada unavdal cla chang.

invsn n sng cnsvng clgcal nfa-

sucu whch dlvs css svcs can sgn-

fcanl nhanc agculual susanal, scall n

dvlng cuns. i can v fshwa su-

ls and duc fuu nscu. i can cnsdal

duc h acs f naual hazads and x

wah vns. Such nvsn can als v

sklls and ca dcn js n cuns. b

akng du vsn n h funds f cla chang

adaan, Cnhagn ngans can facla hs

f nvsn.

TEEB recommends significant investment in

protecting ecosystem services and biodiversity,

fostering the development of ecological infrastruc-

ture, as a contribution to both climate change

mitigation and adaptation.


3


6/34


7/34

on an css ha w sk lsng du

cla chang s cal fs. Cun lvls f Co2

a alad av lvls whch gna can

wang f lng nugh ds caus ass cal

lachng glall - a hnnn ncasngl -

svd snc Co2 cncnans xcdd 320 .

Accuulang scnf c vdnc s als suggsng

ha f gnan (whch hans nauall v

as) s had ncasng can acdfcan

du ncasd dsslvd Co2, an ffc ha wll -

c ncasngl sv n fuu as.

th a n n u w aj ls facng

sc da n lan gnhus gas (GHG)

ssns (Sn 2008). th fs s a flw l:

uch GHG flwng n h ash du

huan acvs. And h scnd s a aalll u

dsnc sck l: Co2 cncnans aalad a lvls whch wll ds cal fs. Cun

scnfc cnsnsus s ha agng salzan

lvls av 350 Co2 wll n vn h

caashc lss f cal fs f h cnd

ffcs f hgh aus and can acdfcan

(s x 1). Lvls a cunl a 387 . t n-

su h lng- val f cal fs h a-

shc Co2 lvl us ducd sgnfcanl

lw 350 . (s x 2). thf, sgnfcan

Co2 vals nw and an aggssv glal slv

cu fuu ssns dascall a h s -

an acns w nd da allw cal f c-

sss suvv.

Cal gnan s als had huan acvs,

such as vfshng and dsucv fshng accs,

vxlan f an and casal sucs, and

dsucn du anchs calss uss. th

a als facs lk wa qual and sdn-

an. F fs wh hs acs a sgnfcan,

cv f lachng a n han a all. th-f, n addn acn n ssns, scnss a

als advcang cnsvan and anagn

f fs as a aalll sag f f suvval.

5

C o r A L r e e F e m e r G e N C y

Figure 1: Map of coral reefs Source: Bryant et al. (1998)


8/34


C O R A L R E E F E M E R G E N C Y

THE IMPORTANCE OF CORAL REEFS

Cal fs a an ngal a f an xnsv and

val landsca f casal csss whch ncluds

suas, ashs, angv fss, duns,

sagass ds and lagns. ths csss a

lgcall hghl ducv. Aund half f h

wlds cs wh han half a lln nhaans

l whn 50 kls f h cas (Agad and Ald

2005) and a hus dc nfcas f h an

valual css svcs vdd casal

nvnns, ncludng cn f flds and

ss, sn cnl and casal fshs.

esas f h al nu f l lan n

cal fs f h fd sucs ang f 500

lln (Wlknsn 2004) v n lln (Whng-

ha al. 2003). S 30 lln f h wlds

s and s vulnal l n casal and

sland cuns a all lan n f-asd

sucs as h a ans f fd ducn,

sucs f nc and lvlhds (Gz al.

1994; Wlknsn 2004).

tcal cal f csss cv jus 1.2 cn

f h wlds cnnnal shlvs u a h s

dvs f all an csss. th a h

an sad 1-3 lln scs, ncludng

han a qua f all an fsh scs (Alls al.

2009).

6

Box 1: Ocean acidification and its effect on coral reefs

The absorption of CO2by the oceans leads to

increasing ocean acidification. This alters

the carbonate chemistry of seawater as pH

decreases. Ocean acidification has already led to

a decrease of pH of about 0.1 pH units and a

resultant decrease in the availability of carbonate

ions in seawater. This trend is projected to reduce

pH by a further 0.3-0.4 units under a business-

as-usual scenario by the end of this century.

Corals and other marine species that are criticalstructural or functional components of marine

ecosystems, build their skeletons from calcium

carbonate. The vulnerability of these taxa to

acidification depends on the form of carbonate

that they secrete. High magnesium calcite is

most soluble, aragonite of intermediate solubility

and calcite is the most insoluble. Coral skeletons

are formed of aragonite. A decrease in coral

growth rate of 14% has already been observed

on corals of the Great Barrier Reef and is likely to

be a response to acidification or a combination

of climate change impacts. Coralline algae, key

cementing agents that are essential to reef

building, secrete high magnesium carbonate and

are particularly vulnerable to acidification. Prior

to the industrial revolution 98% of the worlds

coral reefs were found in waters more than 3.5

times saturated with aragonite. At an atmospher-

ic CO2 concentration of 450ppm only 8% of

coral reefs will be surrounded by waters withthis saturation level. At CO2 concentrations

of more than 560ppm it is projected that all reefs

will be in an erosional state (atmospheric CO2

double the pre-industrial value). Under these

conditions coral reefs ecosystems will collapse

and become dominated by algae and microorga-

nisms. This will be accompanied by extinctions

of reef-building coral taxa and reef-associated

fish and invertebrate species.

Source : Tittensor et al. 2009


9/34



Coral reef productivity and ecosystem services:

Cal fs a fn lknd ass whn an

nun dss. Hach (1988) cdd ha n h

n sa suundng cal fs, ducv a

fall as lw as 0.01 gC/2/da, alhugh a

an husands f s hgh whn cal fs

(40 gC/2/da). ths hgh ducv f cal fs

whn hs hws unducv was aks

cal fs ccal h suvval f h an and

casal csss. ths s als h undlng asn

wh h cnu s sgnfcanl huan wlfa.

Economic valuation of human welfare benefits:

esas f h vall huan wlfa nfs f

hs css svcs a sgnfcan n

sa us h a $172 lln annuall (manz

al. 2007). A gnal lvl h valus ang wdl,

anl du vaans n wh nfs dcl, and

n h and sz f h cal f sss. F

xal, n Suh eas Asa, h al nal

susanal annual n nfs k f halh

cal fs a sad ang f $23,100

$270,000. ths nfs as f fshs,

shln cn, us, can, and ash-

c valu (buk, Slg and Saldng 2002). in h

fllwng al valus sad dffn suds

hav n cld accdng h css

svcs vdd cal fs (al 1).

Assessment of coral reef losses:

Vaus scnfc suds shw ha w hav n

lsng cals a an alang a. exs sa ha 19%

f h gnal aa f cal fs has n ffcvl ls

snc 1950 (Wlknsn 2008). th mllnnu ecss

Assssn (mA) d ha han 20% f

cals w adl dgadd und nn sk f

cllas (mA 2005). Dald suds dn a h Wld

rsucs insu n 1998 suggs ha whl n glal

s 58% f h wlds fs a hand

huan acvs, n Suh eas Asa s 80% f cals

ha a und du hgh ha, and hs fs

a als h chs n dvs.

7

Table 1: Benefits from ecosystem services in coral reef ecosystems

Ecosystem Service

Provisioning services

Fdraw aals

onanal sucs

Regulating services

Cla gulan

mdan f x vns

Was an / wa ufcan

blgcal cnl

Cultural Services

Ashc nfan / Anouns f can and us

infan f cgnv dvln

Total

Supporting Services

mannanc f gnc dvs

Value of ecosystem services

(in US$ / ha / year 2007 values)CORAL REEFS

Average

470400

264

648

25,200

42

4

7,42579,099

2,154

115,704

13,541

Maximum

3,8181,990

347

648

34,408

81

7

27,4841,063,946

6,461

1,139,190

57,133

Number of Studies

225

3

3

9

2

2

429

4

83

7

Note: these estimates are based on ongoing analyses for TEEB (TEEB Ecological and Economic Foundations, Chapter 7).

As the TEEB data base and value-analysis are still under development, this table is for illustrative purposes only.


10/34



A sud n 2007 n h ffcs f cla chang and

acdfcan n cal fs suazd: Cla

chang xacas lcal ssss f dclnng

wa qual and vxlan f k scs,

dvng fs ncasngl wad h ng n f

funcnal cllas (Hgh-Guldg al. 2007).

ths sud ulnd h ffcs f h scnas f

h nx fw dcads. in h fs, a 380 Co2,

cal fs cnnu dcln wh a fuh lss

f au 10% f lv cal cv. in h scnd

scna, wh salzan a 450 Co2, du

can acdfcan, cal cv dclns au

50%; clnzan au-lan ac-

alga, llun, and v-fshng dvs cal fs

wad a ng n. Lasl, wh salzan a

av 500 , cal fs c xl a

wh h lss f lv cal cv aachng 100%.

Fuh sach has suld n an vn

sssc vw ha Co2 cncnans nd

sgnfcanl lw 350 nsu h lng-

val f cal fs. th vall ac fcun lvls f ashc Co2 s suazd

hs cn san scnss a h ral

Sc, Lndn (s x 2).

VALUING ECOSYSTEMS CLOSE TOA THRESHOLD OF IRREVERSIBILITY

in ssnc, h las scnc lls us ha w alad

hav an css css n u hands: h nn

lss f cal cal fs. Whn an css

s cls a ccal hshld, a c s-

sl valu caus f uncan vn gn-

anc au h nal cnsquncs f nn-

lna havu. tadnal valuan und hs

ccusancs s sk a s (pchad al. 2000;

Lug al. 2002). i a ssl dvl

al wanng ndcas anca x

ng ns, u wh h clgcal knwldg

avalal w a sll fa f havng dvld a

ss anca shfs wh an csn (bggs

al. 2009). th sk f hshld ffcs culd

wh uncan ( vn gnanc) ans ha saf

nu sandad aachs and h cau-

na ncl shuld add n d susan

h slnc f h ss (teeb D0 fhcng,

cha 5).

mna analss a sladng f w d n

knw hw cls a ss s a hshld. Ca

nds akn n sl xala usng an

undlng assun f cnnud ncnal

lsss n h css funcn. t llusa wh an

x xal, f h agnal quanu f nfs

ng valud hans h las avalal f s

knd, hn scac and hcs wuld s a cll

dffn c n ha las quanu. Wha w fac

wh cal fs s n a agnal l, and

h cncs nds flc hs. th d

scnc suggss ha anhgnc ssns hav

ugh h cal f css h nk f

nal vsl cllas. thus w a havncund u fs aj glal css hsh-

ld. As nd u al (teeb 2008) w nd

v nd agnal cs-nf analss and

cnsd h dnsns f valu: h hcal and

scal as wll as h cnc. W nd assss

suvval sks f hs n and s lcans

f can and casal ducv and f huan

wlfa.

th nn ds f cal cal fs s

dcd an xncn vn f ns

nv f wnssd huanknd. th lss f

hs ccal clgcal nfasucu wll daag h

ducv f glal fshs and h chancs f

sck suvval. i culd hus lad fuu fd css.

i wll vsh v 500 lln l wh dnd

n cal fs f h lvlhds.

8


11/34



9

Box 2: Scientific statement on climatechange and coral reefs

Coral reefs are the most biologically diverse

habitats on Earth and provide essential

eco-systems goods and services to hundreds

of millions of people.

Temperature-induced mass coral bleaching

causing widespread mortality on the Great

Barrier Reef and many other reefs of the

world started when atmospheric CO2 ex-

ceeded 320ppm.

At todays level of 387ppm CO2, reefs are

seriously declining and time-lagged effects

will result in their continued demise with

parallel impacts on other marine and coastal

ecosystems.

Proposals to limit CO2levels to 450ppm will

not prevent the catastrophic loss of coral

reefs from the combined effects of climate

change and ocean acidification. To ensure the long-term viability of coral

reefs atmospheric carbon dioxide level must

be reduced significantly below 350ppm.

In addition to major reductions in CO2

emissions, achieving this safe level will

require the active removal of CO2 from the

atmosphere.

Given the above, ecosystem-based man-

agement of other direct human induced

stresses on coral reefs, such as overfishing,

destructive fishing, coastal pollution and

sedimentation will be essential for the

survival of coral reefs on which we are all

dependent.

(Royal Society Meeting, 6th July 2009)

Against this background TEEB urges global

political leaders and their climate negotia-

tors to recognize and address the risks of

irreversible loss of most of the worlds trop-

ical coral reefs by:

providing explicitly for coral reefs in

measures for coherent climate change

adaptation solutions for coastal areas

when establishing climate adaptation

strategies and agreeing adaptation funds;

work towards agreeing on more ambitious

CO2 reduction, that will improve the

chances of survival and recovery of coral

reefs.


12/34

An ssns g ha full ngas fs ca-

n s h an ugn av and a aj -

un. i s ugn caus f h sgnfcan sks

cnc, scal and nvnnal f fss

cnnu agnalzd n cla gan

lc. i s an un caus f h lagl

unad nal f can cau and sag

hugh affsan, fsan, and nhancd

fs cnsvan. includng fs can as a

aj cnn f cla gan wll als hav

a sgnfcan dnsan ffc, sng ffs

nnalz h valu f h css svcs

n h cn. A h sa , an nw ag-

n n fs can nds ak accun f h

an h css svcs vdd fss,

such as fshwa nhancn, sl cnsvan,

dvs cnsvan, c.

ths scn xls s f h lc, cnc

and ak ssus lad fs can, n h

cnx f h cncs f csss and -

dvs. W fs xan h wd valus f fss

f fcusng n h l f cal fss n

cla gan. W fl cnsd dffn

aachs ngang fss n cla lc,

as wll as h sks f n dng s. ths scn

cncluds wh flcns n hw fnanc f fs

can culd lnkd fundng f h fs

css svcs.

THE VALUE OF FORESTS

Fss a a unqu cnc ass. th a h

lungs f u lan and als ff a ang f valual

css svcs. th a ssnal h wa

ccl, sulng and ufng wa. th ca and

10

ForeSt CArboN For CLimAte mitiGAtioN

Table 2: Values of ecosystem services in tropical forests

Ecosystem Service

Provisioning services

Fd

Wa

raw aalsGnc sucs

mdcnal sucsRegulating services

ivn f a qual

Cla gulan

rgulan f wa flws

Was an / wa ufcan

esn vnnCultural Services

ouns f can and us

Total

Average

75

143

431

483

181

230

1,965

1,360

177

694

381

6,120

Value of ecosystem services2

(in US$ / ha / year 2007 values)TROPICAL FORESTS

Maximum

552

411

1,418

1,756

562

449

3,2185,235

506

1,084

1,171

16,362

Number of Studies

19

3

26

4

4

2

106

6

9

20

109

Note: these estimates are based on ongoing analyses for TEEB (see chapter 7 TEEB D0 forthcoming).

As the TEEB data base and value-analysis are stil l under development, this table is for illustrative purposes only.

2 excludng s x s-scfc cass ha a n snav.


13/34


F O R E S T C A R B O N F O R C L I M A T E M I T I G A T I O N

anan sl fl f agculu and ag-fs.

th a svs f gnc dvs usful f cs

and dcns. th vd haas f wldlf and

fd and ng f ual cuns, as wll as

f cnsucn and f f ackagng. th

a a lac f can and sual nwal. And f

cus fss als la a ccal l n salzng h

glal cla, as dscussd lw. Fcusng n n

f hs valus nl, lk can, a n

n h s nss f sc. plna sa-

s f h valus f css svcs n cal

fss a vdd n h al lw, asd n

n-gng wk teeb (s al 2). ths sach

hghlghs h anc f cnsdng all svcs

whn akng dcsns au an css. pl-

cs shuld n fcus n a sngl css svc,

such as can, u shuld a nsu ha h

svcs and h valus a als akn n accun.

Cla gulan, whch ncluds can cau

and sag as wll as lcal cla ffcs, s jus naj fs css svc. in addn h

lsd svcs dcl nfng huan wllng,

fss vd ssnal sung svcs, such as

h annanc f sl fl, llnan h an-

nanc f gnc dvs. th avag valu f

hs sung svcs s sad a 900 US $

ha annu (teeb D0, fhcng).

THE SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE OFTROPICAL FORESTS

Fss n h cs a a acula cncn. ms

cal fss a n dvlng cuns (s fgu

2). ths cuns fac an challngs ha u

nns ssus n fs land and h naual

sucs, ncludng hgh ulan gwh, uncnl-

ld and fn unlannd dvln, and adl

changng cnsun ans. Dfsan n h

cs s unnng a a a f au 12.5 lln hcas

annu, anl du h xansn f agculu.

A h sa , lag sgns f h ulan n

dvlng cuns a hghl dndn n fss

f h lvlhds. Fss cnu dcl h

lvlhds f 90 cn f h 1.2 lln l

cunl lvng n x v and ndcl

susan nal half h ulan f h dvlng

wld, vdng css svcs ha undn

agculu (Wld bank 2002; th Nau Cn-

svanc 2009). in h Cs f plc inacn sud

undakn dung phas 1 f teeb, w sad a

valu f USD 3.4 lln f h al nf flws f

cal fss (baa and n bnk 2008).

THE ROLE OF TROPICAL FORESTSIN CLIMATE CHANGE

As sn n al 2, av, n aj svc vdd

cal fss s cla gulan. tcal fss

s a fuh f all sal can, .. 547 gganns

(G) u f 2,052G f Co2 (tu al. 2009). in

addn, cn sach suggss ha cal fssa cau as uch as 4.8 G f Co2 annu

(Lws & Wh 2009). ths s a aj dau f

h vw ha clax fss a ssns-nual, and

culd hl accun f a lag a f h dffnc

wn annual GHG ssns du huan acv-

s (au 32 G) and h svd a f ncas n

ashc cncnans (au 15 G). Cnsvng

cal fss s hus a val l f anagng h

cla, as wll as a ans f scung lvlhds and

ducng v.

ecnc aguns f avdng dfsan as a

ans f gang cla chang hav n vdd

h Sn rvw (2007) and, cnl,

h elasch vw (elasch 2008). th la sud

sad h css f halvng dfsan a aund

$17n-$33n a 2030, u als fund ha

hs nvsn wuld gna lng- n nfs

f au $3.7 lln, n sn valu s, ncludng

nl h avdd daag css f cla chang.

11


14/34



12

Figure 2: Geographical distribution of tropical forests Source: adapted from Olson et al., 2001.

th elasch vw als shwd ha dlang acn

n reDD wuld sgnfcanl ncas h css f

achvng na- ssn ducns.

SCOPE OF ACTION REQUIRED

on k qusn n dscussns f hw nga

fs can n cla gan lc cncns

whch acvs wad. innanal dscussns

fcusd nall n hw avd dfsan. Hwv,

h s gng cnsnsus ha ad ffs a -

qud, ncludng ducd dfsan and dgadan,

u als sng ncnvs f affsan, fsan

and susanal fs anagn (s x 3). Ang

h nfs, such an aach culd vd s

cgnn and wad hs dvlng nans

whch hav n al vs n slwng dfsan

and sung susanal fs anagn.

Dvlng cuns a aj las n nnanal

fs das and h can s ssnal

f ngang cal fs can n an cla

agn. Hwv, dvlng cuns als nd

xnal fnancal su and su dvl ns-

unal fawks ha can ca sv ncnvs

f fs cnsvan n ln wh lcal dvln

lans, whl als nsung qual acan f a

dvs s f sakhlds n cal fs anag-n.

in hs cnx, asung h ffcvnss f cns-

van s an an cnn f an nclusv glal

fs can agn, n addn asung

ducns n gnhus ssns f dfsan

and fs dgadan agans agd fnc lvls

(s scn n accunng lw). indcas f

cnsvan ffcvnss a nclud ffs

dvl nn-agculual nc-gnang acvs

n fs dndn cuns, vng h

anagn f xsng cd aas ncasng

saffng and qun as wll as agns wh

fs cuns, xandng cd aas hugh

nw lgslan, ng ndndn vfcan

f cd aa anagn.


15/34



13

Box 3: REDD and REDD-Plus

Deforestation accounts for around 20% of

global greenhouse gas emissions, making it

the second largest anthropogenic source (IPCC

2007). Reducing Emissions from Deforestation

and Forest Degradation (REDD) in developing

countries is a financial mechanism proposed as

part of the post-2012 climate change regime,

under the auspices of the United Nations Frame-

work Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

The Bali Action Plan ( 1b) also laid the basis for

REDD-Plus, further incorporating conservation,

sustainable management of forests and

enhancement of carbon stocks in developing

countries. This expands the concept of reducing

emissions from deforestation and forest

degradation. Recent deliberations (e.g. in the

UNFCCC Ad hoc Working Group on Long-term

Cooperative Action) emphasize REDD-Plus and

the more programmatic approach it requires at

national level, compared to REDD.

Agreement on REDD-Plus at the UNFCCC would

significantly contribute to recognizing and

rewarding carbon capture & storage by forests:

incentivizing less deforestation and degradation

whilst also promoting forest conservation.

Mitigation action could be improved by expanding

REDD to REDD-Plus (Zarin et al. 2009), not least

because of the restoration potential of degraded

forests: REDD would only halt further degradation

not incentivize restoration.

THE RISKS OF INACTION

As ulnd av, cnsvng and nhancng can

scks n cal fss s an ssnal cnn f

an ffcv sns cla chang. Hwv,

xcludng lng h cnun f fss cla

gan ffs s n nl ll-cncvd, u nall

cunducv. th cun cla lc g

s lagl fcusd n ndusal ssns f h

cusn f fssl fuls, wn can (s x 4).

th s a nn-nglgl sk ha h xansn f a

g fcusd xclusvl n fssl fuls and ndusal

ssns culd c a h xns f fss and

fd scu (Clak al. 2007). ths sk ass f

ffs ncuag h dvln f -ng

as a susu f fssl fuls n ans and h

nduss (Cuzn al. 2008). rcn suds shw

ha ncasd ducn f fuls can sul, h

dcl ndcl, n h cnvsn f fss, and

a als sul n hgh cs f fd and h

cds (Gugl al. 2007; Gllngha al.

2008; Sachng al. 2008). F xal, hcnvsn f fss, alands, savannahs and

gasslands duc fuls n bazl, Suhas

Asa and h Und Sas wuld sul n n Co2

ssns 14 420 s ga han h ssn

ducns achvd usng hs fuls n lac

f fssl fuls (Fagn al. 2008). in cnas,

fuls ducd f was ass and cs

gwn n dgadd agculual land d n hav hs

l (Ws al. 2009; s als Sch al.

2008).

REWARDING THE CO-BENEFITS OFFOREST CARBON

in addn h sgnfcan l n can cau

and sag, cal fss ff nus u-

ns dlv h sv scal and nvnnal

ucs. Cun challngs, such as wldlf

achng, llgal lggng, unsusanal havsng and

h nvnnall dsucv acvs, gnall


16/34



14

sul f wak adnsav caac and nad-

qua fnanc, as wll as falu full undsand h

u wh f fs s. A a wd lvl, such

ls flc h lack f van n an uau-

cacs ank fs cn alngsd ual and

gnal dvln, whch s usuall undsd n

s f ndusal gwh.

Can fnanc can chang hs quan

cang a vnu sa ha s aacv

nanal and gnal gvnns, cs-ffcv f

ndusal llus skng h ssn

ducn ags, and nall nfcal lcal

cuns and h ual . Ccall, h

vsn f fnanc f fs can, f cafull

dsgnd and lnd can hl snghn h

ghs f fs suc wns, uss and anags.

Box 4: The colours of carbon

The carbon cycle and the water cycle are

perhaps the two most important large-scale

bio-geological processes for life on Earth. While

the latter is widely appreciated, we are only just

beginning to appreciate the size, complexity and

significance of the former.

Climate change has driven increased understand-

ing of atmospheric CO2as the main greenhousegas, and how CO2 emissions from human energy

use and industry affect the climate. We refer to

these emissions as brown carbon. The Emissi-

ons Trading System of the European Union is

essentially a brown carbon regime, as it does

not currently recognize forestry credits.

The carbon stored in terrestrial ecosystems, e.g.

plant biomass and soils in natural forests and

plantations, agricultural lands, wetlands and

pasture, may be referred to as green carbon.

The importance of green carbon is increasingly

acknowledged as a key agenda item for negotia-

tion in the UNFCCC, specifically in relation to

forest carbon and mechanisms such as REDD

and afforestation, REDD-Plus, or others.

Moreover, the worlds oceans bind an estimated

55% of all carbon in living organisms. Most of this

is stored in mangroves, marshes, sea grasses,

coral reefs and macro-algae. This has been dubbed

blue carbon by UNEP (Nellemann et al. in

press). Note that these ecosystems are also

being degraded; in some cases faster than

rainforests (see more explanations in the coral

reef section).

Finally, a potent climate forcing agent, so calledblack carbon may be significantly reduced if

clean burning technologies are employed. Black

carbon is formed through incomplete combus-

tion of fossil fuels, bio-fuel, and biomass and is

emitted as soot. Black carbon warms the planet

by absorbing heat in the atmosphere and by

reducing the ability to reflect sunlight, when

deposited on snow and ice.

In short, by halting the loss of green and blue

carbon, the world could mitigate as much as

25% of total GHG emissions, with co-benefits

for biodiversity, food security and livelihoods

(IPCC 2007; Nellemann et al. in press) . This will

only be possible, however, if the policy regime

for climate mitigation accommodates the entire

spectrum of carbon, not just one colour.


17/34



m gnall, fs can s a un

sahad nw nnanal ans f

css svcs (ipeS). in hs gad, s

scall an ha an agn n fs

can ngad und h UNFCCC s uwadl

cal f n a wd fawk f ncn-

vs f fs css svcs. th gudng

ncls and ang fawk f fs

can wll hav sgnfcan nflunc n h

dvln f h nvnnal aks f

fshwa nhancn, sl cnsvan,

dvs cnsvan, c.

A da s dvl lgl

and fanc ca f fs can navs

ha flc n nl h can cau ssn

ducn nal, u als a ang f clgcal,

sc-cnc and dvs ca ha

full flc h u cnc valu and dvl-

n l f fss. Such nfan can usd

dffna fs can n h aklac, nh f f a u gad f fs can ha

wuld aac hgh cs and gna addnal

vnu f h sul f c-nfs (s Annx 1

n hw a u fs can can s u

n h vaus hass f a reDD-lus fawk).

Ulal, such ca culd f h ass f

nl nw classs f fs css svcs

(.g. fshwa qual, dvs ffss) ha can

sld alngsd saal f can

cds, gnang vnu f fs

cnsvan and susanal ual lvlhds.

To sum up, cla gan ffs da hav

fcusd lagl n ducng ndusal ssns

f GHG. pung a c n Co2 ssns f n-

dus was an vus sang n f h can

f can aks. tda, hwv, s ncasngl

undsd ha gn can and scall

cal fss hav a k l la n fuu

ffs ga cla chang. rasns f

ngang cal fs can n a nw cla

lc g a ha:

. dfsan n nl cnus a ffh f glal

ssns u als ducs h sgnfcan can

cau nal fss ff;

. nwhsandng h ndus ffs and

gss wads cung ndusal ssns

and h nd cnnu hs ffs, h n

css f halng dfsan (n dllas nn)

can sgnfcanl lw han s f h al-

nav gan ns such as nwal

ng Can Cau and Sag; and

. cng fss f dfsan, cnsvng

h agans dgadan and gng vn fuh

sng h gnas c-nfs n h

f f ulc gds and svcs whch, f valud

xlcl ah han ng ad as xnals,

fuh v h nf-cs a f fs

can.

15

It is essential that forests are fully integrated

in any new international climate regime, but

most importantly that forests are included

in ways that maximize synergies with biodi-

versity conservation and the supply of other

ecosystem services, while also respecting the

rights, livelihoods and potential stewardship

role of indigenous peoples and rural commu-

nities. If this is achieved, forest carbon can

truly be a stepping stone to heightened recog-

nition and reward for the full economic value

of forests. This would mark the beginnings of

the change in our global economic model that

TEEB is recommending in all its reports.


18/34

th s a gwng acan ha nanal cnc

accuns nd clnd naual caal

accuns, and ha h xsnc and valu f css-

svcs nd flcd n nanal

accunng csss and lc-aks dcsn-

akng.

A h n csss a l cdd n h

nanal cnc accuns. A s h fgu as an

cnc suc nl n n h va

nf. A ang f css svcs sung -

ducn a jus cnsdd as xnals. All h f

ans and gulang svcs suld hvng

csss a asn f h cu. Dcan

f h css caal s n cdd n h c f

ducs. Slal h s a sll us f hscal

naual caal accuns hl lc-aks und-

sand h naual suc sck avalal (land, wa,sl, dvs, ass), h changs hs sck,

h dlv f css svcs f h scks, and

h changs f svc vsn lang changs f

sck.

th s, hwv, a gwng cgnn f h -

anc f addssng hs lans, and ncasng

aun f accal xnc un whch uld.

As a f h ffs nga h nvnn n

nanal accuns cuns hav n dvlng

a accuns, wa accuns, land accuns, sl

accuns, ssn accuns, was accuns, and

s n, whch ncluds h lass f gnhus

gass. of hs accuns, fs accuns fgu n al-

s all suc accunng xcs. S cun-

s hav als asud h can squsan

svcs vdd h fss. th asun f

can squsan (flw) fss ss

ah wll salshd and accua, whas h

asun f can squsan sl, wa

and h a (flws) and h sck f can a

lss dvld and sll n sandadzd. th lnkags

acss h wd s f csss svcs a als

sll v wak. Alhugh h s a gwng walh f

xnc ha fllws dffn scfc fc, and a

ang f an as a akng gss,

sll nds dn nga a las a-

al lnk dffn naual caal accuns cv

h ang f svcs. th us als l-

cal cn ak hs ls a fal

lvl, wh full dvln and ngan alngsd

nanal accuns.

th ask f dvlng and lnng nvnn-

al accunng has n a shad nnanal ff.

A nnanal lvl, h Lndn gu s n h -

css f ang a handk n ngad nvn-

nal and cnc accunng (SeeA), h dafvsn f whch was avd h Und Nans

Sascs Cssn (UNSC). th SeeA (2003) s

cunl ng vsd UNSC n cnjuncn wh

h Lndn Gu und h auscs f h UN

C f exs n envnnal-ecnc

Accunng (UNCeeA). th a s a a sas-

cal sandad cvng all ascs f nvnnal

accunng. i s xcd avd h UN

Sascal Cssn n 2012. i was suggsd ha

can squsan fss (flws) shuld

ncludd n Vlu 1 f h vsn, whl can

squsan h sucs and can sck

shuld dscussd fuh. th valuan f can

scks shuld ncludd n Vlu 2 gh wh

s valuan suls.

in addn h Lndn Gu, h an wk

s ng dn h ans. in eu, eusa

and h eeA a h k as akng naual accun-

ng fwad. innanall, s h oeCD ha s

16

U r G e N t r e F o r m o FN At i o N A L i N C o m e A C C o U N t i N G


19/34


U R G E N T R E F O R M O F N A T I O N A L I N C O M E A C C O U N T I N G

acv, gh f cus wh h UN ds.

pgssv cun cns hav n ad

inda, Nwa, Ausala, and Swdn na jus a

fw (ca Annx 2 f dals and fuh xals).

Whu gd naual caal accuns xndd

cnc accuns ha nclud h valu f css-

s and dvs, h anc f naual

sucs cns a lkl und-a-

cad s ha su-al us s ad f hs

asss, cncall, nvnnall and scall.

S asss a undfng, naual caal s ng

un dwn, and fuu nfs sas g sall

as h ass as s dd.

Anh cnsqunc s ha duc cs d n

flc h full css. As a sul h s an accuu-

lan f h nvnnal d fuu gnans

and/ h xs f cds xacd f

dgadng csss. F lw-nc gus,

whch l han hs n h f svcssuld h css and n s-calld anclla

ducs wh ll n ak valu, h ag gvn

h cun ss f GDp, Nanal inc and

Hushld Cnsun agggas s susl

sladng. th flaw s ha valual cds a

fn xacd f csss a h xns

f hs f svcs and anclla ducs, and n

hd s gvn dcan f naual caal and h

sulng dcln n fuu svcs. in s f al

wlfa, h ual can g ; vn hugh

h na nc a acuall ncas n al

s, h dgadan f h naual caal ha

vd h ggs a f h gds h nd (fd,

f, wa, c) f h suvval s acuall ducng

h susanall h wlfa. b asung h

vual css n cvd ak cs, wuld

ssl asu h GDp f h and hw

fa dclns n n h sha f cnvnnal

GDp gwh asd n css dgadan (s

cha 3 teeb D1 fhcng) .

TEEB suggests the development of adequate

indicators for all ecosystem services, which

countries could start implementing as data

availability their institutional capacities

permit. TEEB thus supports fully the efforts

for developing fully fledged ecosystem

accounts (in the future work of UN SEEA

(Volume 2) planned for 2013), which should

include physical accounts for ecosystem

stocks, degradation and services and valua-

tion rules. TEEB also recommends moving

towards the implementation of the full SEEA

ecosystem accounting at country level.

TEEB supports fully the creation of natural

capital accounts following an integrated

approach across ecosystem services. While

initially this may take place as pilot projects

and can take an approximate form, the efforts

can gradually be expanded with the ultimategoal to have full natural capital accounts of all

ecosystems, covering all key ecosystem

services.

As one important first step, TEEB sees the

development of harmonized accounting on

carbon and biomass on the country-level as

important basis for REDD and other climate-

related work. Carbon-biomass accounts

should not be prerequisites for REDD-Plus

but tools that help develop confidence in

REDD and allow it to develop into an in-

creasingly important instrument.

17


20/34

th Sn rvw haszd ha cla chang s

a al and ha ducng h ac hugh sns

lcs lk adaan and gan aks gd

cnc sns (Sn 2007). Whh w ga

ada s quvaln a dcsn n havng sa-ls

and a-ags vsus nsallng an-lck aks n a ca

and havng sd ls n h ad. An-lck aks

and sd ls duc h lklhd f an accdn

(gan) whas sa-ls and a-ags vn

caash f an accdn ccus (adaan) (mc

Kn and Wlcxn 2004). Wh h ns avalal,

fw wuld chs nl n as h hl duc h

sk f nju.

F dvld cuns, h Sn rvw ns u

ha gvnn can cnu hugh lng-

lcs f cla-snsv ulc gds, such as

naual sucs cn, casal cn andgnc adnss. F dvlng cuns,

h vw al ns wads cnc dvsf-

can as a ans ada cla hadsh. A saf

nvnn n h fac f cla chang s als

cndd. th knwldg ha teeb s gahng

sngl sus hs aach.

WHAT IS ECOLOGICAL INFRA-STRUCTURE?

Wh h s uncan, s ws al h

cauna ncl and ad a sag whch s

susanal and as a cng h huan and na-

ual haas. ths ans nvsng n clgcal nfa-

sucu, as a wa h ga and ada. th

clgcal nfasucu fs h

naual csss, and nau whn an-ad

csss. Naual css funcns nclud hs

whch a snsl f h dlv f css s-

vcs, such as vdng fshwa, gulang cla

(fss, wlands, nland wa ds lk vs), -

vnng sl sn (fss and naual gasslands),

and naual hazad sk anagn (fss, wlands,

angv fss and cal fs). Naual lns

whn csss ald huans (falands and

flds) nclud hs whch v sl fl and -

duc sl sn (fs and gassland achs), and

vd fshwa (sas and aqufs). th ann-

anc san f hs clgcal sucs s f

aj anc f adaan.

thus, n h cnx f h Cnhagn ngans, n-

vsn n clgcal nfasucu shuld

ncludd n h jcs ha can fundd f a

cla adaan fund. in addn, ach cun can

ak acn nvsng n csss as su f

adaan. in an cass, hs aachs wll

fund cs-ffcv han chnlgcalsluns usng ul nfasucu (.g. h wll-knwn

cas f h naual Casklls rsv, Nw yk) vn

f accunng f xnals such as h scal

css f h can ssns f h cnsucn h

nfasucu.

H, s wh hghlghng h ad and an

anas f adaan: agculual ducv, fsh-

wa sul, and naual hazad anagn, all f

whch a dcl affcd cla chang. All h

aas llusa n an asc f such acns:

fn nvsns n clgcal nfasucu als

nf h scs whch a dcl dndn n

csss and h svcs.

18

e C o S y S t e m i N V e S t m e N t For CL i mAt e ADAp tAt io N


21/34


E C O S Y S T E M I N V E S T M E N T F O R C L I M A T E A D A P T A T I O N

RESOURCE CONSERVATION FORAGRICULTURAL RESILIENCE

Agculual ducv s affcd as aus

s and dugh ncass. Agculual slnc s

hus a k a f adaan, scall n cuns

whch hav lag ulans dndn un su-

ssnc fang.

A cn sud llusad hs nal. Agculual sus-

anal cns aund h wld snd h nd

dvl s acc and dlv chnlgs

whch d n advsl affc h sul f

nvnnal gds and svcs, u sll v

lds and lvlhds. p al. (2006) shws n a

sud f 286 cn s acc navs n 57

dvlng cuns cvng 37 lln hcas

(3% f culvad aa n dvlng cuns) acss

12.6 lln fas hw ducv was ncasd wh

vn h sul f css svcs (.g.

can squsan and wa qual). th avagld ncas was 79%, dndng n c , and

all cs shwd gans n ffcnc f wa us. exa-

ls f h navs w:

s anagn: usng css slnc and

dvs cnl ss, dsass and wds,

nun anagn: cnllng sn hl

duc nun lsss,

sl and h sucs anagn: usng

cnsvan llag, agfs accs, aqua-

culu, and wa havsng chnqus, v

sl and wa avalal f fas.

FRESHWATER SECURITY ANDNATURAL HAZARD DEFENSE

Naual hazads a xcd ncas wh

h ns f cla chang. th a lkl

ncass n h sv and fqunc f flds,

dughs, ss, and sa-lvl s. Naual hazad -

vnn s an css svc whch nfs huan

ulans n an s. thus, cnsvng

h accdng csss s a aj nvsn n

vnng nw vulnals wads naual hazads.

F xal, h fldlans fund n s v asns

duc h ac f fld daag. mudslds and

landslds can cnsdal ducd ananng

sng fs csss nhanc h uffng

caac. Fs cv hls duc fldng, ncas

h sul f fshwa and vn sl sn (Kua

al. 2007). Casal vgan such as angvs

ducs nal daag f ss and dal swlls.

F xal, lanng angvs alng a f h

casln n Vna cs USD 1.1 lln, u savd

USD 7.3 lln annuall n dk annanc. (GriD-

Andal 2002; rd and Huq 2005). th lvlhds

f an sad 7,500 fals nfd f hs

angv lanng, annanc and cn jc.

A cnasng and nsng xal f h dvld

wld a h h nd f h scu s h evglads n

Flda. thy a f nus naual auy and a alsh ay suc f wa f h gn, and hy vd

cn agans flds and hucans. much f h aa

was dand n h aly 1900s ak way f h cs f

ma and F Lauddal. th anng wlands, u-

sd h 600 000 squa kl evglads Nanal

pak, hav suffd havly f llun and fuh

danag n h las w dcads (Sal al. 2008). in d

v h qualy and scu h suly f dnkng

wa f all f suh Flda, and c h dwndlng

haa f axaly 69 scs f ndangd lans

and anals, h Chnsv evglads rsan

plan was dsgnd n 1996 and fnally nacd y h US

Cngss n 2000. th al cs f h ngng 226

jcs n suh Flda, whch a s h naual

hydaulc funcns f hs csys, s sad

cls 20 lln USD (plasky 2008). th uns f hs

nvsn a scal uns, n dffn aas such as

agculual wa suly, uan wa suly, fld cnl,

haa cn, can, and ccal and ca-

nal fshng. bu any f hs nfs, such as naual

19


22/34



hazad cn, can nly asud ndcly, snc

n aks xs f hs ulc svcs. on sudy shws

ha h nfs f h evglads wuld n au h

sa ang as h san css, dndng n h

dscun a usd (mln and Scggns 2002).

EXCEPTIONAL SOCIAL RETURNSON ECOLOGICAL INVESTMENTS

Dc cnsvan, .g. va cd aas, sus-

anal us scns, a ans f ananng u

clgcal nfasucu halh and ducv, d-

lvng css svcs. V hgh nf-cs a-

s a svd, s lng as w nclud angs

nfs a valuan f h ulc gds and svcs

f csss, and cu scal uns n nvs-

n. F xal, f cd aas an addnal

nvsn f $45 lln culd scu nau-asd

svcs wh s $ 4.5 - $5.2 lln a a (bal-

fd al. 2002). in an cass hugh, whn dga-

dan has n xcssv, san ffs wll ndd gan ducv nal, as h xal

f h evglads shws.

20

Unfunal, cs-nf analss f san

jcs s al dn. evn cdng f h css

f san s al sn. in a vw f v 2,000

cas suds n san, nl 95 suds w

dnfd whch vdd anngful cs daa (s

cha 9 teeb D1 fhcng). Hwv, nn f

h vdd valus dald analss f h

achvd jcd nfs. F h s cv-

d n hs cas suds wh cs daa axa-

s, h teeb a hf sad nal

nfs asd n a nfs ansf aach.

tal 3 lw gvs xals f hs cs daa

and lna nf sas f sval s.

Typical cost values: As nd, h sal f

suds vdng anngful cs daa s sall.

thf n d avd undsang css,

ssac cagzan was ald. tcal

jcs wh chnsv cdd css w

slcd ah han an avag. Fuh-

, n d avd undsan, caljc css w s a 20% hgh. Fuh,

allwanc was ad f annual anal css,

Table 3: Estimates of costs and benefits of restoration projects in different biomes

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

89

US$/ha542,500

232,700

2,880

33,000

4,0003,450

2,390

990

260

Cal fs

Casal

mangvs

inland wlands

Laks/vs

tcal fss

oh fssWdland/shuland

Gasslands

Biome/Ecosystem Typical cost

of restoration

(high scenario)

Estimated an-

nual benefits

from restoration

(avg. scenario)

Net present

value of

benefits over

40 years

Internal rate

of return

Benefit/cost

ratio

US$/ha129,200

73,900

4,290

14,200

3,8007,000

1,620

1,571

1,010

US$/ha1,166,000

935,400

86,900

171,300

69,700

148,700

26,300

32,180

22,600

%7%

11%

40%

12%

27%50%

20%

42%

79%

Ratio2,8

4.4

26.4

5.4

15.537.3

10.3

28.4

75.1

Note: Costs are based on an analysis of appropriate case studies; benefits have been calculated using a benefit transfer

approach. The time horizon for the benefit calculation are 40 years (consistent with our scenario analysis horizon to

2050); Discount rate = 1%, and discount rate sensitivity by flexing to 4%, consistent with TEEB 2008). All estimates are

based on ongoing analyses for TEEB (see chapter 7 TEEB D0 forthcoming). As the TEEB data base and value-analysis

are still under development, this table is for illustrat ive purposes only.


23/34



Against this background, TEEB recommends

that Copenhagen recognizes the crucial role

that ecosystems can play in climate change

adaptation efforts. It is essential to identify

effective and cost-efficient measures in-

volving the conservation and restoration of

ecological infrastructure and to promote

their financing from appropriate adaptation

resources.

21

a 10% f h gnal caal cs, f a 2 and

nd.

The estimation of values of benefit was asd

n h suls f 104 suds wh 507 valus cv-

ng 9 aj s, whch a h s vdnc

cunl avalal. F 22 css svcs an

avag f h avalal valus was calculad. ths

valus w hn addd vd h san f

al nf snd n al 3. rcg-

nzng ha flws f nfs ak sd

such jcs, an aa accng fl

was dlld f annual nfs, gwng nall

and hn salzng a 80% f undsud css-

nfs (s cha 7 teeb D0 fhcng).

Whn calculang h nal nfs f h

n qusn, w fund ha all s shwd n-

al f xcnal nnal as f un and hus a

hgh un f san f csss and h

svcs.

As can sn f al 3, h valu f san

jcs can ndus, scall f cal

fs and casal csss. Hwv, h css

a als qu hgh, hnc s uch cn-

sv hs csss ah han lng h d-

gad and sng h.

t hav h s chanc f succss, such san

jcs shuld lnd usng a landsca-

lad hlsc aach nsu lng-

a-ffs. man cuns hav gun dvl

aa gas. ecuad cunl has w

such gas: h sx-a ld pa

uncal washd-cn sch and h 13-

a ld pfaf can-squsan ga

(Wund and Aln 2008). Csa rca (Janzn 2002;

ms 2009), indnsa (paanaak 2004;

paanaak and Wndland 2007) and Suh Afca

a als akng sgnfcan sds n hs aa. man

a gng undwa lswh n Lan A-

ca, Asa, and, slwl, Afca and madagasca.


24/34

th gnss f teeb, u glal sudy n h cncs

f csyss and dvsy, ls n cla chang. th

G8+5 ng f nvnn nss a psda, G-

any, n 2007, sd a sudy assss h cnc

ac f h glal lss f dvsy n d sn

a cnvncng cnc cas f cnsvan. th ns-

an was h Sn rvw, ulshd n auun f 2006,

whch ul un h scnc f h ipCC and snd a

wful cnc cas f aly acn n cla chang.

phas 1 f teeb dnfd cla chang as h

scnd-lags dv af land us chang f h lss

f sal dvsy v h d 2010-2050 (teeb

2008; baa and n bnk 2008). i cs as n sus

hf ha h s sgnfcan csys and d-

vsy lsss qung ugn lcy ann - cal fs

and fss - a als fundanally lnkd cla

chang. bu whl cla chang s daagng csys-s, cng and sng csyss can d uch

ga cla chang. pvnng fuh dfsa-

n, f xal, s a cs-ffcv gan n, and

n ha nsus h cnnud suly f valual c-

sys svcs.

ths uda xlans h lnk wn vnng

dfsan and savng cal fs, n f u s

dvs and ssv csyss. t sav h cal,

w wll nd uch aus Co2 ags han

hs cunly dscussd ags lw 350 . ths

ay s uan day, u, sds ducng ndus-

al ssns (wn can) sgnfcanly, akng full

us f h gan nal f fs can cau

(gn can) wuld a fs and ssnal s n h

gh dcn. Scnfc advancns gh

scy alz h full nal f caung can y

layng h full hand f can clus, nc h dyna-

cs f sl and can can (lu can) cau a

undsd and adqua asus dvld.

teeb shws hw ayng ann h cn-

cs f csyss and dvsy can hl addss

h challng f cla chang. i can als hl v

u nsuns wads a gn cny. by sng

cs f csys svcs, dnsang h valu

scy, and gnnng cau hs valus, s as-

jusfy fundng f lcal acns and nnanal

agns. S f h s cs-ffcv cla

chang adaan ns nvlv cnsvng and

sng clgcal nfasucu. Slaly, n f h

s valu cla chang gan sags wuld

a glal agn n fs can.

in h vw f teeb, h s a val cnns

f a succssful uc n Cnhagn: aus

can ducn ags as a sns cn fndngs

n cal fs, a fs can agn, and

nvsn f adaan funds n clgcal nfa-sucu. W h ha hs teeb Cla issus U-

da wll hl wld lads n h cns

acklng cla chang n Cnhagn. i s ssnal

ha hy ak hs dcsv uny hl safguad

and s u csyss, and h svcs hy

vd f huany.

22

i N C o N C L U S i o N


25/34


Agad, t. and Ald, J. (2005) Casal sss. p. 513-549 n: Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Volume 1:

Current State and Trends: Analytical Approaches for

Assessing Ecosystems and Human Well-being.

island pss, Washngn, DC.

Alls, m., pag, r., Jhnsn, p. and Sanll, D. (2009)State of the Worlds Oceans. Sng, Ddch.

balfd, A., bun, A., C, p., Csanza, r., Fa,

S., Gn, r.e., Jnkns, m., Jffss, p., Jssa,

V., maddn, J., mun, K., ms, N., Na, S.,

paavla, J., ran, m., rsnd, S., rughgadn,

J., tu, K. and tun, r.K. (2002) ecnc asns

f cnsvng wld nau, Science 297: 950-953.

bggs, r., Can, S.r. and bck, W.A. (2009) tunng

ack f h nk: dcng an ndng g shf

n adv . Proceedings of the National

Academy of Sciences 106: 826831.

bl, L. (2008) Wld ecnc Fu: Glal Agnda

Cuncls ng, Dua.

baa, L.,and n bnk, p. al (ds.) (2008) The Cost

of Policy Inaction. The Case of Not Meeting the 2010

Biodiversity Target. r f h euan Cssn.

Wagnngn, bussls.

ban, D., buk, L., mcmanus, J. and Saldng, m. (1998)

Reefs at Risk: A Map- Based Indicator of Threats to the

Worlds Coral Reefs. Wld rsucs insu,

Washngn DC.

buk, L., Slg, L. and Saldng, m. (2002) rfs a rsk

n Suhas Asa. Wld rsucs insu, n:

Cssn n h masun f ecnc

pfanc and Scal pgss 2009, (d.),Provisional summary of the commission's work -

Working Papers and Reports. Washngn. Avalal a

h://www.sglz-sn-fuss.f/n/ndx.h

(las accss 20 Augus 2009).

Clak, L., ednds, J., Jac, H., pch, H., rll,

J. and rchls, r. (2007) Synthesis and Assessment

Product 2.1, Part A: Scenarios of Greenhouse Gas

Emissions and Atmospheric Concentrations.

U.S. Gvnn pnng offc, Washngn, DC.

Cuzn, p.J., ms, A.r., Sh K.A. and Wnwa W.

(2008) N2o las f ag-ful ducn ngas

glal wang ducn lacng fssl fuls.Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 8: 389-395.

ednds, J.A., Clak, J., Dl, J., K, S.H., izauald, r.,rsng, N. and Sks, G. (2003) th pnal rl f

bchnlg n Addssng h Lng- pl f

Cla Chang n h Cnx f Glal eng and

ecsss. p. 1427-1432, n: Gal, J. and Kaa, y.(ds.), Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies.

pgan, Asda.

elasch, J. (2008) Cla Chang: Fnancng Glal Fss.The Eliasch Review. UK.

Fagn, J., Hll, J., tlan, D., plask, S. and Hawhn,

p. (2008) Land Clang and h bful Can D.

Science 319: 1235-1238.

GCp - Glal Can pga (2009) Little REDD Book.

2009 Uda.

Glllngha, K.t., Sh, S. and Sands, r. (2008) iac fng cs n a can dxd cnsand wld:

an alcan f h mnCAm ng-agculu and

land us dl. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies

to Global Change 13: 675-701.

Gz, e.D., Al, p.m., Lcuanan, W.r.y. and ya, H.t.

(1994) Saus n cal fs f h phlns

1994, n: Sudaa, S., Wlknsn, C.r. and Chu, L.m.

(ds.) Proc, 3rd ASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living

Coastal Resources. Volume 1: Status Reviews.

Ausalan insu f ma n Scnc, twnsvll.

GriD -Andal (2002) Mangroves planting saves lives inVietnam. Avalal a h://www.gda.n/ulcans/

/3/ag/2610.asx (las accss 20 Augus 2009).

Gugl A., rll, J.m. and palsv, S. (2007) pnal Land

Us ilcans f a Glal bfuls indus.Journal of

Agricultural & Food Industrial Organization 5(2):

1202-1202.

Hach, b.G. (1988) Cal f a ducv:

a ggas anqu. Trends in Ecology and Evolution

3: 106-111.

Hgh-Guldg, o., mu, p.J., Hn, A.J., Snck

r.S., Gnfld, p., Gz, e., Havll, C.D., Sal, p.F.,edwads, A.J., Calda, K., Knwln, N., eakn, C.m.,

iglsas-p, r., muhga, N., badu, r.H., Du, A.

and Hazls, m.e. (2007) Cal rfs Und rad

Cla Chang and ocan Acdfcan.Science 318(5857): 1737-1742.

ipCC - ingvnnal panl n Cla Chang (2007)Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis:

Summary for Policymakers.

Janzn, D. H. (2002) tcal d fs: Aa d Cnsvacn

Guancas, nhwsn Csa rca. p: 559-583 n:

pw, m.r. and Dav, A.J. (ds.), Handbook of Ecolo-gical Restoration. Cadg Unvs pss, Cadg.

23

reFereNCeS


26/34


27/34


Sn, N. (2008) th ecncs f Cla Chang

rchad t. el Lcu. -American Economic Review:

Papers & Proceedings 2: 1-37.

tCGp th tsal Can Gu pjc (2009)

Dsun f tsal Can Acss Dvlng

Cuns: plc bf Nu 1. Dscussn Daf Jun

2009. Avalal a h://www.salcan.g/s/

DfaulS/flss/dcuns/tCG%20plc%20bf%

201%20Dsun%20f%20tC%20090606.df

(las accss 20 Augus 2009).

teeb (2008) The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity:

An interim report. euan Cssn, bussls.

Avalal a www.w.g (las accss 1 S

2009).

teeb D0 (fhcng) The Economics of Ecosystems and

Biodiversity: The Ecological and Economic Foundations.

Daf f dscussn avalal a www.w.g (las

accss 1 S 2009).

teeb D1 (fhcng) The Economics of Ecosystems and

Biodiversity for international and national policy-makers.

Daf f dscussn avalal n Nv 2009 a

www.w.g (las accss 1 S 2009).

th Nau Cnsvanc (2009) Sussn h Und

Nans Fawk Cnvnn n Cla Chang

gadng - Views on issues relating to Indigenous

Peoples and local communities for the development and

application of methodologies for Reducing Emissions

from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing

Countries.

tns D.p., bac-tal A.r., bwn p., Clak m.r.,

Cnsalv m., Hall-Snc J.m., rwdn A.A.,

Schlach t., Scks K. and rgs A.D. (2009)

pdcng glal haa sual f sn cals n

sauns.Journal of Biogeography36 (6): 1111-1128.

tu, K., bzk, m., Dcksn, b., van d H jdn, G.,

Jnkns, m. and mannng, p. (2009) The Natural Fix?

The role of ecosystems in climate mitigation. A UNepad sns assssn. Und Nans envnn

pga, UNep-WCmC, Cadg.

UNep-WCmC (2008) Carbon and biodiversity:

a demonstration atlas. in: Kas V., ravlus C.,

Call A., Dcksn b., Gs H., Hansn m., Lsnk i.,

mls L., pc J., Schalann J.p.W., tu K (ds.).

UNep-WCmC, Cadg, UK.

UNFCCC (2009)Ad hoc working group on long-term

cooperative action under the convention - Negotiating

Text. bnn. Avalal a h://unfccc.n/suc/dcs/

2009/awglca6/ng/08.df (las accss Augus 27, 2009)

Whngha, G., Call, J. and twnsl, p. (2003)Poverty and reefs a global overview. DFiD-imm.

imm Ld. innvan Cn, ex Unvs, ex.

Wlknsn, C.r. (d.) (2004) Status of the coral reefs of the

world - 2004. Volumes 1 and 2. Ausalan insu f

man Scncs, twnsvll, Ausala.

Wlknsn, C.r. (d.) (2008) Status of the coral reefs of the

world - 2008. Glal Cal rf mnng Nwk and

rf and ranfs rsach Cn. twnsvll, Ausala.

Ws, m., Calvn, K., thsn, A., Clak, L., bnd-La,

b., Sands, r., Sh, S.J., Jans, A. and ednds, J.

(2009) ilcans f Lng Co2 Cncnans f

Land Us and eng. Science 324: 1183-1186.

Wld bank (2002)A Revised Forest Strategy for the World

Bank Group, Washngn DC.

Wund, S. and Aln, m. (2008) Dcnalzd ans f

nvnnal svcs: th cass f pa and

proFAFor n ecuad. Ecological Economics 65(4):

685-698.

Zan, D., Anglsn, A., Ksl C., psk L. and Sck, C.

(2009) Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest

Degradation (REDD): An Options Assessment Report.

mdan insu.

25


28/34


Annx 1:

Rewarding the co-benefits of forestcarbon

on hw a u fs can chans culd

s u wad css svcs alngsd a

reDD-plus fawk lnd f fs

can.

teeb ss a fs can agn n nl as

an an cus a ad tsal

Can g, u als as h dck f gng

fawks f ans f a ang f css

svcs. ths Annxu dscs an xal f a

fawk f a cal h-has reDD-plus

lnan f a fs can g, whch

als addsss h un wad c-

nfs f fs can cau and sag.

Phasing in a forest carbon regimeCnsnsus s gng aund a fs can

g ha wll lnd n h hass,

sla hs dscd n a cn ns assss-

n ad mdan insu f h

Gvnn f Nwa (Zan al. 2009). As ulnd

lw, h aach nvlvs a gadual ansn

f ulc/dn fundng f caac uldng and

dnsan jcs, hugh cv fundng

f nw jcs n a clang hus fund chans,

vnual ak-asd ad n fs can

cfcas.

A hasd aach fs can culd nsu h

uch ndd aan f suv nsunal

and lgal aangns, uldng caac and

vdng adqua ncnvs f nvss, whl als

adnng h fundng as f fs cnsvan

and anagn. th dsnc hass call a

nvsagd, f xal:

Phase 1 culd fcus n sung h dvln

f Fs Can Nanal Sags & Acn plans

fs-v cuns, uldng caac

ln fs can acns n hs cuns.

blaal and ullaal aangns s u a

nu f dnsan jcs, such as aan-

gns sd UN-reDD and h Wld

banks Fs Can pansh Facl (FCpF) a

xals f phas 1 acvs. Anh k

n hs fs has wll su aa

lc fawks and fawks f lng-

asun, vfcan and ng (mrV) f

fs can acns and jc ucs.

Phase 2 nvlvs h lnan f fs can

sags whn acang hs dvlng

cuns, wh cal fss, whch h asc

adnss quns (.g. mrV sandads, jc

and nanal can accunng sss, nalng

lgslan, c.). Fuh caac uldng n phas

2 wuld, cucall, nclud ffs nga fscan and h css valus n nanal nc

accunng fawks, n such a wa ha fs

can ansacns (and h ans f c-

ss svcs) a ulal flcd n nanal

nc sascs. pjc fanc dung hs

has wuld asud and wadd agans

fnc lvls (.g. hsc dfsan and

dgadan as, cun fs cv, caa

nc, c) agd wn jc nns,

cun gvnns and/ jc funds, hus

salshng an nal nchak f susqun

ak ansacns. phas 2 wuld ssl l n

nnanal funds and dns, sud dall

a clang hus nsu ansanc whl als

snghnng ncnvs f hgh qual (lw sk)

jcs and cun fawks hugh a ddcad

innanal Fund wh scfc nclusvnss

jcvs, n d ng u caac and ac-

an f hs cuns lss al aac

laal dn fundng n phas 2.

26


29/34


Phase 3 wuld h au has f Fs

Can, n whch nanal fnc lvls a

sujc a glal ca-and-ad agn, h

addnal f acns s guaand, and n-

nanal lakag s addssd xlcl. Lal and

nals f nn-fanc dung hs has

culd hwv ngad laall wn

funds and jc nns. in hs has w

wuld als h s ffs nga h

fs f sal can (.g. sls, wlands), cls

ngan f fs and ndusal can aks,

and h dvln f gula sucus and

fnancal ducs asd n h fs css

svcs.

Example: a premium scheme for rewarding

co-benefits of forest carbon

elgl jcs whch hav agd ad n phas

1, and hav had h c-nfs fanc ad

n phas 2, can n phas 3 (whn h ssu Fs

Can essns rducn Cfcas - FC-erCs)

als sulanusl and f h sa jc and a

ssu a ad adal dnu pu Cf-

ca (FC-erC-p). ths pu Cfca flcs h

as ankng f h assssd qual f h

pjcs fanc n h C-nfs fn, (.. f

h xn f clgcal svc nfs, lvlhd -

nfs, dvs cnsvan). ths pu can

sd and sld vaus nvss n h n

ak alz fuh gans f succssful hgh-qual

jcs, and ffcvl hs wll achv a sall n

ak n h h csss svcs f h sa

fs can jcs such as reDD-plus jcs

whn a nanal fs can g.

27

Phase 3: Adjunct market for premium FC-ERC-Ps Source: GIST, www.gistindia.org

Example: a premium scheme for rewarding

co-benefits of forest carbon

elgl jcs whch hav agd ad

n phas 1, and hav had h c-nfs

fanc ad n phas 2, can n phas 3

(whn h ssu Fs Can essns

rducn Cfcas - FC-erCs) als sulan-

usl and f h sa jc and a ssu a

ad adal dnu pu Cfca

(FC-erC-p). ths pu Cfca flcs h

as ankng f h assssd qual f h

pjcs fanc n h C-nfs fn,

(.. f h xn f clgcal svc nfs,

lvlhd nfs, dvs cnsvan). ths

pu can sd and sld vaus

nvss n h n ak alz fuh gans

f succssful hgh-qual jcs, and ffcvl

hs wll achv a sall n ak n h h

csss svcs f h sa fs can

jcs such as reDD-plus jcs whn ananal fs can g.


30/34


S f h succss facs ha al schs

such as hs a gnc and la h vall succss

f h g. S hwv a css-scfc, and

la hw hs pu essns rducn

Cfca chans nacs and wks n cnx

f a reDD-plus sla sch.

Generic success factors for theforest carbon regime

Fungibility: S a cncnd ha gn can

and wn can (fs can and fssl ful / n-

dusal GHG) a dffn cds whn h

GHG fal, and ha h wuld a l f h

vlv n dffn ca-and-ad aks whn an

vall g, adng a a sad ach h.

teeb hnks ha fungl s n an dng fac

f reDD succss and can cndns and saf-

guads can ns fungl n a cas f unqu

glal GHG ak. evdncs suggs ha w an

cds (lk n h cas f l ak h Wtiand bn Cud) can succssfull add n

as n h sa ak. in h cas f l ak,

Wti and bn Cud a add as a a wh a

flucuang sad f v 30 as.

Market liquidity: An an gal, s nl

agnall a fau f cnac fungl, u anl

f h undlng dsun f dand and sul

lagl du h ghnss f cas n a ca-and-

ad g, f ak dh (.. nu f c-

aks), f sculav un and ns, and

cnls v sculan. illqud aks vall wll

n succssful, and hs s a cncn.

Leakage: h s an ffcvnss ssu asng

hugh na-g lakag sks f a glal ca and

ad accd cas a g whch cgnzs n

cd whn h GHG fal u n h h, and

hs ssu s alad acng h ffcvnss f h

cun g (s x th Clus f Can)

Terrestrial carbon vs. forest carbon: nclud n

sal can, n a -und ann, agculual

lands, lanan fss, asu lands, sls, c. s

an du h cnsdans av, u ha

h unng css f nacn n fs can d

nd wghd agans h gans f an vn

fuh dlad hlsc g f ssns cnl.

Local communities/ indigenous peoples: us

cgnzd as a fal f nfcas, n

addn Svgns and Sa Gvnns, n a

h-, nsd aach whch wads jc

fanc hugh Nanal schs vn f

Cun ags hav n n ha a ass

n wads. i s ncssa nsu cnsulan

wh cuns a an ncn sag, n las s

ha h chanss dsgnd f ansfng walh

nfcas a h cun lvl a cnssn

wh h ganzan f cuns, and n jus

accal lans f Wsn sucus (C-

ans, tuss, c) n a cun cnx.Fuh, h cn shwn ndgnus

ls / lcal cuns wads h vall

fs can g, wll dnd n h css

ng qual and sn qual.

Upward compatibility: ths s val nsu n h

cnx f an vlvng glal g f ssns

cnl wh hasd ngans and ln-

ans ha h lgal achcu sung an

ssns ak da nds flxl nugh

and us nugh su fuu ssns

aks lk h fs can, as wll as fuu

aks f h css svcs f h sa

undlng csss.

28


31/34


Specific success factors for aprocess & market in co-benefitsalongside the forest carbon regime

Institutional requirements: i s val ha, as al

as phas 1, h hs cun shuld ls avd

rang Agncs and g h ngagd n h ask

f ang pjcs f h pu valus. A dla

wuld csl and h css culd sll-n.

phas 2 shuld s h jc's fanc ng

ad, s h ack cd f lgl n h fuu

(ak) phas 3.

Local communities / indigenous peoples: Aa

f ng cgnzd as qual acans n h

g, h shuld als sha h wads (.. % f

pu valu) f vdng nfs scall f

dvs. Falng ha, ncnvs gh vsl

favu wldlf gahng f f, whls wadng

ass cnsvan f can nfs as

xcd f h an fs can g.

Clearing-house fund: ths sucu can flc g-

vnanc cncns and fanc sks ffcvl.

i can hus avd al hazad f lgl sandads

a ald cnall n an vl chansc ann.

thf s a dsal fau aac us

pu jcs. Hwv, hs a channl

uch fundng wads h sa pu jcs.

W nd cnsd nclusn and caac dvl-

n n h (wak) gvnanc gs and

sk jcs. An (addnal) cnalzd fund

sucu s al dsu fundng n a ann

whch s nclusv and hls uld caac

acss an nans lss al uld h wn

caacs aac laal ns s lng as s

suffcnl fundd and s jcvs a aal

dfnd.

Reference levels Whn sugh whn a Clang-

hus fund sucu n a cal phas 2 reDD-plus

g, hs nd n scd, as h can

laall ngad wh hs cun jcs, and

a cn fawk can nal a 'ak ac' f

rfnc Lvls f, asd n acual jcs

ansacd, whch culd s usful cdn f

rfnc Lvl ngans whn ngang h

valu f pu n pu erCs. Snc h

pu s an n ak cnsuc and n slf

sujc a ca-and-ad g, wll n qu

glal agns s fnc lvls asu

pu fanc, ah, wll qu jus an

assuanc f sucual cnssnc and h

cnnuan f h adjunc fs can g.

29


32/34


30

Accounts as part of ongoing accounting programmes by government agencies ornon-government agencies in collaboration with government agencies

Ausala1

bswana

Chl

FnlandDnak

Fanc

indnsa

Nwa2

Swdn3

Nhlands4

ial

Gan

San

phlns5

Suh Afca

Und Kngd6

US

Nw Zaland

Canada7

Naa

Swazland

thaland

mxc

Csa rca

bazl

Forest Asset accounts

Timber Nontimber goodsand services

Env

ironmen

tal

deg

rada

tion

Soi

l

Em

iss

ion

(Wa

ste)

Lan

d

Wa

ter

Ene

rgy

Min

era

ls

Asse

t

accoun

ts

Supp

ly&use

accoun

ts

Carbon

storage

Othergoo

ds

&serv

ices

Annx 2:

Countries where resource accounts exist

Source: Information compiled from various statistical office web page and Glenn-Marie Lange (2002)

Note: The list is not comprehensive and illustrates subset of countries which have undertaken the environmental

accounting. For the forest related accounts, not all the countries are at the same stage, Some have compiled physicalaccounts stocks and others monetary stock accounts while some have compiled the flow accounts (supply or use or

both).


33/34


1th Ausalan buau f Sascs has dvld chnsv

accuns f Wa (SeeAW), u n hscal uns. on an x-

nal ass h hav sd na accuns f wa. th

hav als dvld sul and us accuns f fshs(alhugh h had a l f daa lans snc h dd n hav

sck daa n fsh and hnc had ak sval assuns)

and ng and nal accuns (hscal sul and us and

na accuns n xnal ass). Hwv, h hav n

ad an accuns f can.

2 Sascs Nwa as a f h Nwa nvnnal and c-

nc accunng jc dvld NAmeA accuns (Nanal

accuns ax ncludng nvnn accuns) nclud a

ssns (Co2, CH4, N2o, So2, Nox, NH3, p, Cd, Hg, pAH-4,

Co, aculas, Nm-VoC, dxns) f h d 1991-2000,

Sld was NAmeA (1993-2000), ncludng 11 was facns and

dvdd n 7 cnc gungs. th accuns a n hscaluns usng h NAmeA aach.

3 Sascs Swdn dvld a hscal s f accuns f wa,

haful chcals lasd n h nvnn, hazadus and

nn-hazadus was, and ssn accuns f Co2, No2 and

So2 all n hscal uns as a f h ffcal ga. th d-

vld a chnsv s f aal flw accuns and nv-

nnal xndu accuns. Land and fs accuns a

als sd n a l ass.

4th Duch nvnnal accuns a v chnsv. th

cv hscal and hd flw accuns f a ssns, wa

quan and ssn accuns and was accuns; ass ac-

cuns f l and naual gas and cud l and na accunsf nvnnal cn xndus and nvnnal

axs. th a lans v h accuns and xand h

n aal flw accuns, nvnn ndus and cla

chang accuns, ncludng ssn s and nvnn su-

sd accuns. th accuns a cld f xsng sascs

and usd sval lc and daa nds.

5Ass accuns f nvnnal dgadan n hscal and

na s accdng h SeeA fawk.

6 offc f Nanal Sascal offc n UK has n ulshng sa-

ll accuns (nnal). th hav dvld h l and gas ac-

cuns (hscal and na), land accuns (hscal uns),fss (sul accuns and ass accuns), wa accuns (nl

h us accuns) and ssn accuns ncludng h ssns

f gn hus gass.

7th Canadan fawk fcuss n vng h asc nv-

nn sascs, ncludng u n ld h nu daa f

h nvnnal accuns. Sascs Canada has dvld h

ssn accun as a f h was accuns n hscal uns

(GHG ssns asud n s f quvaln Co2 ssns

hushlds, nduss and scs).Fss accuns a n

hscal uns, na accuns f . A k asc f h

fawk s s xlc cgnn f qual ssus as a f h

fawk dvln.

31

eUroStAt qus ha accuns cld f

nvnnal cn xndu, cn-wd

aal flw accuns and NAmeA a ssns.

ths hav n dvld sx6 cuns: G-

an, ial, Ausa, Fnland, Swdn and Und

Kngd. th a alad clng sascs f all

h accuns n a gula ass. Anh 14 cun-

s (blgu, bulgaa, Czch rulc, Dnak,

esna, San, Fanc, Lhuana, Hunga, Nh-

lands, pland, pugal, Slvna, and Nwa) a

acv n all h aas . in addn h ffs

h euan Sascal Ss, h euan en-

vnn Agnc (eeA) s lang an an l

n dvlng css and land us accuns, as

wll as fng analss f xsng daa f n-

vnnal accuns dnf ans f susana-

l cnsun and ducn. eeA s akng h

lad n ncludng h saal dnsns as wll as h

funcnng and valuan f csss.


34/34


Cnvnn blgcal Dvs

Clan Dvln mchans

Can dxd

Cnfnc f h pasCs f plc inacn

euan envnnal Agnc

essns rducn Cfca

euan Unn - essn tadng Ss

Fd and Agculu oganzan f h Und NansFs Can - essns rducn Cfca

Fs Can - essns rducn Cfca pu

Gss Dsc pduc

Gn Hus GasGlal rsuc infan Daaas

innanal pans f ecss Svcs

masun rng and Vfcan

Nn Gvnnal ogansans

N sn valu

ogansan f ecnc Can and Dvln

pas lln

rducng essns f Dfsan

Ss f ingad envnnal and ecnc Accunngth ecncs f ecsss and bdvs

Und Nans

UN C f exs n envnnal-ecnc Accunng

Und Nans Fawk Cnvnn n Cla Chang

Und Nans Sascs Cssn

Annx 3:

List of acronyms

CbD

CDm

Co2CopCopi

eeA

erC

eU - etS

FAoFC-erC

FC-erC-p

GDp

GHGGriD

ipeS

mrV

NGo

NpV

oeCD

reDD

SeeAteeb

UN

UNCeeA

UNFCCC

UNSC

teeb climate issues update

Documents