sw overview tbws

8/8/2019 Sw Overview TBWS

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DRAFT

JUDITH C.HOCHMAN

Teaching

BasicWRITING

SKILLSStrategies for EffectiveExpository Writing

Instruction

www.sopriswest.com/tb


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TEACHING BASIC WRITING SKILLS ix

Contents

Introduction 1The Challenge o Learning to Write 1The Role o Executive Functions 2

Eective Writing Instruction 3How to Use This Manual 4Sentences 4Paragraphs and Compositions 5Instructional Guidelines 6

Section 1: Sentences 8Sentence Goals 10

11 Sentences and Fragments 12Examples 11A to 11C

12 Scrambled Sentences 14Example 12A

13 Sentence Types 15Examples 13A to 13G

14 Questions 18Examples 14A to 14E

15 Sentence Combining 22Example 15A

16 Phrases and Clauses 23Example 16A

17 Conjunctions 24Examples 17A to 17DResource 1.7: Sentence Starters 27

18 Run-on Sentences 28Examples 18A to 18B

19 Sentence Expansion 30Resource 1.9: Sentences for Expansion 31Examples 19A to 19F

110 Summarizing 37Examples 110A to 110C

111 Grammar and Usage 39Subjects and Predicates 39

Examples 111A to 111EPunctuation and Capitalization 42

Examples 111F to 111GNumber and Tense Agreement 43

Examples 111H to 111K


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x TEACHING BASIC WRITING SKILLS > Contents

Word Substitution 45Examples 111L to 111U

Active and Passive Voice 51Example 111V

Section 2: Paragraphs and Compositions 52

Paragraph and Composition Goals 5421 Planning 56Expository Writing 56Compare-and-Contrast Writing 56Narrative Writing 57Descriptive Writing 58Persuasive Writing 58

Resource 2.1: Topics for Writing Assignments 60Example 21A

22 Topic Sentences 64Resource 2.2: Sample Topic Sentences 65Examples 22A to 22F

23 Outlines: An Overview 71Examples 23A to 23B

24 The Quick Outline 74Examples 24A to 24K

25 The Transitional Outline 86Examples 25A to 25C

26 The Multiple Paragraph Outline 90Resource 2.6: Categories for Organizing an MPO,

by Assignment Type 93

Example 26A27 Introductions 96

Examples 27A to 27D28 Conclusions 100

Example 28A29 Writing Drafts 101

Resource 2.9: Writing Activity Suggestions 102210 Revising and Editing 103

Examples 210A to 210CTransitions 107

Resource 2.10: Transition Words and Phrases 108Examples 210D to 210H

Conjunctions 113Listening Evaluation 113

211 Producing a Final Copy 114


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TEACHING BASIC WRITING SKILLS > Contents xi

Section 3: Writing Assessment 115Resource 3.1: Suggested Grade-Level Assessment Objectives 117

Appendix 121Template A: Expository-Writing Terms 122Template B: The 4 Types o Conjunctions 123

Template C: Sentence Expansion with 3 Question Words 124Template D: Sentence Expansion with 4 Question Words 125Template E: Symbols and Abbreviations or Outlining 126Template F: Quick Outline 127Template G: Quick OutlineBook Report 128Template H: Quick OutlineNews Article 129Template I: Transitional Outline 130Template J: Multiple Paragraph Outline (3 Paragraphs) 131Template K: Multiple Paragraph Outline (4 Paragraphs) 132Template L: Multiple Paragraph Outline (5 Paragraphs) 133

Template M: Multiple Paragraph OutlineBook Report 134Template N: Revise and Edit Checklist 135Template O: Prooreading Symbols 136Template P: Listening Evaluation Checklist 137

Glossary 138

References 143


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TEACHING BASIC WRITING SKILLS 1

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Introduction

Teaching Basic Writing Skills is a guide or teachers whowant to help students o all grades and abilities developexpository-writing skills The goals and activities in thismanual were developed to provide systematic instructionin undamental writing and can be adapted successully orlarge classes, small groups, and tutorials Moreover, since theactivities inTeaching Basic Writing Skillsrepresent a rangeo levels o diculty, teachers can provide dierentiationor individual students within a class The program canbe used across all grades, in every content area, and withmainstream as well as remedial students

As students move through the grades, most o theirassignments require expository writing, writing that explains

or inorms In lie, as in school, most writing is expositoryThereore, students must learn to summarize, justiy,persuade, enumerate, discuss, and so on Older studentshave to analyze and synthesize inormation rom articles,lectures, textbooks, and literature Template A, in theappendix, illustrates the wide array o types o expository

writing that students must master

The Challenge of Learning to Write

Many people with excellent reading and speaking skills

struggle with writing The problems typical learners mayexperience are magnied or less-procient learners Thesestudents diculties with decoding, spelling, word retrieval,and syntax are oten exacerbated by a decient vocabularyand limited knowledge o the subject matter These obstaclessignicantly compromise their capacity or comprehensionand clear, accurate communication

Writing is the most challenging skill to teach and to learnIts demands on students grapho-motor skills, cognitive

and linguistic abilities, and awareness o text and socialconventions pose problems or many When we write, we have to clariy our thoughts and express ourselves with ar more precision, accuracy, and clarity than when we are speaking Facial expressions, gestures, and priorknowledge provide a speaker with inormation about hisor her audience, but a writer lacks these cues As a result,


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2 TEACHING BASIC WRITING SKILLS > Introduction

writing requires a high level o abstraction, elaboration, and refection In literate societies,writing is considered to be the highest-level cognitive and intellectual achievement

Unortunately, assigning lots o writing activities and providing exposure to good writing donot necessarily produce capable writers Direct, explicit instruction is the key to developinggood writing skills

Creative writing activities, which center on sel-expression rather than communication, otendominate elementary school writing programs With minimal guidance, students receivewriting assignments such as imaginative stories, poems, journal entries, and subjectiveimpressions Activities o this kind depart rom direct instruction on how to write Studentsmust learn to write eective sentences and paragraphs beore they can competentlyexperiment with creative writing orms and styles

Writing can take many orms It can serve simply as a means o transcription, or it candemonstrate knowledge, communicate, and acilitate learning (Scott, 1999, 2005) Ultimately,most writing serves two primary unctions: It is either knowledge-telling or knowledge-transorming (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987)

Writing that is knowledge-telling is oten, but not exclusively, a narrative recounting Manystudents unction at this level To them, writing consists o nothing more than listing whatthey hope is relevant inormation As these students grow older, the amount o inormationavailable to them renders them unable to plan, prioritize, classiy, organize, or ecientlyand eectively set goals or their writing

Writing that is knowledge-transorming requires a much higher-level thought process, butit empowers students to communicate clearly throughoutand beyondtheir educationalcareer It enables the writer to ormulate ideas, synthesize and analyze inormation, persuade,and solve problems Knowledge-transorming writing interprets data and uses it to achieve

a purpose At its best, this is the high-level writing employed by graduate students, editorialwriters, essayists, and contributors to proessional journals However, it is not the exclusivedomain o these practitioners Every student should have the opportunity to become a

writer who can transorm knowledge

The Role of Executive Functions

Executive unctions are cognitive processes that have a great impact on writing becausethey aect all aspects o memory, attention, and language These unctions enable a personto analyze situations, plan and take action, ocus and monitor attention, and adjust actionsas needed to complete a task A person must have an understanding o how to access his

or her knowledge and skills and stay motivated to accomplish goals (Horowitz, 2007)The executive unctions play an enormous role in writing, especially when completingacademic, proessional, or business-related assignments These unctions aect a writersability to plan, organize, monitor, and revise text (Singer & Bashir, 2004) The writer must:

strategize;initiate a series o actions;


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TEACHING BASIC WRITING SKILLS > Introduction 3

plan approaches;organize approaches;inhibit and monitor diversions;sustain task and eort;monitor and assess outcomes against plans; andinstitute needed changes

Each o these steps requires selective attention, sustained and divided attention, span oattention, and the ability to shit attention (Singer & Bashir 2004)

In addition, the demands o the writing process on working memory, a manipulativeunction that allows the management o multiple eatures and simultaneous processing, areenormous Writers must think about meaning, purpose, audience, syntax, and semanticsThey have to plan ahead, as well as sequence and organize inormation

Many students have weak organizational skills They lack the ability to distinguish essentialrom nonessential inormation and to set orth ideas in logical order As they try to ormulateoutlines or generate coherent paragraphs and compositions, rustrating problems arise

Competent writers ocus on their topic, purpose, and audience as they plan a compositionand organize the inormation it will present These complex tasks call or processing athigher cognitive levels than other instructional areas require In addition, older studentsare oten called upon to demonstrate comprehension by paraphrasing or summarizinglinguistically complex texts or passages that contain a great deal o actual inormation

Effective Writing Instruction

Some educators believe that the teaching o written-language skills should be delayeduntil students master decoding, spelling, and handwriting Other evidence points to the

value o early writing instruction (Wong & Berninger, 2004) Students in the primary gradesbenet when their teachers combine the instruction o writing with reading, spelling, andhandwriting lessons For example, students can write original sentences using their spelling

words or to develop their own questions about reading materials Those who are not taughtspecic writing strategies early in their education may develop communication problems,

which can persist and hamper them as adults, personally, vocationally, and academically(Scott, 1989a, p 261) Nevertheless, many young students receive little, i any, explicitinstruction in written communication Reading disabilities receive ar more attention than

writing problems (Scott, 1989b, p 303) Too oten, teachers incorrectly assume that goodreaders will naturally become good writers

A sound writing curriculum stresses narrative- and expository-writing skills, with anemphasis on the latter Because teachers have limited time or such instruction, TeachingBasic Writing Skills ocuses on orming a solid oundation in the skills most needed orschool assignments Its approach assumes that writing and thinking are tightly linked,and so writing instruction should, above all, help students enhance clarity and precisionin the structuring o their ideas Writing is the nal, common pathway o cognition and


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language (Scott, 1999, 2005) A good writer must bring to bear a command o linguisticknowledge, world knowledge, and social cognition (an understanding o, and an empathyor, the audience) Thought and organization are the characteristics that separate strongexpository writing rom weak That is whyTeaching Basic Writing Skillsis as much aboutthe organization o a writers thinking as it is about writing itsel

The two primary goals o this program are to raise the linguistic complexity o students

sentences and to improve the organization o their compositions Students who have beenexposed to Teaching Basic Writing Skills strategies are likely to display greater clarity intheir written and oral language Their communication oten exhibits enhanced complexityand coherence, and their reading comprehension can show improvement In addition, theorganizational skills introduced in Teaching Basic Writing Skillscan translate into betterstudy skills, as students apply the paraphrasing, note-taking, outlining, and summarizingstrategies they have learned

How to Use This Manual

Teaching Basic Writing Skillsis built upon instructional guidelines that emphasize expositorywriting or all content areas The program presents goals, strategies, and activities or writingsentences, paragraphs, and compositions You can apply these strategies systematically,during structured writing instruction time, or you can integrate the strategies into instructiono other content areas Expository writing is an essential skill in every school subject Evenmath students are expected to write clearly and in an organized way about the processesthey use to solve problems

Teaching Basic Writing Skills provides many opportunities or individual dierentiationwithin classrooms and grade levels to accommodate students unique abilities You can usethe books many examples to demonstrate dierent aspects o writing in the classroom and

to develop independent assignments or students Reinorcement is built into the booksstrategies

Two sections make up the bulk o the book: Section 1: Sentences and Section 2:Paragraphs and Compositions Each begins with a goals checklist, ollowed by instructionand activities designed to help you teach what students need to know to achieve the listedgoals You can use the goals to set instructional priorities and to assess students progress

Sentences

Section 1: Sentences is designed to help students ully understand the purpose and

structure o a sentence and develop the ability to compose complex sentences that refectextended thinking The section addresses some basic principles o grammar and encouragesstudents to elaborate on short sentences and to summarize longer works Teachers shouldintroduce these sentence strategies as oral activities in the primary grades The sectionsactivities teach students to:

distinguish between sentences and sentence ragments;straighten out scrambled sentences;


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identiy a sentences type;develop questions;use coordinating and subordinating conjunctions;combine multiple sentences into one;expand sentences;summarize;

understand the parts o speech and use them correctly in writing activities; and

add and move phrases and clauses within a sentence

This section provides examples that can be adapted or all grade levels and content areasFor example, in learning to use conjunctions, young students could be asked to completethe ollowing sentences, orally or in writing:

Our teacher was happy because Our teacher was happy, but Our teacher was happy, so

The same strategy could work with older students, using a more advanced topic or thesentences:

Fractions are like decimals because Fractions are like decimals, but Fractions are like decimals, so

Each activity in Section 1: Sentences strengthens students ability to express complexthoughts through sentences that take a variety o orms and include an appropriate levelo detail But the sentence lessons do not need to be taught in any particular sequence Inact, they should be taught concurrently with each other and with the lessons in Section

2: Paragraphs and Compositions

Paragraphs and CompositionsSection 2: Paragraphs and Compositions starts with the development o an individualparagraph It teaches students to write a topic sentence, then organize several additionalsentences into a cohesive paragraph Only ater students have mastered the writing o a sin-gle paragraph do they move on to longer compositions For an individual paragraph, andthen or longer compositions, this section teaches students to plan and outline, write a rstdrat, revise and edit their drat, and write a nal drat or a variety o expository orms

Unlike sentence activities, paragraph and composition activities should be careullysequenced First, students should learn to develop Quick Outlines on a variety o subjects

and in a range o genres as a class activity, ollowing the sequence in 2.4The QuickOutline Next, students should write drats based on Quick Outlines developed in classFor younger students, the drat can be developed as a class activity

Ater they learn to write drats o single paragraphs, students are ready to learn to reviseand edit Communicating with the reader with precision and clarity, as well as keeping thereader interested, are the goals o revising and editing Initially, students should improve and


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correct work that you provide, instead o their own writing Assignments should be brie, andinstructions and eedback should be specic and explicit Have students begin by revisingsimple, unelaborated paragraphs as a class; then in pairs; and, last, independently

Stress that students should expand sentences or the purpose o giving the reader moreinormation, and provide opportunities to improve boring topic sentences (eg, to transormHere are some ways to use computers into Computers, necessary tools for business, are now

found in most homes) Teach students to use transition words, as described in2.10Revisingand Editing, and explain how and when to use subordinating conjunctions and appositivesin sentences Demonstrate how to enhance a drat by adding examples

When students are ready to tackle longer compositions, be sure to start with topics thatare amiliar to the students, or assign careully directed and structured research activitiesDemonstrate and develop Transitional Outlines and Multiple Paragraph Outlines as classactivities Practice outlining topics or assignments in various genres Do not assign dratso multiparagraph compositions until students are secure in developing all elements o theoutlines (eg, key words and phrases, appropriate categories, organization) Have thempractice writing introductions and conclusions Then assign students to write a separatedrat o each paragraph in a composition Have them revise and edit one paragraph at atime beore moving ahead

Some students are ready to move independently through the writing process sooner thanare other students This sections activities provide many opportunities or individualdierentiation within classes in any content area For example, some students may needmore help developing topic sentences or categorizing and clustering details Others maybe able to construct an outline independently ater participating in practice with the classThe Revise and Edit Checklist (Template N in the appendix) is great or ocusing bothteacher and students on the key eatures o a composition In addition, using the Listening

Evaluation Checklist (Template P in the appendix) to evaluate others work as it is readaloud is an integral part o the program

Although the strategies in Section 2: Paragraphs and Compositions should be taughtin a specic order, the program is most eective i students work on the sentence andparagraph activities concurrently Sentence activities orm the basis or revising and editingskills, which underpin competent writing

Instructional Guidelines

Teaching students how to write does not ollow a single, simple recipe Your judgment as

a teacher, together with an assessment o each students writing ability, plays an importantrole in determining which strategies you should emphasize The strategies in TeachingBasic Writing Skillswere developed to be taught either individually or in conjunction withone another For example, you might rst ask students to summarize a news article in onesentence, then use that sentence as a topic sentence or a Quick Outline (Template H)They could subsequently convert the outline into a paragraph, which they would use to


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practice revising and editing You could adapt each o these activities to the abilities andcontent area o your students

Students should be exposed to writing lessons rom Teaching Basic Writing Skillsdaily, butactivities need not always involve paper and pencil On the contrary, many o the activitiesshould be practiced orally, as a class This is particularly important or students in theprimary grades but can benet students at all levels

Because o the tight link between reading and writing, many teachers nd that structuredpractice in writing linguistically complex sentences enhances reading comprehension (Gillon& Dodd, 1995) For the same reason, this programs activities or writing paragraphs andcompositions help students develop better critical-thinking and study skills At each step inTeaching Basic Writing Skills, be sure to provide explicit explanations and demonstrationso what is expected Avoid independent assignments until students have had ampledemonstrations and group activities

Although Teaching Basic Writing Skillsdoes not address writing assessment until the thirdand nal section, you should collect writing samples early in the school year in order to set

goals both or individual students and or the class Review the entire manual beore yourrst writing assessment because amiliarity with all o the programs terms and strategies isessential in goal-setting

Since many students have diculty applying the writing skills they learn in one class tothe subject matter o another class, reinorcement is important Writing instruction is mosteective when integrated into every content area and all grade levels Students o varyingabilities then have the opportunity to become better writers across the curriculum Note,however, that it is crucial or teachers across the various subject areas and grade levels touse the same terminology when teaching writing, and to use terms in exactly the same way

All teachers using the Teaching Basic Writing Skillsprogram should amiliarize themselves

with this books Glossary and reer to the denitions therein whenever in doubt

Students should have many opportunities to practice written communication with a specicaudience other than their teacher Interview questions, summaries, critical reviews, andbusiness and personal letters can all be important vehicles or instruction Resource 2.9provides an extensive list o possible assignments

Although spelling, handwriting, and related skills are important, students should beencouraged to ocus on developing the higher-level skills they need to write It also helpsmaximize the success o grammar lessons, which are most eective when embedded in

writing instruction (Graham & Perin, 2007)

The strategies in Teaching Basic Writing Skillsprovide students with skills they can buildon as they progress through school Each activity reinorces the others, and students can beintroduced to the undamentals o writing in any grade or subject


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TEACHING BASIC WRITING SKILLS 143

References

Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.

Gillon, G., & Dodd, B. (1995). The effects of training phonological, semantic, and syntactic

processing skills in spoken language on reading ability.Language, Speech, and HearingServices in Schools, 26, 5868.

Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing ofadolescents in middle and high schools. A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York.Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.

Horowitz, S. H. (March 2007).Executive functioning: Regulating behavior for school success.NCLD Research Roundup (LD News). Retrieved May 24, 2008, from http://www.ncld.org/content/view/1200/480

Langan, J. (1997).English skills(6th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.

Lunsford, A., & Connors, R. (1995). St. Martins handbook(3rd ed.). New York: St. MartinsPress.

Morgan, C. G. (2001). When they cant write. Timonium, MD: York Press.

Scott, C. M. (1989a). Learning to write: Context, form, and process. In A. G. Kamhi & H. W.Catts (Eds.),Reading disabilities: A developmental language perspective(pp. 261302).Boston: Little, Brown.

Scott, C. M. (1989b). Problem writers: Nature, assessment, and intervention. In A. G. Kamhi& H. W. Catts (Eds.), Reading disabilities: A developmental language perspective (pp.303344). Boston: Little, Brown.

Scott, C. M. (1999). Learning to write. In A. G. Kamhi & H. W. Catts (Eds.),Language andreading disabilities(pp. 224258). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Scott, C. M. (2002). Sentence comprehension instruction. In J. F. Carlisle & M. S. Rice (Eds.),Improving reading comprehension: Research-based principles and practices (pp. 115127). Baltimore: York Press.

Scott, C. M. (2004). Syntactic contributions to literacy learning. In C. A. Stone, E. R. Silliman,

B. J. Ehrren, & K. Apel (Eds.), Handbook of language and literacy: Development anddisorders(pp. 340362). New York: The Guilford Press.

Scott, C. M. (2005). Learning to write. In A. G. Kamhi & H. W. Catts, (Eds.), Language andreading disabilities(pp. 233273). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.


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144 TEACHING BASIC WRITING SKILLS > References

Singer, B. D., & Bashir, A. S. (2004). Developmental variations in written composition skills.In C. A. Stone, E. R. Silliman, B. J. Ehrren, & K. Apel (Eds.),Handbook of language andliteracy: Development and disorders(pp. 559582). New York: The Guilford Press.

Westby, C. E., & Clauser, P. S. (1999). The right stuff for writing: Assessing and facilitatingwritten language. In A. G. Kamhi & H. W. Catts (Eds.),Language and reading disabilities(pp. 259324). Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Wong, B. Y. L., & Berninger, V. W. (2004). Cognitive processes of teachers in implementingcomposition research in elementary, middle and high school classrooms. In C. A. Stone,E. R. Silliman, B. J. Ehrren, & K. Apel (Eds.), Handbook of language and literacy:

Development and disorders(pp. 600624). New York: The Guilford Press.


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ISBN-13: 978-1-60218-501-2

ISBN-10: 1-60218-501-8

9 781602 185012

165948

Teaching Basic WRITING SKILLSStrategies for Effective Expository Writing Instruction

Teaching Basic Writing Skills is a exible, aordable, and easy-to-use program or

providing direct, explicit instruction in expository writing. The program is appropriate

or grades 3-8 in every content area, and its activities can be adjusted to varying

difculty levels and adapted or large classes, small groups, and tutorials.

The two primary goals oTeaching Basic Writing Skills are to raise the linguistic

complexity o students sentences and to improve the organization o their compositions.

Two sections address these goals directly:

Section 1, Sentences, uses activities such as scrambled sentences, sentence com-

bining, and summarizing to increase students understanding o sentence structure

while developing their ability to compose complex sentences that reect extended

thinking. Practice in revising and editing are key to these exercises.

Section 2, Paragraphs and Compositions, teaches students to develop paragraphs

by beginning with a topic sentence, then writing/organizing additional sentences to

create a cohesive paragraph. Outlining, drating, andagainrevising and editing

are important components in the lessons.

Teaching Basic Writing Skills is non-sequential, allowing teachers to mix and match

activities in both sections according to student needs.

The results? Students who have

been exposed to the strategiesdisplay improved reading

comprehension, stronger organi-

zational skills, better study habits,

and overall higher achievement,

to name just a ew. Add growth

in students confdence that

comes rom an ability to translate

well-ormed thoughts into well-

communicated writing, and youhave writers.

AFinalCopymustbefreeoferrors,andshouldbecompletedinthestudents

besthandwritingortypedIfthewritingistobedisplayed

considergivingextrahelpwitheditingcategoriessuchasgrammar,capitalization,

punctuation,andspellingtobesure workisfreeoferrors.Throughouttheprocess,besureto

writeconstructivecommentsonstudents

writingassignments.feedbackshouldbe

mostplentifulandexplicitduringthedraftingandtherevising-and-editingstages. Writeonlyabriefpositivecomment

onthefinalcopy.

DRAFTNAME:JudithHochmanTOPIC:Cre

atingAFinalCopy

March1

THESISSENTENCE:A

finalcopymustbe

freeoferrors.

MAINIDEA

DETAILS

Creatingagood

reviseandedit

paragraphrequires

createadraft

grammarpprocess

capitalization

steps

punctuation

spellingfreeofer

rors

OUTLINE

Afinalcopymustbefreeof

errors,andshouldbecompletedinthe

studentsbesthandwritingortyped.

Ifthewritingistobedisplayed,

considergivingextrahelpwith

editingcategoriessuchasgrammar,

capitalization,punctuation,and

spellingtobesureworkisfreeof

errors.

Throughouttheprocess,besureto

writeconstructivecommentson

studentswritingassignments.

Feedbackshouldbemostplentifuland

explicitduringthedraftingandthe

revising-and-editingstages. Write

onlyabriefpositivecommentonthe

finalcopy.

A+

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