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Indomitable

IHADNEVERBEENaskedtosignanon-disclosureagreementinthebathroomofapubbefore,soitcameassomethingofarelieftodiscoverthatthiswasallthatBrianwasaskingmetodo.IhadmetBrianforthefirsttimeonlyanhourearlier.WewereinSheehan’s,apubinDunLaoghairethatwasn’tfarfromwhereIworkedatthetimeinDublin.Brianwasared-facedmaninhissixtieswithawalkingstickforhisbadleg.Hewassmartlydressedinasuitandhadthinninggrayhairwithayellowishtinge.Hechain-smokedSilkCutcigarettes.OnceBrianfoundoutthatIwasascientistheguessedrightlythatIwouldbeinterestedtohearstoriesofhislifeinLondoninthe1970s,whenhewasintherightplaceattherighttimetotradeIntel4004siliconchips,whichheimportedinboxesoftwelvethousandfor£1eachandsoldinsmallbatchestothefledglingcomputerindustryfor£10each.WhenImentionedthatIwasresearchingmetalalloysintheMechanicalEngineeringDepartmentofUniversityCollegeDublin,helookedpensiveandwasquietforthefirsttime.Itookthisasanopportunemomenttoheadtothebathroom.Thenon-disclosureagreementwasscrawledonapieceofpaperwhichhe

hadclearlyjustrippedoutofhisnotebook.Thecontentswerebrief.TheystatedthathewasgoingtoexplainhisinventiontomebutIhadtokeepitconfidential.InreturnhewastopaymeoneIrishpound.Iaskedhimtotellmemore,buthecomicallymimedthezippingofhislips.Iwasn’tquitesurewhywehadtohavethisconversationinabathroomstall.OverhisshoulderIsawotherdrinkerscomeinandoutofthebathroom.IwonderedifIshouldcryoutforhelp.Briansearchedinhisjacketandgotoutapen.Ascruffypoundnoteemergedfromhisjeans.Hewasveryinsistent.Isignedthepaperagainstthegraffiti-daubedwall.Hesignedtoo,gaveme

thepound,andtheslipofpaperbecamealegaldocument.Backbythebarwithourdrinks,IlistenedasBrianexplainedthathehad

inventedanelectronicmachinethatsharpenedbluntrazorblades.Thiswouldrevolutionizetheshavingbusiness,heexplained,becausepeoplewouldneedtoownonlyonerazorintheirlives.Atastrokeitwouldputthebillion-dollarindustryoutofbusiness,makehimanexceptionallyrichman,andreduceconsumptionofEarth’smineralwealth.“Howaboutthat?”hesaid,takingatriumphantgulpofhispint.Ieyedhimwithsuspicion.Soonerorlatereveryscientisthashisearbentby

someonewithacrackpotideaforaninvention.Inaddition,razorbladeswerea

sensitivesubjectforme.IfeltpricklyanduncomfortableasIbecameawareofthelongscardownmyback,theresultofmyencounterontheplatformatHammersmithstation.ButIgesturedforhimtocontinueandkeptlistening...

Itisanoddfactthatsteelwasnotunderstoodbyscienceuntilthetwentiethcentury.Beforethat,forthousandsofyears,themakingofsteelwashandeddownthroughthegenerationsasacraft.Eveninthenineteenthcentury,whenwehadanimpressivetheoreticalunderstandingofastronomy,physics,andchemistry,themakingofironandsteelonwhichourIndustrialRevolutionwasbasedwasachievedempirically—throughintuitiveguesswork,carefulobservation,andahugesliceofluck.(CouldBrianhavehadsuchasliceofluckandsimplystumbleduponarevolutionarynewprocessforsharpeningrazorblades?IfoundthatIwasn’tpreparedtodismisstheidea.)DuringtheStoneAge,metalwasextremelyrareandhighlyprized,sincethe

onlysourcesofitontheplanetwerecopperandgold,whichoccurnaturally,ifinfrequently,intheEarth’scrust(unlikemostmetals,whichhavetobeextractedfromores).Someironexistedtoo,mostofithavingfallenfromtheskyintheformofmeteorites.RadivokeLajic,wholivesinnorthernBosnia,isamanwhoknowsallabout

strangebitsofmetalfallingfromthesky.Between2007and2008hishousewashitbynofewerthanfivemeteorites,whichisstatisticallysohugelyunlikelythathisclaimthataliensweretargetinghimseemsalmostreasonable.SinceLajicwentpublicwithhissuspicionsin2008,hishousehasbeenhitbyanothermeteorite.Thescientistsinvestigatingthestrikeshaveconfirmedthattherockshittinghishousearerealmeteoritesandarestudyingthemagneticfieldsaroundhishousetotrytoexplaintheextremelyunusualfrequencyofthem.

RadivokeLajicandthefivemeteoritesthathavehithishousesince2007.Intheabsenceofcopper,gold,andmeteoriciron,ourancestors’toolsduring

theStoneAgeweremadeofflint,wood,andbone.Anyonewhohasevertriedtomakeanythingwiththesekindsoftoolsknowshowlimitingtheyare:ifyouhitapieceofwooditeithersplinters,cracks,orsnaps.Thesameistrueofrockorbone.Metalsarefundamentallydifferentfromtheseothermaterialsbecausetheycanbehammeredintoshape:theyflow,theyaremalleable.Notonlythat,theygetstrongerwhenyouhitthem;youcanhardenabladejustbyhammeringit.Andyoucanreversetheprocesssimplybyputtingmetalinafireandheatingitup,whichwillcauseittogetsofter.Thefirstpeopletodiscoverthesepropertiestenthousandyearsagohadfoundamaterialthatwasalmostashard

asarockbutbehavedlikeaplasticandwasalmostinfinitelyreusable.Inotherwords,theyhaddiscoveredtheperfectmaterialfortools,andinparticularcuttingtoolslikeaxes,chisels,andrazors.Thisabilityofmetalstotransformfromasofttoahardmaterialmusthave

seemedlikemagictoourancientancestors.ItwasmagictoBriantoo,asIsoonfoundout.Heexplainedthathehadinventedhismachinebytrialanderror,withnorealappreciationofthephysicsandchemistryatplay,andyetitseemedthathehadsomehowsucceeded.Whathewantedfrommewastomeasurethesharpnessoftherazorsbeforeandaftertheyhadbeenthroughhisprocess.Onlythisevidencewouldallowhimtobeginseriousbusinessdiscussionswiththerazorcompanies.

Ametalcrystal,suchasexistsinsidearazor.Therowsofdotsrepresentatoms.

IexplainedtoBrianthatitwouldtakemorethanafewmeasurementsfor

themtotakehimseriously.Thereasonisthatmetalsaremadefromcrystals.Theaveragerazorbladecontainsbillionsofthem,andineachofthesecrystalstheatomsarearrangedinaveryparticularway,anear-perfectthree-dimensionalpattern.Thebondsbetweentheatomsholdtheminplaceandalsogivethecrystalstheirstrength.Arazorgetsbluntbecausethemanycollisionswithhairsthatitencountersforcebitsofthesecrystalstorearrangethemselvesintoadifferentshape,makingandbreakingbondsandcreatingtinydentsinthesmoothrazoredge.Resharpeningarazorthroughsomeelectronicmechanism,asheproposed,wouldhavetoreversethisprocess.Inotherwords,itwouldhavetomoveatomsaroundtorebuildthestructurethathadbeendestroyed.Tobetakenseriously,Brianwouldneednotjustevidenceofsuchrebuildingatthescaleofthecrystalsbutaplausibleexplanationattheatomicscaleofthemechanismbywhichitworked.Heat,whetherelectricallyproducedornot,usuallyhasadifferenteffectthantheonehewasclaiming:itsoftensmetalcrystals,Iexplained.Brianwasadamantthathiselectronicmachinewasn’theatingthesteelrazors.Itmaybeoddtothinkthatmetalsaremadeofcrystals,becauseourtypical

imageofacrystalisofatransparentandhighlyfacetedgemstonesuchasadiamondoremerald.Thecrystallinenatureofmetalsishiddenfromusbecausemetalcrystalsareopaque,andinmostcasesmicroscopicallysmall.Viewedthroughanelectronmicroscope,thecrystalsinapieceofmetallooklikecrazypaving,andinsidethosecrystalsaresquigglylines—thesearedislocations.Theyaredefectsinthemetalcrystals,andrepresentdeviationsintheotherwiseperfectcrystallinearrangementoftheatoms—theyareatomicdisruptionsthatshouldn’tbethere.Theysoundbad,buttheyturnouttobeveryuseful.Dislocationsarewhatmakemetalssospecialasmaterialsfortools,cuttingedges,andultimatelytherazorblade,becausetheyallowthemetalcrystalstochangeshape.Youdon’tneedtouseahammertoexperiencethepowerofdislocations.

Whenyoubendapaperclip,itisinfactthemetalcrystalsthatarebending.Iftheydidn’tbend,thepaperclipwouldbebrittleandsnaplikeastick.Thisplasticbehaviorisachievedbythedislocationsmovingwithinthecrystal.Astheymovetheytransfersmallbitsofthematerialfromonesideofthecrystaltotheother.Theydothisatthespeedofsound.Asyoubendapaperclip,youarecausingapproximately100,000,000,000,000dislocationstomoveataspeedofthousandsofhundredsofmeterspersecond.Althougheachoneonlymovesatinypieceofthecrystal(oneatomicplaneinfact),thereareenoughofthemto

allowthecrystalstobehavelikeasuper-strongplasticratherthanabrittlerock.

Ihaveonlyshownafewdislocationsinthissketchtomakethemeasytosee.Normalmetalshaveenormousnumbersofdislocationswhichoverlapandintersect.

Themeltingpointofametalisanindicatorofhowtightlythemetalatoms

arestucktogetherandsoalsoaffectshoweasilythedislocationsmove.Leadhasalowmeltingpointandsodislocationsmovewithconsummateease,makingitaverysoftmetal.Copperhasahighermeltingpointandisstronger.Heatingmetalsallowsdislocationstomoveaboutandreorganizethemselves,withoneoftheoutcomesbeingthatitmakesmetalssofter.Discoveringmetalswasanimportantmomentinpre-history,butitdidn’t

solvethefundamentalproblemthattherewasn’tverymuchmetalaround.Oneoption,clearly,wastowaitforsomemoretodropfromthesky,butthisrequiresahugeamountofpatience(afewkilogramsfalltothesurfaceoftheEartheveryyear,butmostlyintotheoceans).AtsomepointhumansmadethediscoverythatwouldendtheStoneAgeandopenthedoortoaseeminglyunlimitedsupplyofthestuff.Theydiscoveredthatacertaingreenishrock,whenputintoaveryhotfireandsurroundedbyred-hotembers,turnsintoashinypieceofmetal.Thisgreenishrockwasmalachite,andthemetalwas,ofcourse,copper.Itmusthavebeenthemostdazzlingrevelation.Suddenlythediscoverersweresurroundednotbydeadinertrockbutbymysteriousstuffthathadaninnerlife.Theywouldhavebeencapableofperformingthistransformationwithonlya

fewparticulartypesofrock,suchasmalachite,becausegettingittoworkreliablydependsnotjustonidentifyingtheserocksbutalsooncarefullycontrollingthechemicalconditionsofthefire.Buttheymusthavesuspectedthatthoserocksthatdidn’twork,thatremainedobstinatelyrock-likehoweverhotthefirebecame,hadhiddensecrets.Theywereright.It’saprocessthatworksformanyminerals,althoughitwouldbethousandsofyearsbeforeanunderstandingofthechemistryrequired(controllingthechemicalreactionsbetweentherockandthegasescreatedinthefire)ledtothenextrealbreakthroughinsmelting.Inthemeantime,fromaround5000BC,earlymetalsmithsusedtrialanderror

tohonetheprocessoftheproductionofcopper.Themakingofcoppertoolsinitiatedaspectaculargrowthinhumantechnology,beinginstrumentalinthebirthofothertechnologies,cities,andthefirstgreatcivilizations.ThepyramidsofEgyptareanexampleofwhatbecamepossibleoncetherewereplentifulcoppertools.Eachblockofstoneineachpyramidwasextractedfromamineandindividuallyhand-carvedusingcopperchisels.ItisestimatedthattenthousandtonsofcopperorewereminedthroughoutancientEgypttocreatethethreehundredthousandchiselsneeded.Itwasanenormousachievement,withoutwhichthepyramidscouldnothavebeenbuilt,howevermanyslaves

wereused,sinceitisnotpracticaltocarverockwithoutmetaltools.Itisallthemoreimpressivegiventhatcopperisnottheidealmaterialforcuttingrocksinceitisnotveryhard.Sculptingapieceoflimestonewithacopperchiselquicklybluntsthechisel.Itisestimatedthatthecopperchiselswouldhaveneededtobesharpenedeveryfewhammerblowsinorderforthemtobeuseful.Copperisnotidealforrazorbladesforthesamereason.Goldisanotherrelativelysoftmetal,somuchsothatringsareveryrarely

madefrompuregoldmetalbecausetheyquicklyscratch.Butifyoualloygold,byaddingasmallpercentageofothermetalssuchassilverorcopper,younotonlychangethecolorofthegold—silvermakingthegoldwhiter,andcoppermakingthegoldredder—youmakethegoldharder,muchharder.Thischangingofthepropertiesofmetalsbyverysmalladditionsofotheringredientsiswhatmakesthestudyofmetalssofascinating.Inthecaseofgoldalloys,youmightwonderwherethesilveratomsgo.Theansweristhattheysitinsidethegoldcrystalstructure,takingtheplaceofagoldatom,anditisthisatomsubstitutioninsidethecrystallatticeofthegoldthatmakesitstronger.Alloystendtobestrongerthanpuremetalsforoneverysimplereason:the

alloyatomshaveadifferentsizeandchemistryfromthehostmetal’satoms,sowhentheysitinsidethehostcrystaltheycauseallsortsofmechanicalandelectricaldisturbancesthatadduptoonecrucialthing:theymakeitmoredifficultfordislocationstomove.Andifdislocationsfinditdifficulttomove,thenthemetalisstronger,sinceit’sharderforthemetalcrystalstochangeshape.Alloydesignisthustheartofpreventingthemovementofdislocations.Theseatomsubstitutionshappennaturallyinsideothercrystalstoo.Acrystal

ofaluminumoxideiscolorlessifpurebutbecomesbluewhenitcontainsimpuritiesofironatoms:itisthegemstonecalledsapphire.Exactlythesamealuminumoxidecrystalcontainingimpuritiesofchromiumisthegemcalledruby.Theagesofcivilization,fromtheCopperAgetotheBronzeAgetotheIron

Age,representasuccessionofstrongerandstrongeralloys.Copperisaweakmetal,butnaturallyoccurringandeasytosmelt.Bronzeisanalloyofcopper,containingsmallamountsoftinorsometimesarsenic,andismuchstrongerthancopper.So,ifyouhadcopperandyouknewwhatyouweredoing,forverylittleextraeffortyoucouldcreateweaponsandrazorstentimesstrongerandharderthancopper.Theonlyproblemisthattinandarsenicareextremelyrare.ElaboratetraderoutesevolvedintheBronzeAgetobringtinfromplacessuchasCornwallandAfghanistantothecentersofcivilizationintheMiddleEastforpreciselythisreason.

Goldalloyedwithsilverattheatomicscale,showinghowthesilveratomsreplacesomeofthegoldatomsinthecrystal.

Modernrazorsarealsomadefromanalloybut,asIexplainedtoBrian,itisa

veryspecialsortofalloy,theexistenceofwhichpuzzledourancestorsforthousandsofyears.Steel,thealloyofironandcarbon,isevenstrongerthanbronze,withingredientsthataremuchmoreplentiful:prettymucheverybitofrockhassomeironinit,andcarbonispresentinthefuelofanyfire.Ourancestorsdidn’trealizethatsteelwasanalloy—thatcarbon,intheformofcharcoal,wasnotjustafueltobeusedforheatingandreshapingironbutcouldalsogetinsidetheironcrystalsintheprocess.Carbondoesn’tdothistocopperduringsmelting,nortotinorbronze,butitdoestoiron.Itmusthavebeenincrediblymysterious—andonlynowwithaknowledgeofquantummechanicscanwetrulyexplainwhyithappens(thecarboninsteeldoesn’ttaketheplaceofanironatominthecrystal,butisabletosqueezeinbetweentheironatoms,creatingastretchedcrystal).Thereisanotherproblem,too.Ifironbecomesalloyedwithtoomuchcarbon

—if,forinstance,itcontains4percentcarboninsteadof1percentcarbon—thenitbecomesextremelybrittleandessentiallyuselessfortoolsandweapons.Thisisamajorobstaclebecauseinsideafirethereisratheralotofcarbonaround.Leavetheironintoolong,orallowittobecomeliquidinthefire,andahugeamountofcarbonentersthemetalcrystals,makingthealloyverybrittle.Swordsmadefromthishigh-carbonsteelsnapinbattle.Untilthetwentiethcentury,whenthealloyingprocesswasfirstfully

explained,nooneunderstoodwhysomesteelmakingprocessesworkedand

othersdidn’t.Theywereestablishedbytrialanderror,andthosethatweresuccessfulwerehandeddowntothenextgenerationandwereoftentradesecrets.Buteveniftheywerestolen,theyweresocomplicatedthatthechancesofsuccessfullyreproducingsomeoneelse’ssteelmakingprocesswereverylow.Certainmetallurgicaltraditionsincertainculturesbecameknownformakingextremelyhigh-qualitysteel,andsuchcivilizationsthrived.In1961ProfessorRichmondfromOxfordUniversitydiscoveredapitthat

hadbeendugbytheRomansinAD89.Itcontained763,840smalltwo-inchnails,85,128mediumnails,25,088largenails,and1,344extra-largesixteen-inchnails.Thehoardwasofironandsteelandnotgold,whichmostpeoplewouldhavefoundbitterlydisappointing.ButnotProfessorRichmond.Why,heaskedhimself,wouldaRomanlegionburyseventonsofironandsteel?ThelegionhadbeenoccupyingtheadvanceheadquartersofAgricolaina

placecalledInchtuthilinScotland.ThiswasattheouterreachesoftheRomanEmpire,andtheirmissionwastoprotectitsborderfromwhattheysawasthesavagetribeswhothreatenedit:theCelts.Thelegionoffivethousandmenoccupiedtheregionforsixyearsbeforeretreatingand,intheprocess,abandoningtheirfort.Theymadegreateffortstoleavebehindnothingthatcouldhelptheirenemies.Theysmashedallfoodanddrinkcontainersandburnedtheforttotheground.Buttheyweren’tsatisfiedwiththis.Intheasheswerethesteelnailsthathadheldtheforttogether,andtheywerefartoovaluabletobelefttothetribesthathaddriventhemout.IronandsteelwerethematerialsthatenabledtheRomanstobuildaqueducts,ships,andswords;theyallowedthemtoengineeranempire.Leavingthenailstotheirenemieswouldhavebeenasusefulasleavingacacheofweapons,sotheyburiedtheminapitbeforemarchingsouth.Aswellastheirweaponsandarmor,amongthefew,smallersteelobjectsthattheyprobablydidtakewiththemwerenovacili,anobjectthatepitomizedtheircivilizedapproachtolife:theRomanrazorblade.Thesenovacili,andthebarberswhowieldedthem,allowedtheRomanstoretreatclean-shaven,groomedinordertodistinguishthemselvesfromthesavagehordesthathaddriventhemout.Themystiquethatsurroundedsteelmakingengenderedvariousmyths,and

theunificationandrestorationofordertoBritaininthewakeoftheRomanretreatwassymbolizedbyoneofthemostenduringofthese:Excalibur,thelegendaryswordofKingArthur,sometimesattributedwithmagicalpowersandassociatedwiththerightfulsovereigntyofBritain.Atatimewhenswordsregularlysnappedinbattle,leavingaknightdefenseless,itiseasytoseewhyahigh-qualitysteelswordwieldedbyastrongwarriorcametorepresenttheruleofcivilizationoverchaos.Thefactthattheprocessofmakingsteelwas,

necessarily,highlyritualizedalsohelpstoexplainwhythismaterialcametobeassociatedwithmagic.ThiswasnowheremoretruethaninJapan,wheretheforgingofasamurai

bladetookweeksandwaspartofareligiousceremony.TheAma-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi(“SwordoftheGatheringCloudsofHeaven”)isalegendaryJapaneseswordwhichallowedthegreatwarriorYamatoTakerutocontrolthewindanddefeatallhisenemies.Despitethefantasticstoriesandrituals,theideathatsomeswordscouldbemadetentimesstrongerandsharperthanotherswordswasnotjustamyth,butareality.BythefifteenthcenturyADtheswordsteelmadebythesamuraiofJapanwasthebesttheworldhadeverseenandremainedpreeminentforfivehundredyearsuntiltheadventofmetallurgyasascienceinthetwentiethcentury.Thesesamuraiswordsweremadefromaspecialtypeofsteelcalled

tamahagane,whichtranslatesas“jewelsteel,”madefromthevolcanicblacksandofthePacific(thisconsistsmostlyofanironorecalledmagnetite,theoriginalmaterialfortheneedleofcompasses).Thissteelismadeinahugeclayvesselfourfeettall,fourfeetwide,andtwelvefeetlongcalledatatara.Thevesselis“fired”—hardenedfrommoldedclayintoaceramic—bylightingafireinsideit.Oncefired,itispackedmeticulouslywithlayersofblacksandandblackcharcoal,whichareconsumedintheceramicfurnace.Theprocesstakesaboutaweekandrequiresconstantattentionfromateamoffourorfivepeople,whomakesurethatthetemperatureofthefireiskepthighenoughbypumpingairintothetatarausingamanualbellows.Attheendthetataraisbrokenopenandthetamahaganesteelisdugoutoftheashandremnantsofsandandcharcoal.Theselumpsofdiscoloredsteelareveryunprepossessing,buttheyhaveawholerangeofcarboncontent,someofitverylowandsomeofithigh.Thesamuraiinnovationwastobeabletodistinguishhigh-carbonsteel,

whichishardbutbrittle,fromlow-carbonsteel,whichistoughbutrelativelysoft.Theydidthispurelybyhowitlooked,howitfeltintheirhands,andhowitsoundedwhenstruck.Byseparatingthedifferenttypesofsteel,theycouldmakesurethatthelow-carbonsteelwasusedtomakethecenterofthesword.Thisgavetheswordanenormoustoughness,almostachewiness,meaningthatthebladeswereunlikelytosnapincombat.Ontheedgeofthebladestheyweldedthehigh-carbonsteel,whichwasbrittlebutextremelyhardandcouldthereforebemadeverysharp.Byusingthesharphigh-carbonsteelasawrapperontopofthetoughlow-carbonsteeltheyachievedwhatmanythoughtimpossible:aswordthatcouldsurviveimpactwithotherswordsandarmorwhileremainingsharpenoughtosliceaman’sheadoff.Thebestofbothworlds.

NoonecouldcreatestrongerandhardersteelthanthesamuraiuntiltheIndustrialRevolution.WhenatthistimeEuropeancountriesfirststartedtobuildstructuresonalarger,moreambitiousscale—suchasrailways,bridges,andships—theyusedcastiron,becauseitcouldbemadeinlargequantitiesandpouredintomolds.Unfortunatelyitwasextremelypronetofractureundercertainconditions.Asengineeringbecamemoreambitious,thoseconditionscameaboutmoreoften.OneoftheworstaccidentsoccurredinScotland.OnthenightofDecember

28,1879,theworld’slongestbridge,thecast-ironTayRailBridge,collapsedduringapowerfulwintergale.Atraincarryingseventy-fivepassengersplungedintotheRiverTay,killingallofthem.Thedisasterconfirmedwhatmanysuspected,thatironjustwasn’tuptothejob.Whatwasneededwastheabilitynotjusttomakesteelasstrongassamuraiswordsbuttomass-produceit.OnedayaSheffield-basedengineernamedHenryBessemerstoodupata

meetingoftheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceandannouncedhehaddoneit.Hisprocessdidn’trequiretheelaborateproceduresofthesamurai.Hecouldcreatetonsofliquidsteel.Itwasarevolutioninthemaking.TheBessemerprocesswasingeniouslysimple.Itinvolvedblowingair

throughthemolteniron,sothattheoxygenintheairwouldreactwiththecarbonintheironandremoveitascarbondioxidegas.Itrequiredaknowledgeofchemistrythatforthefirsttimeputsteelmakingonascientificfooting.Moreover,thereactionbetweentheoxygenandthecarbonwasextremelyviolentandgaveoffalotofheat.Thisheatraisedthetemperatureofthesteel,keepingithotandliquid.Theprocesswasstraightforwardandcouldbeusedonanindustrialscale;itwastheanswer.TheonlyproblemwiththeBessemerprocesswasthatitdidn’twork.Orat

leastthatwaswhateveryonewhotrieditsaid.Soon,angrysteelmakers,whohadboughtthelicensefromBessemerandinvestedlargesumsofmoneyinequipmentonlytoproducebrittleiron,startedaskingfortheirmoneyback.Hehadnoanswersforthem.Hedidn’treallyunderstandwhytheprocesswassuccessfulsometimesandunsuccessfulatothers,buthecontinuedtoworkonhistechnology,andwiththehelpoftheBritishmetallurgistRobertForesterMushetheadaptedhistechnique.Ratherthantryingtoremovethecarbonuntiljusttherightamountwasleft,about1percent,Mushetsuggestedremovingallthecarbonandthenadding1percentcarbonbackin.Thisworkedandwasrepeatable.Ofcourse,whenBessemertriedtointeresttheworldinthisnewprocess,the

othersteelmakersignoredhim,assumingthatitwasyetanotherswindle.Theyinsistedthatitwasimpossibletocreatesteelfromliquidiron,andthatBessemerwasaconartist.Intheendhesawnooptionbuttosetuphisownsteelworksandjuststartmakingthestuffhimself.AfterafewyearsthefirmofHenryBessemer&Co.wasmanufacturingsteelsomuchmorecheaplyandinsuchlargerquantitiesthanhisrivalfirmsthattheywereeventuallyforcedtolicensehisprocess,intheendmakinghimextremelyrichandusheringinthemachineage.CouldBrianbeanotherBessemer?Couldhehavestumbledacrossaprocess

forreorganizingthemetalcrystalstructureatthetipofarazorbladethroughtheactionofelectricormagneticfields,aprocesshedidn’tunderstandbutthatworkednevertheless?Therearemanystoriesofthosewhohavelaughedatvisionariesonlytobeembarrassedbytheirsubsequentsuccess.Manylaughedattheideathatheavier-than-airflyingmachineswerepossible,andyetweallflyaroundinthem.Likewise,television,mobilephones,computers—allhaveemergedfromacloudofderision.Untilthetwentiethcentury,steelrazorsandsurgicalkniveswereextremely

expensive.Theyhadtobehand-madefromthehighest-gradesteelsinceonlythistypeofsteelcouldbesharpenedsufficientlytocutfacialhaircleanlyandeffortlessly,withoutsnagging.(Anyonewhohasusedabluntrazorwillknowalltoowellhowacutelypainfuleventheslightestsnagcanbe.)Andbecausesteelcorrodesinthepresenceofairandwater,cleaningthebladesbluntsthemtoo,asthefinecuttingedgeliterallyrustsaway.Thusforthousandsofyearstheritualofshavingbeganwiththeprocessofstropping:theactofsharpeningthebladebyplayingitbackandforthalongalengthofleather.Youmightthinkitnotcrediblethatamaterialassoftasleathercansharpensteel,andyouwouldberight.Itisthefineceramicpowderthatisimpregnatedintheleatherstropthatdoesthesharpening.Traditionallyamineralcalledjewelers’rougewasused,butthesedaysdiamondpowderismorecommon.Theactofrunningthesteelalongthestrop,inaflip-flopmanner,causesthebladetomeetthehardparticlesofdiamondthatareinthepowder,whichremoveverysmallamountsofmetalinthecollision,restoringthedelicatelyfinecuttingedge.Butthischangedwhen,in1903,anAmericanbusinessmancalledKing

CampGillettedecidedtousethenewcheapindustrialsteelproducedbytheBessemerprocesstocreateadisposablerazor.Thiswastobethedemocratizationofshaving.Hisvisionwastoeliminatetheneedtosharpenthebladebymakingitsocheapthatwhenitbecamebluntyoucouldsimplythrowitaway.In1903Gillettesold51razorsand168blades.Thefollowingyear,hesold90,884razorsand123,648blades.By1915,thecorporationhad

establishedmanufacturingfacilitiesintheUnitedStates,Canada,England,France,andGermany,andrazorbladesalesexceededseventymillion.Thedisposablesteelrazorbecameapermanentfixtureofeverybathroom,andpeoplestoppedneedingtogotothebarber’sforashave.Andithasremainedso:whilethereareanynumberofback-to-basicsmovementsinfoodproduction,noonewantstohavetheirhaircutwithacopperknifeortheirfaceshavedwithabluntrazor.Gillette’sbusinessmodelwascleverformanyreasons,oneofwhichwas

undoubtedlythateveniftherazorswerenotbluntedthroughtheactofshavingtheywouldlosetheiredgequicklythroughrusting,assuringrepeatbusiness.Buttherewasonefurthertwisttothetale,aninnovationsooutrageouslysimplethatithadtobediscoveredbyaccident.In1913,astheEuropeanpowerswerebusilyarmingthemselvesfortheFirst

WorldWar,HarryBrearleyhadthejobofinvestigatingmetalalloysinordertocreateimprovedgunbarrels.HewasworkinginoneofSheffield,England’smetallurgylabs,addingdifferentalloyingelementstosteel,castingspecimens,andthenmechanicallytestingthemforhardness.Brearleyknewthatsteelwasanalloyofironandcarbon,andhealsoknewthatlotsofotherelementscouldbeaddedtosteeltoimproveordestroyitsproperties.Nooneatthetimeknewwhy,soheproceededbytrialanderror,meltingsteelsandaddingdifferentingredientsinordertodiscovertheireffects.Onedayitwasaluminum,thenextitwasnickel.Brearleymadenoprogress.Ifanewspecimenturnedoutnottobehard,he

chuckeditinthecorner.Hismomentofgeniuscamewhenafteramonthhewalkedthroughthelabandsawabrightglimmerinthepileofrustingspecimens.Ratherthanignoringitandgoingtothepub,hefishedoutthisonespecimenthathadnotrustedandrealizeditssignificance:hewasholdingthefirstpieceofstainlesssteeltheworldhadeverknown.Accidentally,bygettingtheratiosoftwoalloyingredientsright,carbonand

chromium,hehadmanagedtocreateaveryspecialcrystalstructureinwhichthechromiumandcarbonatomswerebothinsertedinsidetheironcrystals.Theadditionofchromiumhadnotmadethesteelharder,hencehehadrejectedthesample,butithaddonesomethingmuchmoreinteresting.Normallywhensteelisexposedtoairandwater,theirononthesurfacereactstoformiron(III)oxide,aredmineralcommonlyknownasrust.Whenthisrustflakesoff,itexposesanotherlayerofthesteeltofurthercorrosion,whichiswhatmakesrustingsuchachronicproblemforsteelstructures,hencetheneedtopaintsteelbridgesandcars.Butwithchromiumpresentsomethingdifferenthappens.Likesomehugelypoliteguest,itreactswiththeoxygenbeforethehostironatoms

candoso,creatingchromiumoxide.Chromiumoxideisatransparent,hardmineralthatsticksextremelywelltosteel.Inotherwords,itdoesn’tflakeoffandyoudon’tknowitisthere.Insteaditcreatesaninvisible,chemicallyprotectivelayeroverthewholesurfaceofthesteel.What’smore,wenowknowthattheprotectivelayerisself-healing;whenyouscratchstainlesssteel,eventhoughyoubreaktheprotectivebarrier,itre-forms.Brearleywentontotrytomaketheworld’sfirststainlesssteelknives,but

immediatelyranintoproblems.Theresultingmetalwasnothardenoughtomakeasharpedge,andtheyweresoondubbed“knivesthatwouldnotcut.”Thislackofhardnesswas,afterall,theveryreasonthatBrearleyhadrejectedthealloyforuseingunbarrels.Itslackofhardnessallowedthealloytodootherthings,though,whichonlybecameapparentlaterinthecentury—namely,itcouldbeformedintocomplexshapes,leadingeventuallytooneofthemostinfluentialpiecesofsculpture,presentinalmosteveryhouse:thekitchensink.Stainlesssteelsinksareindomitableandgleamingandseemabletotake

anythingthatisthrownatthem.Inaworldwherewearekeentodisposeofwasteinstantlyandconveniently—fromfat,tobleach,toacid—thismaterialhasreallycomethroughforus.Ithasoustedceramicsinksfromthekitchen,andwouldousttheceramicbowlfromthebathroomifwewouldletit,butwedonotyettrustthisnewmetalquiteenoughforthatmostintimateofwastedisposaljobs.Stainlesssteelistheveryepitomeofourmodernage.Itisclean-lookingand

shiny,appearsalmostindestructible,butisultimatelydemocratic:inlessthanahundredyearsithasbecomethemetalwithwhichwearethemostcloselyacquainted;afterall,weputitinourmouthsalmosteveryday.For,intheend,Brearleydidmanagetocreatecutleryfromstainlesssteel,andit’sthetransparentprotectivelayerofchromiumoxidethatmakesthespoontasteless,sinceyourtongueneveractuallytouchesthemetalandyoursalivacannotreactwithit;ithasmeantthatweareoneofthefirstgenerationswhohavenothadtotasteourcutlery.Itisoftenusedinarchitectureandartpreciselybecauseitsbrightsurfaceappearsuncorrodable.AnishKapoor’sCloudGatesculptureinChicagoisagoodexample.Itreflectsbacktousourfeelingofmodernity,ofbeingclinical,andofhavingconqueredgrime,andthedirtandmessinessoflife.Ofbeingindomitableourselves.Bysolvingtheproblemofmakingstainlesssteelshardenoughforcutlery,

metallurgistsalsounwittinglysolvedtheproblemofrazorsrusting,thuscreatingthefinestcuttingbladetheworldhaseverknown,andintheprocessalteringtheappearanceofsomanyfacesandbodies.Inadvertently,thisdomesticationofshavinghasalsocreatedaweaponofchoiceforstreetcrime:

razorsthatarebothdurableandcheap,butmorethanthat,ultra-sharp—abletoslicethroughseverallayersofleather,wool,cotton,andskin,asIknewalltoowell.

IweighedallthisupasBrianandItalkedabouthisnewprocessforsharpeningstainlesssteelrazorblades.Asstainlesssteel,ahard,tough,sharpsteelimpervioustowaterandair,hasbeencreatedmostlythroughtrialanderroroverthelastfewthousandyears,itdidn’tseemutterlyimpossiblethatsomeone,evenwithoutscientifictraining,mightyetstumbleacrossaprocessforresharpeningarazorblade.Themicroscopicworldofmaterialsissocomplexandhugethatonlyafractionofithasbeenexplored.Attheendoftheevening,aswebothleftthepub,Brianshookmyhandand

toldmehewouldbeintouch.AshestaggeredoffdowntheDublinroadbathedintheyellowlightofthesodiumstreetlamps,heturnedandshouteddrunkenly:“Hailtothegodofsteel!”IassumedhemeantHephaistos,theGreekgodofmetals,fire,andvolcanoes,whoseclassicalimageisthatofasmithataforge.Physicallyhandicapped,heismisshapen,sufferingprobablyfromarsenicosis,aninflictioncommontosmithsofthetime,whowereexposedtohighlevelsofarsenicpoisoningduringthesmeltingofbronze,whichresultedinlamenessandskincancers.IlookedbackatBrianashestaggereddowntheroad—withhiswalkingstickandhisredface—and,notforthefirsttimethatevening,wonderedwhohereallywas.