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SOILpak - dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Readers’ Note This document is part of a larger publication. The remaining parts and full version of the publication can be found at:

http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/soils/guides/soilpak/central-west Updated versions of this document can also be found at the above web address. This document is subject to the disclaimers and copyright of the full version from which it is extracted. These disclaimers and copyright statements are available in the appropriate document at the above web address.

AAPPPPEENNDDIIXXEESS

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CCOONNTTRRIIBBUUTTOORRSS

Contributor Chapter

Alison Bowman B9, B11

NSW Agriculture, Trangie

Broughton Boydell B12

Australian Centre for Precision Agriculture

The University of Sydney

Katharine Brown E1

ACLEP, CSIRO

Canberra

Stephen Cattle B3, C4, C9,

Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science E1, E4, E5,

The University of Sydney E8

N. Collis-George A1, A2, A3,

Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science B13, C3, C4

Jack Cooper B9, E7

NSW Agriculture

Trangie

Stuart Crawford B14

‘Quandong’, Narromine

Karen Elton B3, E6

NSW Agriculture

Orange; and

Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science


Jeff Esdaile B4, D3


Livingston Farm, Moree

Neil Fettell A3, B3, D8

NSW Agriculture

Condobolin

Damien Field C4



Bob Freebairn A3

NSW Agriculture

Coonabarabran

David Freebairn C9, D1, D2

Queensland Department of Primary Industries

Toowoomba

Guy Geeves C4, E3

Department of Land & Water Conservation

Cowra

Neville Gould D7

NSW Agriculture

Trangie

John and Julie Greig B14

‘Tilga’, Condobolin

Peter Hairsine D2

CSIRO Land & Water

Canberra

Appendix 1. Sources of information

App. 1-3SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW

Peter Hayman C9, D1

NSW Agriculture

Tamworth

Justin Hughes C4


Cowra

Pat Hulme C4

Sustainable Soils Management

Warren

Peter Kelly D7, B11

NSW Agriculture

Trangie

Mac Kirby E2

CSIRO Land & Water

Canberra

Paul Lukins A3, B9, E1

NSW Agriculture

Condobolin

Alex McBratney B12



Scott McCalman B14

‘Jedburgh’, Warren

Alan McGufficke A3, B9


Condobolin

Neil McKenzie C4

CSIRO Land & Water

Canberra

Ken Motley A3, B9

NSW Agriculture

Forbes

Brian Murphy A3, B2, B4,

Department of Land & Water Conservation C4, D3, D7,

Cowra E1, E4

Ian Packer A3, B2, B4,

Department of Land & Water Conservation C4, D3, D7,

Cowra E4

Alan Palmer B5, D7

NSW Agriculture

Trangie

Dean Patton B14, E9

NSW Agriculture

Trangie

Andrew Rice A3, B9

NSW Agriculture

Forbes

Elizabeth Roesner C4

NSW Agriculture

Condobolin; and



Paco Sanchez-Bayo B13


University of Sydney



Pip Schiffmann B10

Hi-Fert

Trangie

Tim Schiffmann B5, B6, B11,

NSW Agriculture D7

Trangie

Geoff Sharp C3

Queensland Department of Natural Resources

Indooroopilly

Jan Skjemstad C4

CSIRO Land & Water

Adelaide

Bob Thompson A3

NSW Agriculture

West Wyalong

John Triantafilis C7

CRC for Sustainable Cotton Production

Narrabri

Brett Whelan B12



Anthony Whitbread C4

Agronomy and Soil Science

University of New England

Keith Woodlands A3, B4

NSW Agriculture

Parkes

Bob Wynne A3, B9


Condobolin

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS

The main sources of information for this SOILpak manual were

SOILpak for cotton growers, third edition; Cotton SOILpakb and

Northern wheat-belt SOILpak. The editors of this SOILpak manual

would like to acknowledge the editors of, and all contributors to, these

preceding SOILpak manuals published by NSW Agriculture.

OOtthheerr rreeffeerreenncceess::

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technology for the semi-arid croplands’, National Landcare Program

Final Report, DD0425.93, April 1994 – June 1997.

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Blackwell, J. and Beatty, H.J. 1991, ‘Subsoil macropore space of a

transitional red-brown earth after either deep tillage, gypsum or both.

II. Chemical effects and long-term changes’ Australian Journal of SoilResearch, 29, 141–154.

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seedbed: a review. II. Effect of aggregate size on plant growth’, Soil &Tillage Research 14, 281-298.

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properties of a cultivated and never-cultivated red-brown earth, fourth

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fallow-period rainfall capture in dryland cropping districts’, ASSSI andNZSSS National Soils Conference July 1996—Oral papers. pp. 33–34.

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soil under pasture and conventional tillage in the semi-arid region of

Australia’, Soil & Tillage Research 34, 105–113.

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aggregation under six different crops’. Australian Journal ofExperimental Agriculture 31, 683–686.

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91–100.

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Agriculture and the Soil Conservation Service.



Geeves, G., Chartres, C., Coventry, D., Slattery, W., Ridley, A.,

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C.J., Little, I.P. and Bowman, G.M. 1995, The physical, chemical andmorphological properties of soils in the wheat-belt of southern NSWand northern Victoria, NSW Department of Conservation & Land

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Soil Conservation Service of NSW), Sydney.

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of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA.

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Technical Monograph No. 5, Silsoe, UK.

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Australian soils’, in Sealing, crusting and hardsetting soils:productivity and conservation (H.B. So, G.D. Smith, S.R. Raine, B.M.

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1993–June 1996.

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AAppppeennddiixx 22.. FFuurrtthheerr rreeaaddiinngg

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Young, I.M. 1990, ‘Hardsetting soils: behaviour, occurrence, and

management’, Advances in Soil Science 2, 37–108.

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(eds.) 1995, Sealing, crusting and hardsetting soils: productivity andconservation, Australian Society of Soil Science, Qld. Branch.

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of Queensland.

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Naidu, R., Sumner, M.E. and Rengasamy, P. 1995, Australian sodicsoils—distribution, properties and management, CSIRO, East

Melbourne.

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Appendix 2. Further reading


MMEEAASSUURREEMMEENNTT OOFF SSOOIILL PPHHYYSSIICCAALL CCOONNDDIITTIIOONN

ACLEP, 1997, ‘Field equipment for land resource survey’, AustralianCooperative Land Evaluation Program Newsletter, Volume 6(2).

Coughlan, K.J., McKenzie, N.J. and Cresswell, H.P. (eds.), 1998, ‘Soil

physical measurement and interpretation for land evaluation’,

Australian soil and land survey handbook series, Vol. 5., CSIRO Land

and Water, Canberra.

Hanks, R.J. and Ashcroft, G.L. 1980, Applied soil physics: soil waterand temperature applications, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

Klute, A. (ed.), 1986, Methods of soil analysis part 1. Physical andmineralogical methods (2nd ed.), ASA/SSSa, Madison, WI.

Smith, K.A. and Mullins, C.E. (eds.) 1998, Soil analysis—physicalmethods (2nd ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York.

DDRRYYLLAANNDD FFAARRMMIINNGG SSYYSSTTEEMMSS

Squires, V. and Tow, P. (eds.) 1991, Dryland farming—a systemsapproach, Sydney University Press, South Melbourne.

SSAALLIINNIITTYY

Chaffey, B. (ed.) 1992, Principles of sustainable agriculture 4.Dryland salinity, Department of Food and Agriculture, Victoria.

SSOOIILL MMOONNIITTOORRIINNGG

Forge, K. 1995, Soil check, Queensland Department of Primary

Industries.

Webster, R. and Oliver, M.A. 1990, Statistical methods in soil andland resource survey, Oxford University Press.

EENNVVIIRROONNMMEENNTTAALL IISSSSUUEESS

Campbell, A. 1994, Landcare, Allen and Unwin, St. Leonards.

Lamarca, C.C. 1996, Stubble over the soil—the vital role of plantresidue in soil management to improve soil quality, American Society

of Agronomy, Madison, WI.

Race, D. (ed.), 1993, Agroforestry: trees for productive farming,

Agmedia, East Melbourne.

Roberts, B. 1992, Land care manual, New South Wales University

Press.

PPRREECCIISSIIOONN AAGGRRIICCUULLTTUURREE

Kuhar, J.E. (ed.) 1997, The precision-farming guide for agriculturists,

John Deere Publishing, Moline, Illinois, USA.

Robert, P.C., Rust, R.H., and Larsen, W.E. 1996, Proceedings of theThird International Conference on Precision Agriculture, American

Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.

SSOOIILL FFOORRMMAATTIIOONN PPRROOCCEESSSSEESS AANNDD SSOOIILL CCLLAASSSSIIFFIICCAATTIIOONN

Isbell, R.F. 1996, The Australian soil classification, CSIRO

Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria.



Isbell, R.F., McDonald, W.S. and Ashton, L.J. 1997, Concepts andrationale of the Australian soil classification, ACLEP, CSIRO Land &

Water, Canberra.

Stace, H.C.T., Hubble, G.D., Brewer, R., Northcote, K.H., Sleeman,

J.R., Mulcahy, M.J. and Hallsworth, E.G. 1968, A handbook ofAustralian soils, Rellim Technical Publications, Glenside.

White, M.E. 1994, After the greening: the browning of Australia,

Kangaroo Press, Dural.

OOTTHHEERR

Glendinning, J. 1981, Fertilizer handbook, Australian Fertilizers

Limited, Sydney.

Oades, J.M., Lewis, D.G. and Norrish, K. (eds.) 1981, Red-brownearths of Australia, Waite Agricultural Institute, CSIRO.

Russell, J.S. and Greacen, E.L. (eds.) 1977, Soil factors in cropproduction in a semi-arid environment, University of Queensland

Press.

Turner, N.C., Perry, M.W., Gregory, P.J. and Belford, R.K. (eds.)

1992, Crop production problems on duplex soils, CSIRO, East

Melbourne.

Weir, R.G. and Cresswell, G.C. 1994, Plant nutrient disorders 4.Pastures and field crops, Inkata Press.

Yeomans, P.A. 1978, Water for every farm using the keyline plan,

Murray Books, Ultimo.

AAGGFFAACCTTSS FFRROOMM NNSSWW AAGGRRIICCUULLTTUURREE

AC.10 Improving soil structure with gypsum and lime

AC.14 Boron in agriculture

AC.15 Liming materials

AC.16 Zinc deficiency in field crops

AC.19 Soil acidity and liming

E4.17 Broadacre tillage implements

P1.E.1 Moisture seeking for sowing winter crops

P1.2.1 Cropping on raised beds in southern NSW

P3.M.8 Calculating costs of growing wheat

P3.2.2 Oats

P3.2.3 Barley growing

P5.2.1 Canola.



AAppppeennddiixx 33.. MMoorree ccaassee ssttuuddiieess aarree nneeeeddeedd

OOppttiioonnss iinn tthhiiss mmaannuuaall

‘Red SOILpak’ provides you with options for overcoming soil

related problems under dryland crops and pastures on red soil of

Central Western NSW.

However, it is the responsibility of farmers and their advisers to

actually select an option (or series of options) that is appropriate to

their operation.

RReeffiinniinngg tthhee sseelleecctteedd ooppttiioonn((ss))

Fine-tuning of a soil management program to maximise

profitability is likely to take several years.

Strip trials of the various options at different rates/settings will be

necessary.

Often this fine-tuning process will be of great value to subsequent

managers, and to other growers in the district. Therefore, it is

important to document these trial experiences.

RReeppoorrttiinngg tthhee rreessuullttss

Where soil management trials are established, aim to record more

than just crop yield and quality.

Record:

• all costs and benefits associated with the various options;

• the weather conditions under which the observations were made;

and

• changes in soil condition, e.g. severity of soil compaction under

the plant lines.

The trial report information can then be incorporated into the next

version of ‘SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central

Western NSW’.

An individual within each district should be nominated to collate

this information, and to ensure that the trials are carried out properly.

Appendix 3. More case studies needed



Appendix 4. Unit conversion

Table 2. Conversions between electrical conductivity units and approximations to salt concentration

To S m-1 dS m-1 mS m-1 mmS m-1 mS cm-1 mmS cm-1 TDI m.equivmg L-1 L-1

From multiply by

S m-1 1 10 103 106 10 104 2/3x104 100

dS m-1 0.1 1 100 105 1 103 2/3x103 10

mS m-1 10-3 0.01 1 103 0.01 10 20/3 0.1

mS m-1 10-6 10-5 10-3 1 10-5 0.01 2/3x10-2 10-4

mS cm-1 0.1 1 100 105 1 103 2/3x103 10

mS cm-1 10-4 10-3 0.1 100 10-3 1 2/3 0.01

TDI

mg L-1 1.5x10-4 1.5x10-3 1.5x10-1 1.5x102 1.5x10-3 1.5 1 1.5x10-2

m.equiv

L-1 0.01 0.1 10 104 0.1 100 2/3x102 1

Source: Shaw, 1985

Example: 1 mS m-1 = 10-5 dS m-1

AAppppeennddiixx 55.. GGlloossssaarryy


SSOOIILL MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT TTEERRMMIINNOOLLOOGGYY

A, A1, A2 horizon See soil profile.

acid soil Soil with a pH value less than 7.0.

adsorbed Held on a surface; in soil, cations are held on clay surfaces due to a difference in

charge between the cations and the surfaces (similar to the attraction of oppositely

charged ends of two magnets).

aerobic Soil conditions in which there is sufficient oxygen for plant roots and (generally)

soil organisms that carry out processes beneficial to plant nutrition and soil

structure.

aggregate A group of primary soil particles that cohere to each other more strongly than to

other surrounding particles. See ped.

air-filled porosity The fraction of the bulk volume of soil that is filled with air at the time of

measurement.

alkaline soil Soil with a pH value greater than 7.0.

allelopathy Production of a substance by one organism that inhibits the growth of one of more

other organisms.

alley farming Production of crops between regularly spaced, parallel strips where trees and/or

perennial shrubs and grasses are grown.

alluvial soil A soil developed from recently deposited alluvium, usually too young to show the

effects of soil forming processes. Any layers in the soil profile are successive

deposits rather than soil horizons.

alluvium Unconsolidated gravel, sand, silt and clay deposited by water flow; typical of

floodplains.

ameliorate To make or become better.

anaerobic Soil conditions in which there is a lack of oxygen, usually because water has

replaced soil air (the soil is waterlogged). Substances harmful to plants (e.g.

ethylene and hydrogen sulfide) may accumulate.

anion An ion with negative charge.

apedal Soil material without peds, i.e. structureless.

aquifer A water-bearing rock formation capable of yielding useful quantities of water to

bores or springs.

ASC See Australian Soil Classification.

ASWAT test A measure of soil dispersion in water (Aggregate Stability in WATer) that takes

between 2 and 4 hours to complete.

Australian soil classification The system by which we classify soil in Australia; replaces ‘Great Soil Groups’

(ASC) and ‘The Factual Key’.

available water capacity See plant available water capacity.

B horizon See soil profile.

bed A raised pair of ridges of soil (usually 2 m wide, furrow to furrow, and sometimes

flat on top) into which a row crop is planted.

biological drilling Using taprooted plants to penetrate through a hard layer of soil or into a hard

subsoil; when the plants die, the root channels are available for use by subsequent

crops.

biological fertility See fertility.

biological ripping Using plants to dry and crack the soil; cycles of swelling and shrinking improve

soil structure in cracking clays.

Appendix 5. Glossary


biopore A macropore created by biological activity in the soil, e.g. old root channels,

chambers created by earthworms and ants.

bleached A pale colour (for example, of an A2 horizon); see soil profile.

bolus A ball of moist soil which is kneaded to determine soil texture.

bulk density A measure of compactness; the more compact a soil is, the more solids in a given

volume; it is calculated as the weight of oven-dry soil divided by the field volume

of the sample; compacted soil has a high bulk density.

C horizon See soil profile.

Ca/Mg ratio Ratio of exchangeable calcium to exchangeable magnesium; a ratio of less than 2

aggravates dispersion problems.

calcareous A soil containing significant amounts of naturally occurring calcium carbonate

(lime—CaCO3), such as to fizz with dilute acid.

calcium A cation that promotes flocculation; an essential plant nutrient.

cation exchange capacity (CEC) See exchange capacity and exchangeable cations.

capillary rise The upward movement of water caused by the molecular attraction between soil

particles and water; capillary rise causes the wetting of soil above a watertable.

cation An ion with a positive charge.

CEC See cation exchange capacity.

chemical fertility See fertility.

chiselling Chisel ploughing (using tined implements); deep tillage at depths < 30 cm.

Chromosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification; a soil with a clear or abrupt textural

B horizon (duplex texture profile), and in which the major part of the upper 0.2 m

of the B2 horizon (or the major part of the entire B2 horizon if it is less than 0.2 m

thick) is not strongly acid and is not sodic.

clay Soil particles smaller than 0.002 mm (effective diameter). These particles are

involved in swelling and shrinking of soil. They hold water and exchangeable

cations; the term ‘clay’ also refers to soil with sufficient clay content (more than

35%) to exhibit clay behaviour.

clod A unit of soil modified by human activity. It often contains smaller clods; see

aggregate and ped.

coefficient of linear extensibility The percentage shrinkage in one dimension of a moulded soil between two water

(COLE) contents.

COLE See coefficient of linear extensibility.

colloid Material consisting of very finely divided particles that consequently have a large

surface area per unit volume and are therefore very reactive; clay and humus are

colloids.

compaction Compression of soil into a smaller volume so that bulk density is increased and air-

filled porosity is decreased. See smearing, remoulding and pulverisation.

conchoidal ‘Ball and socket’ morphology associated with severely compacted and remoulded

soil.

controlled traffic The confinement of traffic over a paddock to the same wheel tracks, the position of

which is fixed for several years.

conventional tillage Describes traditional systems where mechanical tillage is the sole method used for

seedbed preparation and weed control; normally involves 3 to 6 tillage operations.

See no-till and minimum tillage.

cracking clays Black, grey or brown (occasionally, but rarely, red) clay soil that is distinguished

by seasonal cracking and a lack of distinct horizons; see Vertosol.



crop water use The water used by a crop from sowing to harvest; it includes transpiration (through

the crop) and evaporation (directly from the soil) and is usually expressed as mm

of water.

crop water use efficiency See water use efficiency.

(CWUE)

crusting Occurs when the soil surface ‘melts’ together when wet, and then sets hard and

impermeable when dried. If a thin (up to 10 mm) surface layer is affected, and

cannot be readily separated from and lifted off the underlying soil, it is called

crusting; if thicker, (particularly when the whole topsoil is affected) it is called

hardsetting; see hardsetting and flaking.

CWUE See crop water use efficiency.

D horizon See soil profile.

deep banding Placement of fertiliser (often N-based) below the depth of

sowing.

deep tillage Any tillage deeper than that needed to produce loose soil for a seedbed, or deeper

than that needed to kill weeds. Its usual purpose is to loosen a compacted subsoil.

denitrification The processes by which soil microbes convert soil nitrate to nitrogen gas and

nitrous oxide gas which are unavailable to plants.

deposition Movement of particles to their present location by water and/or wind.

discharge The volume of water flowing in a stream or through an aquifer past a specific point

in a given period of time.

discharge area An area where underground water is discharged at the soil

surface.

discharge groundwater Water which leaves an aquifer by seepage into surface water bodies, by plant water

use or evaporation.

dispersion Disintegration of microaggregates into individual clay, silt and sand grains; it is the

opposite of flocculation.

dryland salinity Symptoms of salinity associated with dryland agriculture.

dry scald Erosion of topsoil, exposing subsoil which is inhospitable to plants because of high

clay content and sodicity; a dry scald is therefore bare; see saline scald, salineseep, scald.

duplex soil A soil which shows a sharp change in soil texture between the A and B horizons;

for example, a loam topsoil overlying a clay subsoil; red-brown earths are duplex;

see gradational soil, uniform soil.

EC1:5 The electrical conductivity of a 1:5 soil:water extract.

ECe The electrical conductivity of a saturated soil paste; this measure of electrical

conductivity is not dependent on soil texture.

electrical conductivity A measure of the conduction of electricity through water, or a suspension of soil in

water, or a water extract of soil; an indicator of the concentration of dissolved salts,

and hence salinity. Units are deciSiemens/metre (dS/m), numerically equal to the

old units milliSiemens/centimetre (mS/cm).

electrochemical stability index Soil electrical conductivity (dS/m) (1:5 soil:water extract) divided by exchangeable

(ESI) sodium percentage; it is a measure of soil stability in water.

electrolyte Salty solution.

EM instruments Electromagnetic induction devices which estimate soil salinity.

equilibrium (of groundwater) A condition in which the amount of recharge to an aquifer equals the amount of

natural discharge.

erosion The wearing away of the land surface by rain or wind, causing soil movement from

one point to another; see gully erosion, rill erosion and sheet erosion.



ESI See electrochemical stability index.

ESP See exchangeable sodium percentage.

evaporation The process by which water passes from the liquid to the vapour state and enters

the atmosphere.

evapotranspiration The sum of direct evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration.

exchange capacity The ability of the clay and humus in the soil to hold ions on charged surfaces.

Negatively charged surfaces (cation exchange sites) hold cations; positively

charged surfaces (anion exchange sites) hold anions. For cations, the capacity is

expressed as centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil (cmol (+) kg-1). For

anions, the capacity is expressed as centimoles of negative charge per kilogram of

soil (cmol (-) kg-1). Both are numerically equal to milliequivalents per 100 g of soil

(me/100g); see ion.

exchangeable cations Positively charged ions held loosely on negatively charged soil particles, and easily

exchanged with other ions in the soil solution. This mechanism reduces the

leaching of some plant-available nutrients.

exchangeable sodium The number of exchangeable sodium ions as a percentage of all exchangeable

percentage (ESP) cations held by a soil. High exchangeable sodium percentage promotes dispersion;

the critical ESP value above which dispersion occurs ranges from 2 to 15,

depending on the amount of electrolyte in soil solution.

fallow efficiency The percentage of rainfall received during the fallow that is stored in the soil. Soil

management can alter fallow efficiency.

fertility The capacity of a soil to support plant growth. It has three components—chemical,

biological and physical fertility. Chemical fertility is the ability of a soil to supply

suitable quantities and balance of nutrients to plants. Biological fertility refers to

the number and diversity of soil organisms, and their activity in the soil. Physical

fertility is the ability of a soil to supply plants with water and oxygen, to protect

their roots from temperature stress, and to allow unrestricted root penetration and

shoot emergence; it depends largely upon soil texture and structure.

field capacity The content of water, on a mass or volume basis, remaining in a soil after free

drainage is negligible (corresponds to a soil water potential of –33 kPa).

flaking Structural condition of topsoil in which the surface layer, usually less than 10 mm

thick, is hard and brittle when dry and can be easily separated from and lifted off

the underlying soil; see, crusting.

flocculation Clustering of clay particles into microaggregates; the opposite of dispersion.

fractured rocks Rocks in which spaces are created by fractures, joints and partings. These provide

groundwater storage and flowpaths.

friability The ease with which a soil sample can be crumbled.

geographic information system A method (usually computer-based) of overlaying and comparing large volumes of

(GIS) geographic data of different kinds.

gilgai A natural surface feature of humps and depressions found in some clay soil types.

GIS See geographic information system.

global positioning system (GPS) A network of satellites controlled by the US Department of Defence which is

designed to determine a radio receiver’s position in latitude, longitude and altitude.

Differential GPS (DGPS) improves accuracy of the information via the use of a

local base station.

GPS See global positioning system.

gradational soil A soil profile with a slight and gradual increase in clay content with depth. Red

earths are gradational. See duplex soil, uniform soil.

gravimetric water content The water content of the soil on a per weight basis. Grams of water per gram of

soil; also known as wetness.



gully erosion Channels formed by water that cannot be ameliorated using ordinary farm

machinery; typically range from 0.5 m deep to as much as 25 to 30 m deep; see

erosion, rill erosion and sheet erosion.

gypsum Calcium sulfate (CaSO4.2H2O), used to reduce swelling and dispersion in sodic

soil; a naturally mined substance, and a by-product of fertiliser manufacture.

hardsetting Occurs when a layer of soil, not necessarily at the surface, ‘melts’ together when

wet, and then sets hard and impermeable when dried. Hardset layers are generally

thicker than a crust, and often contain a disconnected series of small air-filled pores

that resemble honeycomb. Hardsetting often occurs in soil with insufficient

swelling clay and organic matter; see crusting.

horizon A layer of soil in the soil profile different from layers above or below; and

recognisable by a different colour, texture and/or structure. Horizons are formed by

soil forming processes, as distinct from strata due to successive deposition or

modification caused by the passage of farming machinery; see alluvium, soilprofile.

humus Stable, large organic molecules produced by the decomposition of once-living

material.

hydraulic conductivity The rate of flow of water per unit gradient of hydraulic potential.

illite A type of clay mineral with a 2:1 layer structure.

impermeable Transmits no water or air.

infiltration Movement of water into a soil.

ion Atomic or molecular particle carrying an electrical charge.

Kandosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil which has a well-developed

B2 horizon in which the major part is massive or has only a weak grade of

structure; and has a maximum clay content in some part of the B2 horizon which

exceeds 15%.

kaolinite Variable-charged clay mineral with a 1:1 layer structure.

Kurosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil with a clear or abrupt

textural B horizon (duplex texture profile), and in which the major part of the upper

0.2 m of the B2 horizon (or the major part of the entire B2 horizon if it less than

0.2 m thick) is strongly acid.

leaching Downward movement of dissolved materials.

levee Recently deposited alluvium beside a river; a levee is higher than the surrounding

plains.

lime Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), occurring in rocks as limestone or chalk, and in some

soil as fine particles or small nodules. Finely-ground limestone (aglime) is used to

raise soil pH. Other forms of lime are hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) and burnt

lime (quicklime, calcium oxide).

lower plastic limit (LPL) Old name for the plastic limit.

macropore Large (greater than 0.03 mm diameter) soil pore that is drained and aerated at field

capacity; it may be a biopore or an old crack line; mainly responsible for

transmitting water and allowing exchange of gases in the soil; indicative of good

structure for plant growth; see mesopore, micropore and pore.

magnesium A cation that promotes dispersion, but less so than sodium. An essential plant

nutrient.

massive A coherent or solid mass of soil, largely devoid of natural lines of weakness.

meander plain An alluvial area built up by sediment from a slow moving and winding river.

mesopore Soil pore with a diameter 0.2 to 0.0 mm able to store plant available water

(1000 mm = 1 mm); see macropore, micropore and pore.

microaggregates Units of soil (smaller than 0.25 mm) that contain particles ranging in size from clay

(smallest) through silt to fine sand.



micropore Soil pore with a diameter less than 0.2 mm; mainly responsible for the storage of

unavailable water in the soil; see macropore, mesopore and pore.

mineralisation The processes by which soil microbes convert organic nitrogen to ammonium; see

nitrification.

minimum tillage Or ‘reduced tillage’ describes farming practices which reduce the number of tillage

operations compared with conventional tillage. Weeds in the fallow are controlled

by herbicides, grazing and some tillage. See no-till and conventional tillage.

moisture potential See soil water potential.

moisture seeking Refers to planting implements that penetrate dry soil and place seed where there is

sufficient moisture for germination.

mole drain A tubular drain formed beneath the soil surface by pulling an expanding plug

through wet soil.

montmorillonite See smectite.

mottled Having blotches of soil with a different colour; indicative of past periods of

intermittent waterlogging.

Munsell colour system A colour designation system that specifies the relative degrees of the variables of

colour: hue, value and chroma.

mycorrhiza A fungus that associates with plant roots to the benefit of both.

nitrification The processes by which soil microbes convert ammonium to plant available nitrate.

nitrogen fixation The process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into compounds that eventually

become available to plants. One such process is the fixation of nitrogen by

Rhizobium bacteria associated with the roots of legumes. Free-living soil

organisms also fix nitrogen. Industrial nitrogen fixation produces manufactured

nitrogen fertiliser.

NLWR See non-limiting water range.

nodule An accumulation of a soil material as a discreet, small lump. It may be composed

of iron or manganese compounds, or calcium carbonate (lime). A swelling on the

roots of legumes, containing symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria.

non-limiting water range The region bounded by the upper and lower soil water content over which water

(NLWR) availability, oxygen and mechanical resistance to root growth is not limiting to

plant growth.

no-till A form of conservation farming involving no mechanical soil disturbance other

than planting; or occasional strategic tillage; see conventional tillage and minimumtillage.

organic carbon One of the chemical elements making up organic matter. Organic matter is often

expressed as organic carbon because it is carbon that is measured in the laboratory.

Organic carbon multiplied by 1.75 gives an estimate of organic matter (soil organic

matter is approximately 57% carbon).

organic matter Plant and animal material, living and dead.

pan A hard soil layer which may restrict the entry of water, air and roots. If it is caused

by tillage, it is referred to as a plough pan.

PAWC See plant available water capacity.

ped A unit of soil structure (e.g. a block, plate or prism) formed by natural processes (in

contrast with a clod, which is formed artificially); see aggregate.

pedal Applied to soil materials consisting mostly of peds.

percolation Movement of water through the soil.

permanent beds A tillage system where the beds and wheel tracks are left in the same place for a

number of crops; see controlled traffic.



permanent wilting point (PWP) The largest water content of a soil at which indicator plants, growing in that soil,

wilt and fail to recover when placed in a humid environment (corresponds to a soil

water potential of –1500kPa).

permeability Ability of a soil to transmit water and gases.

pH The acidity or alkalinity of a soil is measured as pH, which is an indication of the

concentration of hydrogen ions in soil solution; pH values increase as the

concentration of hydrogen ions decreases.

pH buffering capacity The ability of a soil to resist changes in pH; it increases with clay and organic

matter content.

physical fertility See fertility.

piezometer A non-pumping shallow bore, of small diameter, to measure the pressure level of

groundwater.

PL See plastic limit.

plant available water capacity The maximum amount of water that a soil can hold and later release to plant roots.

(PAWC) Water held between field capacity and permanent wilting point is referred to as

being readily available. It is expressed as millimetres of water in the whole root

zone.

plantback period The waiting period before it is safe to sow a crop after using a herbicide.

plastic limit (PL) The water content (by weight) of a soil above which it can be remoulded (is

plastic) and below which it cannot be remoulded (is brittle).

plastic Capable of being moulded.

platy clods Soil aggregates with horizontal dimensions greater than vertical dimensions.

poaching damage Damage to soil structure caused by stock trampling wet soil. It occurs when a soil

is so soft that the hooves of grazing animals cannot be supported on the surface and

they press into the soil to leave noticeable depressions. Poaching is sometimes

called ‘puddling’.

pore Channel or cavity in a soil.

porosity The degree to which a soil is permeated with pores. The fraction of the soil volume

made up of pores, but also the size and shape of the pores and the degree of

connection between them.

profile See soil profile.

pulverisation Mechanical destruction of soil aggregates, usually when in a dry condition; see

compaction, smearing and remoulding.

PWP See permanent wilting point.

raised bed See bed.

recharge area Where surface water from rain, irrigation or streams infiltrates the soil and adds

water to the groundwater system.

red earth A soil with a loamy topsoil, and gradually becoming more clayey with depth. It is a

reddish colour, and is sometimes hardsetting.

red-brown earth A soil with a loamy topsoil (sometimes hardsetting) overlying a red coloured clay-

rich subsoil.

remote sensing Detection and/or identification of landscape features without having the sensor in

direct contact with the object.

remoulding Re-organising pore space and natural clay orientation by disturbing a soil when it is

wet; see compaction, smearing and pulverisation.



Rhizobium Bacterium associated symbiotically with legume roots, fixing nitrogen.

rill erosion An erosion process on sloping land in which numerous and randomly occurring

small channels of only several cm in depth are formed. See erosion, gully erosionand sheet erosion.

root zone That part of a soil where the majority of live plant roots are located.

saline scald A bare, dry, salt affected area, resulting from topsoil loss exposing a naturally

saline subsoil.

saline seep A bare, damp, salt affected area, resulting from rising saline groundwater.

salinity An excess of water-soluble salts (dominantly sodium chloride in Australia) that

restricts plant growth.

sand Soil particles between 0.02 mm and 2 mm in diameter. Fine sand is 0.02–0.2 mm,

coarse sand is 0.2–2 mm.

scald A bare area, inhospitable to plants because of high clay content and either sodicity

or salinity. See dry scald, saline scald and saline seep.

sediment Particles of clay, silt and sand carried by water or wind and deposited.

sedimentary rocks Ancient soil particles carried by water or wind that have been turned into rock by

pressure and chemical bonding over time.

self-mulching Refers to cracking clay surfaces that develop a crumbly layer of loose, small

aggregates after a series of wetting and drying.

shattering Fracturing of soil aggregates or a hard layer of soil by tillage.

sheet erosion The removal of a relatively uniform thin layer of soil from the soil surface by wind

or largely unchanneled surface runoff; see erosion, gully erosion and rill erosion.

shrink-swell behaviour Ability of a soil to shrink when dried and swell when rewetted.

silt Soil particles between 0.002 mm and 0.02 mm wide; intermediate between clay

and sand.

slaking Collapse of aggregates in water to form microaggregates, due to the breakage of

bonds formed, for example, by organic matter.

slickenside Shiny, striated stress surfaces found on clay-rich aggregates, formed by one mass

of soil sliding past another during swelling and shrinking cycles.

smearing Aligning of clay particles when mechanically disturbed under moist conditions,

producing a shiny, impenetrable surface overlying a thin layer with high bulk

density. See compaction, remoulding and pulverisation.

smectite Negatively charged clay mineral with a 2:1 layer structure; it swells when wet and

shrinks when dry.

sodic See sodicity.

sodicity An excess of exchangeable sodium causing dispersion to occur.

Sodosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil with a clear or abrupt

textural B horizon (duplex texture profile); and in which the major part of the

upper 0.2 m of the B2 horizon (or the major part of the entire B2 horizon if it less

than 0.2 m thick) is sodic and is not strongly subplastic.

soil profile The vertical sequence of layers in the soil. The three main horizons are the A

(generally referred to as the topsoil), B (generally referred to as the subsoil) and C

(the parent rock) horizons. The A horizon is the zone of leaching. It may consist of

an A1 horizon (true topsoil—higher in organic matter, darker in colour and richer

in biological activity than other horizons) and an A2 horizon (similar to A1 but

often paler in colour, poorer in structure, lower in clay content and less fertile). The

A2 horizon is not always present. The B horizon is the zone of accumulation of

materials from above—clay, iron, aluminium and organic matter (although the

organic matter content is never as high as in the A horizon). Its structure is different

from that of the A or C horizons and its colour is typically stronger. The C horizon

consists of weathered rock, little affected by soil forming processes. Soil which has

developed on alluvium does not have a C horizon—the rock below is not related to

the soil and would be termed the D horizon.



soil structure The combination or arrangement of primary soil particles into secondary units or

peds. Naturally-formed peds (aggregates) are referred to as clods when the soil has

been disturbed by the activities of humans. See structural form, structuralresilience and structural stability.

soil solution The aqueous liquid phase of the soil and its solutes.

soil texture See texture.

soil water Water stored in, or in transit by drainage through, the soil.

soil water potential The amount of ‘suction’ that must be applied by plant roots at a particular soil

water content for water uptake to commence.

SOILpak score A semi-objective rating (on a scale of 0.0 to 2.0) of soil structural form.

SOLICON A computer-based image analysis system for the assessment of soil structural form.

splay Fan of alluvial material deposited during floods.

stubble retention Soil preparation procedures which maximise the amount of stubble that is retained

on the soil surface for soil and water conservation.

structural form A description of soil structural units (peds or aggregates) and the pore spaces

between. It includes the shape and size of peds, the nature of their faces and their

porosity (also referred to as ‘soil architecture’).

structural resiliency The ability of a soil to regain structural form by natural processes, e.g. swelling and

shrinking, after the removal of disruptive stresses such as compaction by farm

machinery.

structural stability The ability of a soil to retain its structural form under the influence of disruptive

forces (a. immersion in water; b. compaction, remoulding and smearing).

structure See soil structure.

subplastic Soil material that has an apparent increase in clay content as a bolus continues to

be manipulated.

subsurface soil Soil between the depths of 10–30 cm.

subsoil Soil between the depths 30–120 cm; it is subdivided into upper subsoil (30–60 cm),

mid subsoil (60–90 cm) and lower subsoil (90–120 cm).

surface sealing The deposition by water, orientation and/or packing of a thin layer of fine soil

particles on the immediate surface of a soil, greatly reducing its permeability.

symbiosis Two species of organism living closely together in a mutual association that

benefits both species; for example, Rhizobium bacteria form nodules in legume

roots—the bacteria fix nitrogen and the plant supplies sugars.

texture The behaviour of a small handful of soil when moistened and kneaded into a ball

and then pressed out between thumb and forefinger. It depends mainly upon the

proportions of gravel, coarse sand, fine sand, silt and clay in the soil.

texture contrast See duplex soil.

topsoil Soil between the depths 0 and 10 cm.

transpiration The process by which plants give off water vapour through their leaves.

uniform soil A soil in which texture changes very little down the soil profile. Horizons may be

distinguished by differences in organic matter content, structure or colour. Cracking

clays have a uniform texture profile. See duplex soil and gradational soil.

Vertisol Cracking clay (U.S. terminology); see Vertosol.

Vertosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil which ‘turns’ (tills) itself

(Latin verto—to turn). A Vertosol has more than 35% clay throughout the profile,

cracks greater than 5 mm at some time of the year, slickensides and/or lenticular

peds and lacks distinct horizons.



volumetric water content The water content of the soil on a per volume basis; cm3 of water per cm3 of soil;

is equal to the gravimetric water content multiplied by the soil bulk density.

water potential See soil water potential.

watertable Upper surface of groundwater, below which the layers of soil, rock, sand or gravel

are saturated with water.

waterlogging Saturation of a soil with water, causing air to be displaced to the point where there

is insufficient oxygen for full root activity. See anaerobic.

water use efficiency (WUE) A measure of the conversion of water into plant products. For dryland crops,

CWUE is a measure of the yield (kg/ha) per mm of water obtained from stored

reserves in the soil and rainfall.

weathering The process whereby rock is broken down by water, wind, temperature changes

and chemical attack to small particles, perhaps eventually to form soil. Note:

weathering continues after the particles have formed soil, and this process slowly

changes the soil minerals and releases plant nutrients.

wilting point See permanent wilting point.

WUE See water use efficiency.


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