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SOCIO-ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF TRIBAL WOMEN:AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

Mohammad Awais Tosib Alam Mohd. AsifResearch Scholar Research Scholar Research ScholarA.M.U. Aligarh A.M.U. Aligarh A.M.U. Aligarh

The tribal population is an integral part ofIndia’s social fabric and has the secondlargest concentration after that of theAfrican continent. It is more than the totalpopulation of France and Britain and fourtimes that of Australia. The population oftribal communities scheduled in theConstitution of India and known asScheduled Tribes (STs) was 8.43 crore (1crore = 10 million) as per 2001 census andaccounts for 8.2% of the total population.4.26 crores are man and 4.17 crores arewomen, accounting for 8.01% and 8.40%respectively. They are scattered over allthe states/UTs, except Punjab, Haryana,Delhi and the UTs of Pondicherry andChandigarh.

Tribals have traditionally lived in about15% of the country’s geographical areas,mainly forests, hills and undulatinginaccessible terrain in plateau areas, richin natural resources. They have lived asisolated entities for centuries, largelyuntouched by the society around them.This seclusion has been responsible forthe slower growth, dissimilar pattern oftheir socio-economic and culturaldevelopment and inability to negotiate andcope with the consequences of theirinvoluntary integration into mainstreamsociety and economy. Tribals continue tobe socio-economically backward.

STATUS OF TRIBAL WOMEN

The status of women in a society is asignificant reflection of the level of socialjustice in that society. Women’s status isoften described in terms of their level ofincome, employment, education, healthand fertility as well as their roles within thefamily, the community and society. In tribalcommunities, the role of women issubstantial and crucial. They constituteabout half the total population but in tribalsociety women are more important than inother social groups, because they work

harder and the family economy andmanagement depends on them. Even afterindustrialization and the resultantcommercialization swamped the tribaleconomy, women continued to play asignificant role. Collection of minor forestproduce is done mostly by women andchildren. Many also work as laborers inindustries, households and construction,contributing to their family income. Despiteexploitation by contractors and managers,tribals are more sincere and honest thannon tribals.

However, tribal women face problems andchallenges in getting a sustainablelivelihood and a decent life due toenvironmental degradation and theinterference of outsiders. The strategy fortribal development, and specially women,needs improvement, betterment,development and upliftment to effect theirempowerment. Tribal women haveadjusted themselves to live a traditionallife style in the local environment andfollow occupations based on naturalresources. Undoubtedly, the programmes,oriented towards the empowerment oftribals, particularly women, have improvedtheir socio-economic conditions andstatus. However, there are wide variationsacross regions and tribes in terms of workparticipation, sex ratio, economicproductivity and social life. The impact ofdevelopment planning needs to beevaluated in terms of desired andunanticipated consequences. Thedevelopment process should be perceivedas an involvement and reorganizationmechanism of not only the socio-economicsystem but the entire eco-system. Againstthis backdrop, the present paper reviewsthe emerging perspective in the context ofthe socio-economic empowerment of tribalwomen and changing paradigms ofdevelopment.

International Journal of RuralStudies (IJRS)

vol. 16 no. 1 October 2009

ISSN 1023–2001 www.ivcs.org.uk/IJRS Article 5 of 11

http://www.ivcs.org.uk/IJRS

Empowerment and Gender Equity ofTribal Women

For the accelerated socio-economicdevelopment of any community, the activeparticipation of women is essential. In asocial set up like India’s, their participationhas to be ensured through tangiblemeasures, taken at various levels, whichresult in their empowerment in the realsense. Empowerment of women is one ofthe concepts that has developed inconnection with improving their status.Empowerment includes higher literacylevels, education, better healthcare, equalownership of productive resources,increased participation in economic andcommercial sectors, awareness of rightsand responsibilities, improved standards ofliving, self-reliance, self-esteem and self-confidence.

Raising the status of tribal women is notjust a moral imperative but also a strategicone. Within the framework of a democraticpolicy, our laws, development policies,plans and programmes have aimed atwomen’s advancement in differentspheres. In recent years, theempowerment of women has beenrecognized as a central issue indetermining their status.

Tribal women, while being adisadvantaged and vulnerable group are,nevertheless, better placed, in manyrespects, than their counterparts in thegeneral population and are, in certainareas, more empowered. They do notsuffer segregation or lower status. This isreflected in their higher sex-ratio vis-à-visthe general population (977 as comparedto 933 - 2001 census). The child sex-ratiofor tribal women also compares favorablyvis-à-vis the general population, being 972as against 919 for the general population -2001 census. However, the negativepractices of the mainstream populationseem to have started percolating to thetribal population as well. The child femaleto male sex ratio shows a decline from 985(per thousand males) in 1991 to 972 in2001 while in areas such as education andhealth tribal women lag behindsignificantly.

Tribal Women in Agriculture

Over 80% of tribals work in the primarysector against 53% of the generalpopulation. About 45% are cultivatorsagainst 32.5% of the general population.According to available data, the number oftribal who were cultivators, declined fromover 68% to 45% in 2001, whereasagricultural laborers increased from about20% to 37%, an indication that tribals aresteadily losing their lands. Unlike othercommunities, among tribals there are norestrictions on women’s participation in thecultivation process. A tribal woman canparticipate actively in all agriculturaloperations including, ploughing, digging,sowing, manuring, transplanting, weeding,harvesting, preparing the granary,threshing, winnowing and storing foodgrains. In agriculturally back ward areas,tribal women are forbidden to touch aplough and can not dig the ground but inall other agricultural operations, womenparticipate actively and traditionally theseare a female’s job. Processing of foodgrain is exclusively a woman’s job. Everymorning tribal women dehusk millet andpaddy in husking levers and then clean thegrains and cooks them. They not onlysave money, but also earn it, unlikefemales of other communities.

Tribal women work as men’s partners inagriculture, yet their status remains thesame. Tribal women work very hard for thelivelihood of the family but live a poor life,in spite of their many contributions in thehouse and on the farm. Tribal women areimportant for the improvement andprogress of tribals. They are the pivot oftribal agriculture, performing manyhousehold and agricultural jobs. Withoutthem, tribal welfare in agriculture ismeaningless.

Tribal Women in EcologicalDevelopmentEnvironment and sustainable developmentare firmly on the global agenda. Eco-feminism is to be viewed in this context.The movement began in the U.S., andSherry Ortner was among the first to pointout that women’s interests coincide with





nature’s while man’s with culture. Eco-feminism considers that: (a) there is adistinct relationship between women andthe environment, (b) women have certainresponsibilities which make themdependent on nature and (c) women havean extensive knowledge of naturalresources. Eco-feminism points to theneed for an integrated view of nature,culture and gender issues. An appropriatestrategy of development would be onewhich is not only ecologically sustainablebut takes the interests of women intoconsideration. The problems of ecologicaldistress and climatic changes requireimmediate attention with a specific formulato achieve ecological safety. All theinitiatives taken under UNEP, biosphereprogrammes, various governmental andnon-governmental actions lag behindsince none was specifically empowered toachieve eco-equilibrium and ecologicalsecurity. Women provide sustenance tothe family and community by theirjudicious use and management of naturalresources. Women are consumers,producers, educators and caretakers oftheir families, playing an important role fora sustainable eco-system in the presentand future. However, environmentaldeterioration has a negative effect on thehealth and quality of life especially of girlsand women. A policy of conservation ofnatural resources will be successful only ifwomen are integrated into all programmesand policy making.

Tribal habitations are facing environmentalhazards everywhere due to careless,unplanned and faulty development policiesfollowed by government’s skipping thenecessary environmental safeguards indevelopment projects. Most developmentactivities impinge upon the environmentand adversely affect the ecologicalbalance. The large scale cutting of foresttrees in tribal habitats has led to ashortage of fuel, fodder, foliage and forestproduce which form the economy oftribals. In the changed context ofdevelopment, environment protection andsustainable development with a human-centred approach must be ensured. Sincetribal women are engaged in ecological

movements, environmental protection andconservation, their role may be enhancedthrough capacity building andempowerment in the context of ecologicaldevelopment.

Tribal Women and Forests

Tribals have been residing in forest areasfor generations, cultivating land andcollecting non-timber forest produce. Asper the Forest Survey of India Report,2003, 60.04% of the 63% forest cover ofthe country and 63% of dense forests lie in187 tribal districts, though thegeographical area of these districts is just33.6% of the country’s geographical area.Out of 58 districts, which have more than67% of their area under forest cover, 51are tribal districts. A comparison of the2001 and 2003 assessments of forestcover in tribal districts shows a netincrease of 321,100 hectares underscoringa very strong symbiotic relationshipbetween tribals and forests and of tribalsbeing at the forefront of conservationregimes.

While tribal women have more say infamily decisions than their non-tribalcounterparts, they also share moreresponsibilities. Preparing food andproviding for drinking water is solely theirresponsibility so they operate closely withthe forests from where they get water, fueland minor products including edible fruits,tubers, flowers, vegetables and berries.

Minor forest produce plays an importantpart in the tribal economy. Its collectionand marketing is a major source oflivelihood for most tribal familiescontributing around 70% of their totalincome. The different varieties areclassified as plants for use in tanning,natural gums, resins and balsams, plantsand seeds used in pharmacy andperfumery and tendu leaves.

Firewood is also provided by forests.Since firewood gathering is done mainlyby women, the interaction between forestsand women gets further enhanced. Sinceall the duties of tribal women areconnected with the forests and they looktowards the forest for nature’s gifts, theirs





dependence on forests is strong andintrinsic.

Tribal Women in Education

Tribal women play a significant role in theeconomic development of tribals as theycontribute in various economic activitiesand education is one of the them.

Education is a crucial requirement for thesustained growth of a developing societyand lack of it is largely responsible for theexploitation and pitiable plight of thetribals. The literacy rate of tribals was 8.53in 1961 and steadily increased to 47.10 in2001, yet it is far below the national rate of64.84 (2001 census).

Literacy in STs

Year Total population STsMale Female Total Male Female Total

1961 40.40 15.35 28.30 13.83 3.16 8.531971 45.96 21.97 34.45 17.63 4.85 11.301981 56.38 29.76 43.57 24.52 8.04 16.351991 64.13 39.29 52.21 40.65 18.19 29.602001 75.26 53.67 64.84 59.17 34.76 47.10Source : Selected Educational Statistics 2002-2003, Ministry of HRD.

There has been an overall increase in the enrolment of children belonging to STs. At theprimary stage, against an overall increase of 15%, ST enrolment increased by 25%, whereasthat of ST girls increased by 36% against overall increases of 23% from 2000 to 2004.

At the upper primary level against an overall increase of 20%, ST enrolment increased by35%, whereas that of ST girls increased by 47% against girls’ overall increase of 30%.

Enrolment of ST students in schools (in 000)

Year Primary (I-V) Upper primary/middle (VI-VIII)Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

2000-01 6330 4665 10995 1879 1205 30842001-02 6691 5040 11731 2054 1306 33602002-03 6422 5408 11830 1930 1320 32502003-04 6776 5741 12517 2136 1526 36622004-05 7367 6369 13737 2395 1776 4171Source : Selected Educational Statistics 2002-2003, Ministry of HRD.

The dropout rate among tribal schoolchildren is alarming. Various steps takenby state governments to check dropouts,including free distribution of books andstationery, scholarships, reimbursement ofexamination fees, free bus travel, mid-daymeals, etc. have had an impact but still fallshort. The performance of certain states inproviding matching grants, maintenance ofservice and management of hostels is notencouraging. The pace of construction ofhostels has been very slow and the basic

amenities provided therein aresubstandard.

Low literacy especially among tribal girlsand high dropout rates at elementary andhigher levels are areas of serious concern.The main causes are (i) poverty, (ii)contents of the education, (iii) inadequateeducational institutions and supportingservices in tribal areas, (iv) absenteeism,(v) medium of instruction and (iv)education policy.

Health





Healthcare is a major problem in far flungisolated tribal areas. Lack of food security,sanitation, and safe drinking water, poornutrition and high poverty levels aggravatetheir poor health status. The problem ofmalnutrition is multidimensional andintergenerational. Health institutions arefew and far between. Till recently, anabundance of fruits, tubers, roots andleaves in forests on the one hand andindigenous health-care systems on theother, contributed positively to tribalhealth. Tribal people have over thecenturies developed their own medicinal

system based on herbs and other itemscollected from nature and processedlocally. They have their own system ofdiagnosis and cure. But the skills andnatural resources are fast disappearing.Moreover, the traditional systems can nottreat or prevent many diseases thatmodern medicine can.

Some health indicators of tribals, SCs andothers (per thousand persons) are givenbelow to establish their poor state ofhealth:

Health Indicators

Infant mortality rate Under 5 mortality rate Under nutrition

SC 83.0 119.3 535

ST 84.2 126.6 559

All 70.0 94.9 470

Source : Bulletin on Rural Health Statistics in India, 2005. Ministry of Health and FamilyWelfare.

Money lending and Indebtedness

Despite legal and protective measures tocurb money lending in scheduled areasand provisions for debt relief, enforcementhas been weak and ineffective. The non-recognition of the consumption needs oftribals and the non-availability ofinstitutional consumption credit makestribal people fall easy victim to moneylenders and leads to dependence on them.The enormous rates of interest keeptribals in perpetual debt, resulting in themortgage and ultimate loss of land andproperty.

Positive measures to improve the flow ofinstitutional credit for consumption throughself help groups must be taken. TheAndhra Pradesh model for food securityand consumption credit would be worthemulating in other states.

Traditional Knowledge and IntellectualProperty Rights

Dwelling amidst hills, forests, coastalareas and deserts, tribals have gainedvast experience in combatingenvironmental hardships and leadingsustainable livelihoods. Their wisdom isreflected in their water harvestingtechniques, agricultural practices, irrigationsystems, construction of cane bridges,adaptation to desert life, utilization offorest species like herbs and plants formedicinal purposes and meteorologicalassessment. This invaluable knowledgeneeds to be properly documented andpreserved to prevent it getting lost as aresult of modernization and the passage oftime.

Tribal communities have a closedependence on biological resourcesrelated to flora and fauna. Their livelihoodand lifestyle depends upon and is shapedby these resources. Their survival andsustenance is intricately linked toconservation and utilization of theseresources. Corporate protectionism in





terms of patents and intellectual propertyrights arising out of various internationaltreaties/instruments on trade and commonproperty resources such as TRIPs andWTO represent a real threat to theireconomic livelihood and a source ofpotential exploitation of their resourcebase as bio-diversity expressed in lifeforms and knowledge is sought to beconverted into private property and treatedas an open access system for freeexploitation by those who want to privatizeand patent it. There is an urgent need toprovide appropriate legal and institutionalarrangements for acknowledging the rightsof tribals to such resources andknowledge.

Information and CommunicationTechnology

Tribals live in far-flung areas often outsidethe reach of modern means of informationand communication technology. They arethus deprived of crucial informationregarding development initiatives,employment programmes etc. Use of ITcould help women to improve agriculturalproductivity and become entrepreneursand information intermediaries. It couldprovide tribal women with farm-relatedinformation such as best package ofpractices, weather forecasting, access tocredit, price and availability of farm inputs,market information etc.

EMPOWERMENT OF TRIBALS INDEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

The need for empowerment of tribalshardly needs justification. Their primitiveway of life, economic and socialbackwardness, low level of literacy,outdated system of production, absence ofvalue systems, sparse physicalinfrastructure in backward tribal areas anddemographic quality of tribal areas makethe development of tribals and tribal areasessential.

Tribal Sub-Plan Strategy:

The tribal sub plan was adopted for thefirst time at the beginning of the 5th FiveYear Plan in 1974-75. It applies, atpresent, to 21 states and two Union

Territories, where tribals constitute asizeable population and provides for theallocation of funds in proportion to thetribal population in the country by each ofthe concerned centralministries/departments in proportion to thetribal population of that state.

The TSP as originally conceived had a twoprolonged strategy: promotion ofdevelopment activities to raise the livingstandards of tribals, and protection of theirinterests through legal and administrativesupport. The TSP mechanism hashowever become routine and humdrum inmost states with little awareness of itsoriginal objectives. TSP has become aloose agglomeration of schemes preparedby line departments and driven more bydepartmental priorities than by any broadphilosophy or thrust on development oftribals and tribal areas.

After the adoption of this approach, sincefifth five year plan, the flow of funds toTSP areas has significantly increased.TSP expenditure which came down topoor 0.51% during the 4th five year planincreased to 9.47% during the 8th five yearplan. The objective of the Tenth Plan wasto empower STs through their educational,economic and social development. Anoutlay of Rs. 1,719.71 crore was providedin the Annual Plan for 2007-08, which is3.79% higher than the outlay of Rs.1,656.90 crore for 2006-07 (RE). Theoutlay includes Rs. 816.71 crore providedas Special Central Assistance (SCA) toTribal-Sub Plan (TSP) which includes Rs.220.00 crore for development of forestvillages and Rs. 150 crore for MinorIrrigation of tribal lands. SCA to TribalSub-Plan is a 100% grant extended toStates as an additional funding toundertake developmental, family-oriented,income-generating schemes, the creationof critical infrastructure, the extension offinancial assistance to Self Help Groups(SHGs) for community-based activities,and the development of Primitive TribalGroups (PTGs) and forest villages. Grant-in-aid under Article 275(1) is also beingprovided to the States to promote thewelfare of STs, improve administration





and take up special welfare anddevelopment programmes which are notincluded in the Plan.

Under the TSP strategy, a number ofdevelopment schemes have been evolvedto bring Scheduled Tribes up on the ladderof development. One strategy has beenthe attempt to earmark funds for the TSPin TSP states/UTs which are equal inproportion to the ST population in thestate/UT. Pooling of funds has beenenvisaged from various sources likecentral Schemes, state plan andinstitutional funds. The strategy has beenlargely successful in garnering more fundsfor the TSP.

PESA

The Provisions of the Panchayats(Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act,1996 (PESA) came into force on 24th

December, 1996 with the objective ofsafeguarding and preserving the traditionsand customs of people living in scheduledareas, their social, religious and culturalidentities and traditional managementpractices of community resources.

PESA is an instrument for tribals’empowerment of tribals. To make iteffective, it is necessary to (a) endowPanchayats at the appropriate level andGram Sabhas with ownership of minorforest produce (MFP), (b) empower GramSabhas to approve beneficiaries underpoverty alleviation programmes and theprovisions relating to minor forest produce,minor minerals and settlement of landrights in forest, (c) make prior consultationwith Gram Sabha or Panchayats at theappropriate level mandatory beforeacquisition of land for developmentprojects, (d) make the recommendation ofGram Sabha or Panchayat at theappropriate level mandatory for grantingprospecting licences or mining leases forminor minerals and (e) get StateGovernments to change their existing lawswhenever they are inconsistent withcentral legislation.

For the PESA Act to be more meaningful,provisions relating to Gram Sabhas as perthe Constitutional amendment and the

amended Panchayat Raj Act have to betranslated into local tribal dialects andmade available to all Gram Panchayats inscheduled areas. Training programmesshould be organized so that all GramSabhas members including tribal womenare aware of the function, responsibilitiesand powers of Gram Sabhas.

In reality, PESA has not become part ofmainstream policy. Many stategovernments have passed laws not fully inconformity with the central law. WhilePESA remains unimplemented, tribalareas are increasingly being opened up byState Governments for commercialexploitation by national and multinationalcorporate bodies.

State/UT Minor Forest Produce Act2005

The tribals are in need of forest-basedsustainable livelihoods for whichownership of forest resources andmanagement of the ecology are crucial.The Government of India has come outwith the Minor Forest Produce Act (MFPA)2005 whereby forest dependentcommunities should be endowed withcollection, processing and trade in minorforest produce on the principle of “Shareand Care”. Other provisions includecoverage of a minimum 1/3 of area undertrees, demarcation of area underBiological Diversity Act 2002 andsafeguarding forest area covered underwild life (Protection) Act 1972. If theseinitiatives are effectively implemented, theecological balance will be restored andtribals will have safe livelihoods withassured participation and ownership.

Development and EmploymentProgrammes

The Government has implemented variousprogrammes which encourage tribals totake up new ventures. The assistance forthe poor households of SCs/STs under themajor programmes is as follows:

National Rural Employment GuaranteeAct (NAREGA)

NAREGA guarantees 100 days ofemployment in a financial year to any rural





household whose adult members arewilling to do unskilled manual work. TheAct came into force in 200 selecteddistricts on 2nd February, 2006, and anadditional 130 districts from 2007-08. TheSampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana(SGRY) have been subsumed intoNAREGA in these 330 districts. All districtswill be included from April, 2008. NAREGAis a demand-driven scheme so separateearmarking of employment/resources forSCs/STs has not been provided. However,the reports of physical achievementsduring 2006-07 reveal that more than 61%of the total man days of employmentgenerated were for SC/ST households.During 2007-08 (up to Dec. 2007) totalemployment of 8557.97 lakh man dayswas generated out of which employmentfor SCs and STs was 2330.36 lakh mandays (27.2%) and 2648.02 lakh (30.94%)man days respectively.

• Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana(SGRY)

While the SGRY is open to all rural poorwho are in need of wage employment,preference is given to SCs/STs andparents of child labourers withdrawn fromhazardous occupations, who are below thepoverty line. 22.5% of the annualallocation (inclusive of food grains) atdistrict and intermediate panchayat level isearmarked for individual/group beneficiaryschemes of SC/ST families living belowthe poverty line. A minimum 50% of thevillage panchayat allocation (inclusive offood grains) is for the creation of need-based village infrastructure in SC/SThabitations/wards. A total employment of1170.75 lakh man days was createdduring 2007-2008 (up to Dec. 2007) out ofwhich there were 435.49 (37.2%) lakhman days for SCs and 151.31 (12.9%)lakh man days for STs.

• Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana(SGSY)

The SGSY is a major self employmentprogramme being implemented all overthe country. Its guidelines stipulate that atleast 50% of the Swarozgaris will beSCs/STs, 40% women and 3% persons

with disability. Subsidies will be uniform at30% of the project cost, subject to amaximum of Rs. 7500. For SCs/STs andthe disabled, the subsidy limit is 50% t ofthe project cost subject to a maximum ofRs. 10,000 respectively.

The number of swarozgaris assisted underthis scheme during 2007-08 (up to Dec.2007) was 776408. This includes theSwarozgaris of SHGs and individualswarozgaris out of which the SCSwarozgaris assisted were 267740(34.4%) and ST Swarozgaris 113215(14.58%).

Indira Awas Yojana (IAY)

The Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) is beingimplemented at national level to providedwelling units to people below the povertyline living in rural areas. Preference isgiven to BPL families belonging toSCs/STs. 60% of the total allocationduring a financial year is for constructionof dwelling units for SCs and STs.

The guideline provides for allotting housesin the name of the female member ofhousehold or in the joint names ofhusband and wife. 3% of the funds arereserved for the disabled below thepoverty line in rural areas. Homescompleted during 2007-08 (up to Dec.2007) were 1063920 out of which462273(43.4%) were allotted in the nameof SCs and 188247 (17.69%) in the nameof STs.

National Rural Health Mission (2005-2012)The Government of India launched theNational Rural Health Mission (NRHM) inApril 2005 to provide effective healthcareto the rural population throughout thecountry with special focus on 18 states,with weak public health infrastructure andpoor performance in demographic andhealth indicators. Those states areArunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh,Jharkhand, J & K, Manipur, Mizoram,Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland,Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura,Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh.





The NRHM will cover all villages throughapproximately 2.5 lakh village-based“Accredited Social Health Activities”(ASHA) which will act as a link betweenvillagers and health centers. One ASHAwill be formed in every village or cluster ofvillages to advise villagers aboutsanitation, hygiene, contraception andimmunization. Rs. 67 billion was providedin the budget in 2005-06. A NationalHealth Insurance Scheme has also beenlaunched for BPL families to ensureannual health coverage of Rs. 30,000 forfamilies or individuals. Rs. 100,000 will bepaid to the families of those who die inaccidents and in cases of disability. Rs.50,000 is paid in case of partial disability.

SUGGESTIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS

The role of tribal women is important buttheir socio-economic development is poor.More needs to be done. The problems oftribal women and tribals are largelycommon. Suggestions andrecommendations to strengthen andempower tribals as well as tribal womenare:

• Increase agricultural productionthrough conservation to settledagriculture, where possible, withlinkage to easy credit and marketsand assured irrigation.

• Undertake a comprehensivesurvey of water resources,including surface water andgroundwater, in tribal areas withthe help of remote sensing toprepare land use maps. Wherewater levels have gone down, anintegrated watershedmanagement approach must beadopted. Ponds and tanks shouldbe increased and renovated foroptimum use.

• Promote the diversification ofagriculture and non-farm sectorsto create job opportunities. Traintribal women in kitchen gardening,childcare, food preservation,handicrafts and other house-based activities.

• Form and stabilize tribal women’sco-operatives to take up dairy,sericulture, fisheries, handicrafts,horticulture agri-food processingand post harvest technologies

• Impart practical knowledge andtraining in modern techniques toall tribal women regularly so thattheir work becomes easier andcrop production increases.

• Undertake research and extensionto improve current practices,increase output and incomes andeliminate adverse ecologicaleffects.

• As per the PESA 1996, the GramSabha enjoys the authority todecide the natural resourceswhich include non-timber forestproduce (NTFP). The monopolyrestrictions over NTFP should beimmediately removed whileensuring social protection throughprovision of support prices totribals who should be allowed tocollect, process, transport andmarket the NTFP.

• Low literacy especially amongtribal girls and high dropout ratesat elementary and higher levelsare areas of serious concern.Focus on girls’ education,inclusive of context-specifictraditional and innovativeinterventions. Launch special andsustained educationinitiatives/drives in low femaleliteracy tribal pockets.

• Teach tribal children in theirmother tongue at least at primarylevel. Prepare textbooks in triballanguages.

• To prevent teacher absenteeismin tribal areas, give preference tolocal and tribal teachers from localpanchayats, and place theteaching and non-teaching staff ofprimary schools under the control





of the village managementcommittee.

• Devise new systems to improvethe access of tribals to modernhealthcare.

• Promote the synthesis of Indiansystems of medicine likeAyurveda, Sidha and Unani withthe tribal system.

• Provide good drinking waterfacilities in tribal areas.

• Strengthen the TSP strategy withan institutionalized mechanism forcompliance and monitoring. MakeTSP funds non-divertible and non-lapsable – develop a workablesystem.

• Take measures throughcommunity efforts to eliminatepernicious practices which resultin the torture and oppression ofwomen e.g. witchcraft andsuperstitions.

• Discourage the migration of tribalwomen to urban areas, to take lowpaid, domestic and mental workby providing an enablingregulatory framework.

• Train tribal women to take up theirresponsibilities and sensitize theGram Sabha about the newprovisions.

• Inform all Gram Sabha members,including tribal women, of thefunctions, responsibilities andpowers of Gram Sabhas.

• Encourage women’s organizationsworking among tribals and ensurethe formation, stabilization andbank linkages of SHGs to promoteviable micro-economic activitieswith substantial support in termsof credit and market.

These strategies would empower tribalwomen and bring them into mainstreamdevelopment.

CONCLUSION

Tribal women play a major role in the co-management of their natural, social,economic resources and agriculturaldevelopment including crop production,livestock production, horticulture and postharvest operations but they remainbackward due to traditional values,illiteracy, superstitions, dominant roles indecision making, social evils and manyother cultural factors.

The participatory role of tribals inimproving their living conditions by fullyexploring natural endowments andalternative uses must find an appropriateplace in the strategic approach. The socialdynamics of tribal welfare anddevelopment is such that effectivestrategies to protect tribals and theirlivelihood imply negotiating some kind ofsocial consensus about criteria concerningtribal development and values of thesociety that evolves from suchprogrammes. This also implies a broadsocial consensus about the basic rightsand opportunities that tribals should enjoyand the responsibilities that should betaken by different individual and socialgroups.REFERENCES

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