November 03, 2014

Society of Rome

Origins • Preserve hut of Romulus on a hill in the Palatine • People in the area were known as Latium • Did not start writing their history until 200 BCE • Livy wrote the best history down with stories of leaders who sacrificed their lives, their bodies,

or their children to the state to guarantee a military victory, freedom from tyranny, or political stability

• Farmer named Cincinnatus assumed supreme command of the army in an emergency and returned to his farm when it was over

• Publius Decius Mus charged suicidal into enemy lines to win favour of the gods in battle • Poverty and simplicity were important values and ambivalence about conquests is important to

their themes • IMPORTANT DATES

753 BCE Foundation of Rome 510 BCE Expulsion of the kings

494 BCE First secession of the Plebs; creation of tribune 451 – 550 BCE Promulgation of the Twelve Tables 390 BCE Rome sacked by Gauls 264 – 241 BCE First Punic war 218 – 201 BCE Second Punic war 197 BCE Defeat of Philip V at Cynoscephalea in Second

Macedonian war 184 BCE Censorship of Cato the elder 168 BCE Perseus defeated at Pydna in Third Macedonian War 146 BCE Sack of Carthage in Third Punic War and sack of Corinth 133 BCE Assassination of Tiberius Gracchus 63 BCE Cicero’s consulship 49 – 45 BCE Civil war between Caesar and Pompey 44 BCE Assassination of Julius Caesar

• WHO WERE THE ROMANS? o Did not need to be born roman to be roman o Two stories of their origins

Roman settlers were fugitive debtors and criminals granted asylum by Romulus and there were no women so kidnapped women from the Sabines

Romulus was a descendant of Aeneas and he married a Latin princess • FROM VILLAGE TO CITY

o Oldest trace of settlement date to 1000 BCE

o Forum – an empty public space which became the city’s nerve-center o In the late 500s, the Romans were a leading power in Latium and had a pop. of est.

30,000 • THE ETRUSCANS

o In the 500s BCE, Rome was subject to foreign kings (dynasty of Etruscans) who built public works and monuments that that formed it into a city

o Their language is hard to decipher since it is not like any other language o Not quite sure where they were from → either from the Italian peninsula or emigrated

from the East o Main archaeological sites are cemeteries with chamber tombs known as tumuli with

similar structures for males and females to show a degree of equality of those of higher rank

o By 600 BCE the Etruscans portrayed their gods Anthropomorphically (looking like humans) perhaps with an idea from the Greeks

o Earliest temple is from c. 500 BCE at Veti o Roman sources tell of a temple of Jupiter with the same style of Etruscan craftsmen o Were skilled at divination and haruspicia (reading omens in the entrails of a sacrificed

animal) o 7th and 6th century developments show urbanization, permanent house structures,

public architecture, and show possibilities of Latin and Etruscan culture developing side-by-side

Historical Orientation • History is a telling of legend so difficult to construct history • 200 BCE was the first time a Roman wrote down history of city • Can trace history to the Roman-Carthaginian wars • OVERVIEW OF SOURCES

o Archeological evidence – pottery, mirrors, jewellery, tombs, walls, remains of architectures, alters

o literal evidence – Livy, Dionysisius , Senator Thebeius Pictor (sp?). Greek writers of the 5th and 4th centuries wrote to attract attention of outsiders Pictor would have drawn on the ^^ histories

o Documents and Family oral history – would have influenced history; Can date back to further

o Great Yearly Chronical (Annales maximi) – consists of year by year records which was edited and placed into a book form filled with rare events like droughts, eclipses, famines, floods → perished

o Antiquarian Writers – scholars who interested in historical facts w/o interested in historical narratives (ie Senator Varro)

• Roman kingship was elective; divided up into three geographical based tribes, and 30 wards • Roman male population was first divided up for armies

• INFRA CLASSEM – unnamed fighting troops • TARQUINIUS THE PROUD what the last king of Etruscan and was like a Greek Strongman

o Son raped Lucrecia and caused a de coup against them • Lars Porsena helped Tarquinius gain power again • Rise of plebians to full equality was called partritians →Plebs could have been the poorest;

weighted down by debt • IMPERIUM is the power of command in military Rome • NEXUM – ancient form of debt bondage and abolished in 326 BCE

o Involved a formal sale for a man into bondage o Self-sale/pledge in which the debter put himself into the hands of the creditor

• Before 338 BCE, Rome took the lead in established colonization • Rome was one of a number of communities that collected together • In legend it was founded by a true civic polity and the beginnings of the political founding was in

the mid 8th century BCE • To the 6th century BCE there was a nuclear scattering of huts and habitation and marked by the

gradual demarking of private and public places and the creation of the Roman forum area. o Increase in wealth in transition to Greek Archaic style houses

• Just as in Greece, the settlements began to change as in contact with Greek settlers • Evidence suggests villages of about 100 ppl but began to grow close to other village • In late 9th century BCE there was a prototype of fusing villages together • Scholars speak of a population uptake with the establishment of new settlements • In the second half of the late 8th century there was a rise in goods such as olives (wines, oil,

olives) and an increase in wheel-made pottery • Into 580 BCE Lacium, the neighbours, Etruscans, can see chamber tombs

o Accumulation of wealth in a few hands and the forms of the tombs and their furnishings including their weapons, bronzes, and imported ceramics (ie from Greek mainland

o Purpose was to show family solidarity and a presence of a social structure of the Gens o Tombs cut across in their unity which is connected to the influence of the Greeks with

(feasting, gift giving, manly powers, and friendship) which are values seen in Homer’s poetry.

• GENS (CLAN) (latin term) - found throughout central peninsular Italy and into the 7th Century BCE are well established social units

o Patrilineal descent group who claim descent from a common ancestor o Naming system – use the two name system in which each member had two names; a

personal (given) – PRAENOMEN, and a clan name – NOMEN GENTILICIUM (ie Gaius, Ceaser) o

• Towns of Latium speak a form of Latin and other villages speak a form of Etruscan (like Linear B) • Transition from Kingship to republic (510 BCE – 490 BCE) – a series of events (violent) led to the

overthrowing of Tarqunius led to creation of the consul.

o Tarquinius and his family were besieging the neighbouring city when his son raped Lucretia (wife of his cousin) and they sieged control of the city

o Lars Porsena helped Tarquinius besiege Rome but he was driven out o Attus Clausus – a Sabine warlord o Used armed companions (sodales) o One distinct feature is the presence of Aristocratic warlords who were always on the

move o Vulerius Publicola – could have been a foreign warlord but don’t know

Government and the Society in the Early Republic • A woman named Lucretia was raped by the king’s son and avenged by her relatives → shows

how Romans try to relate their history to the Greeks • RES PUBLICA – system of government that wasn’t ruled by kings (the public matter) • THE RULING CLASS –the constitution resembled a politeia

o Had an assembly, senate, magistrates (controlled army, legislation, and judged cases), o Consuls – chief magistrates that were elected every year; them and senates only came

from the best families Wielded IMPERIUM (signified the power to command the army, and condemn ppl

to death; had a civil, judicial and military aspect) o Comitia centuriata – Romans voted in units o Legal authority was centered on individuals of high power/status → could be consuls,

or PRAETOR (public judge) o Patronage – social relations were dominated by this system; people of unequal rank

were bound by ties of loyalty and gratitude – the higher-ranked person (patron) would sometimes lend his support to the lower ranking one (client). The client would do any kind of favour for his benefactor Many wealthy people would get multiple dependents and use it for votes ect. The Fabii raised a private army A dynamic system → everybody’s status was continuously changing

o Social relationships amongst those of = power were also important as Aristocrats took advice of a council of friends

• KINGSHIP o C 500 BC Romulus to Trarqiunn the prous - 7 kings known but that is not enough people

to fill up the time of the monarchy kingship was not her

outside Rome and some were related to past King no recorded Roma

patrician • THE PLEBEIANS AND PATRICIANS – there was a class struggle between the two

o patrician comes from ‘patres’ o patres were not head of clans because in history there were never one single clan

leader in Romeo also not a senator class

o one did not have to be a partician to be in senateo senate was chosen by king not a real senate but body of friends and advisors

o patres - patricians in general o patres conferred the auspices on king’s term o auspices - right to read the will of gods from birds – ‘bird watching’; revealed the

general mood of the gods? - happy/mad o plebeians- Roman citizen stock (mob) (non - patricians)o revolutionary group - badge of

honour o could still be a part of clans o plebs as a distinct group did not emerge until republic era o no plebs in monarchy o plebs begin as revolutionary movement o first secession of plebs - removed themselves from Rome 494 BC o poor people of Rome - debt, famine, bad treatment o in emerging archaic Rome plebs constituted only a portion of non-patricians – not

majority - early republic o populus were those that were not plebs or patricians and were part of military

(male ranks) third group of persons and were inc. in number during 5th c. o 136 clans (patricians) o number of patricians by end of 5th c. only 14 left o later rulers would elevate the power of people to patricians in order to up the # o pop. of Rome during early monarchic period were devided into 3 geo based

tribes (still Roman citizens) (TITIES: RAMNES: LUCERES) o each tribe had ten curiae (wards) o in 600 BC ish or a bit after 3000 heavily armed infantry, 300 horse soldiers each

tribe provided a third o artificial grouping mainly based on locality and birth o relationship b/w army and kings o problems were attached to king who ruled from 578-555 BC Servius Tolius

divided people into new tribes and carried out first census 4 tribes not 3 divided people into classes into 5 classes by wealth and then again into

sentries each sentry contained 100 men counted 6000 infantry men (people who could equipe themselves) in this sceam the free male pop. were devided into those who were able

to serve as heavy infantry that is the classis and the remainder who could afford to fight as light armed troops (or just helped move stuff) called the infra classem

most fights were territory stuff partly economic conditions made people identify themselves as plebs in late century - when pay for service was introduced - war happens- that

the original system was definitively replaced with graded property classes flexible military classes, light and heavy armed troops senior and junior troops as well

o social distinction b/w patrons and clans patronage arises from wealth different partons can give benefits and protections there were wealth non-patrician clans who were patrons plebs did not benefit from patrons - did not enter patronage obedience and support who got patrons were those that had to sell

themselves some were in patrons private army crutial point is that not all Romancitizens were in or benefited from patronage -

self-help group it is also important to stress that overtime plebeians could become patrons of

other pleb clans o no pleb was ever a client of a non pleb patron o Only a small number of families had patrician status and could only be born one; they

dominated the consulship; they partly monopolized the high political offices and could oppress plebeians with unfair legal decisions. They were richer that plebs and many plebs were indebted to them and debt laws were harsh

o The plebs gradually succeeded in their struggle for more equality as a new sort of magistrate known as the tribune was created; tribunes could cancel the actions of any other magistrate with a ‘veto’. You could not assault/kill them. The plebs could force patricians to publish parts of the law so it could be applied more consistently.

o The first legal code was the Twelve Tables. The plebs won the right to hold consulship and create an assembly called the comitia tribute.

• SOCIETY IN THE TWELVE TABLES o Drawn up by a board of 10 magistrates in 451 BCE o Reflect on environment where writing was not widespread. o Economy is overwhelmingly agricultural; harsh penalties for debters defaulting o Paterfamilias – the male head of a household who held a power of PATRIA POTESTAS

over sons and daughters o Manus – the power of a husband over his wife; easy for a voice to avoid coming under

legal authority of her husband, esp. if an independent women • WARFARE AND THE CONQUEST OF ITALY

o Army was divided into legions under the command of the consuls Seven MILITARY TRIBUNES per legion

o Started off like the hoplite army but developed to a more flexible formation and a light-armed troops were added; there was a property qualification for serving in the army; poorest citizens not drafted

o Went to war nearly every year; by the 3rd century they had brought most of Italy south of the Po river under their control One set back includes that of 390 BCE when Rome was sacked by the Gauls.

o Conquest of Samnites is a good example of military achievement in Italy → were a confederacy of tribes in the mountains and b/w 343 and 290 BCE, the romans fought 3 wars w/ them. They continued to oppose robe by taking sides with their enemies in the war w/ Pyrrhus, Hannibal, and the Social War

o The Romans did not treat defeated ppl. the same way as those of Rome; adapted their rule to the situation → some gained citizenship, others had right to vote, others were simply allies

o Sometimes founded colonies. They annexed land from their subjects (ager publicus) and gave it to citizens without founding a colony

o Used a census to count citizens and asses their property to gain info for taxation known as the tribute which paid for the army.

o Gradually became more unified and “Romanized”; the network of roads made travel easy and after 167 BCE, Italians no longer paid tribute and Roman military ventures were financed based on their overseas subjects; after the Social War of 91-89 BCE, the citizenship was extended to all subjects

o Caecilius Metellus – gave a speech as he held many offices; held first parade of with elephants (died 221 BCE); fulfilled 10 things that a wise man sough → best warrior, best orator, bravest commander, led the best commands, held the highest magistrate, highest resourcefulness, held senatorial rank, made a great deal of money in approved fashion, left many children, and was the most illustrious person in the state

o Every aspiring office holder needed to have completed ten annual military campaigns (even if had years between them)

o Cicero – held title of imperator which he won as a result of his campaigns against mountain tribes

o Quaestor o Cilicia o Laus – high reputation; every office holder/warrior hoped to gain this from his fellow

citizens as well as gloria o Gloria - glory o Virtus – Manly courage and the competition for glory; important in every state but

especially at of Rome; victory monuments, temples and paintings show triumph of military generals; triumph was the embodiment of glory. General dressed up as Jupiter and paraded through Rome

o Sallust – a friend of Julius Caesar; saw desire for glory and ceased it as a factor in Roman history and uses it an explanation of the growth of the empire → “incredible how much the state grew within a brief period once freedom had been gained...”

o Relatives of the deceased wore the masks known as imagines o Triumphatores – a victorious general who petitioned for senate and the right to engage

in a Military parade along the sacred way of the inclined path to the temple of Jupiter. 15/20 of those who reached victory ran for council Needed a minimum body count ~ 5000 enemy dead Accompanied by slave(s) that reminded the triumphatores that he was a mortal

man o Plautus – playwright who wrote c 200 BCE uses a lot of military language and

metaphors o Before 150 BCE, there is a unwillingness to serve in the Legions due to the length of

campaigns in Spain o Bia - Used violence in wars; when stormed Carthage, directed troops toward the city

and told them to kill citizens o In 171 BCE, many more men volunteered because members of the prev. war came back

rich → considered ‘booty’ to be the main idea behind warfare o Before the battle of Zama, Scipio (General) tells his troop that if they win the battle,

they will be securely in control of affairs of events in Africa, but will gain control of the rest of the world

o Fides – Roman protection for foreign states o Counsular – a counsel o Apotropaic – evil adverting o Alliances

Bilateral alliances with potential enemies; stripped of their free capacity to deal with each other and subordinated to that of Roman policy

Allies took part and gained a share of the profits of military campaigns • CONQUESTS OVERSEAS

o Polybius wrote the most interesting accounts of Rome’s overseas expansions c. 160 BCE Became friends with the prominent aristocrats; witnessed destruction of

Carthage, and confirmed rule in Greece after 146 BCE Thought that after the First Punic war, Romans had the intentions of conquering

the Roman world PROVINCIA – originally meant a magistrate’s assigned sphere of action, became

the territorial meaning only gradually Romans believed they were in danger unless everyone was terrified of and

obedient to them One of the driving factors was their image of themselves as a warlike people and

their social system in the ability to command respect through benefaction or intimidation was paramount

o Carthage and the West Rome’s first overseas enemy; founded by the Phoenicians c 8-9th century BCE →

known as the Punic Wars Fought three wars b/w 264 – 146 BCE; first two were long and difficult

In the second, general Hannibal invaded Italy from Spain and won three devastating battles

In 203 BCE, they invaded Africa and Hannibal was recalled to defend unsuccessfully

In 149 BCE they responded to Carthage after much distrust with a treaty violation and demolished the city three years later

The result was Rome asserting its influence in areas that formerly belonged to Carthage

Permanently occupied Spain Romans appointed magistrates with imperium and extended the number of

praetors to six; extended magistrate’s term of office with a prorogation so they could serve one year as a praetor/consul and 2+ years after as a propreator or proconsul in his provincia

o Rome and the Hellenistic Kingdoms First confrontation with the eastern kingdoms was with Philip V of Macedonia

and Antiochus III of Syria; defeated Philip at Cynoscephalae in 197 BCE which was a portal shock; the Hellenistic kingdoms found they could no longer ignore the power in the west

Expected Greek cities to obey heir will but left the monarchs in place as long as they were obedient and respectful → would retaliate severely if their demands were ignored

Philip’s son Perseus tried to reassert their power and they suffered a defeat at Pydna in 168 BCE and the Macedonian kingdom was divided into four republicas

Romans devastated the people of Epirus which had supported Perseus and enslaved 150,000 prisoners

A pretender by the name Philip Andriscus tried to assert himself but Romans crushed them (148 Bce)

Overtime, Hellenistic monarchs disappeared; the Seleucids and Ptolemies continued to rule until the first century BCE

• IMPERIALISM AND CULTURE o After First Punic war, Romans imposed an indemnity of 25 mil denarii (= Greek drachma

or one day’s worth of pay) to be paid to the treasury o Much larger indemnities were collected in subsequent wars o Also collected direct and indirect taxes from their subjects and after 167 BCE Romans

no longer had to pay tribute o Effects of imperialism were dramatic as Roman culture had been influenced by Greek

culture since the beginnings → ie Roman gods, architecture, sculptures, art o Porcius Cato “the elder” was a NEW MAN - born in a small town and became a senator;

he was skilled at legal oratory and his war record, virtue through political success, held consulship, and became a CENSOR (revised the roll of senators and was more prestigious than consulship)

Cultivated his image as an exemplar of Roman virtues → was a hard working farmer

Reputation for his hostility toward the Greek Criticized Greek rhetoric, philosophy, and education → could read and speak

Greek; though they were inferior Wrote Roman Demosthenes

Army • Legions - made of Roman citizens • Auxilia - pepregrini (foreigners • billeting • Nonius Datus • Gaius Julius Macer, son of Agedillus <--- Celtic name

o became a non commissioned officer (like a corporal) served for 32 years, decorated for valour by other soldiers Celtic background, west central France

o name given on enlistment o fathers completely non Roman name (Celtic) o he probably had a Celtic name that was changed

• members needed a letter of recommendation • had to meet health and height requirements • all roman legionaries had to be citizens • some awarded citizenship when recruited - not many • some pepregrini transferred to legions and granted citizenship -happens a bit more often • needed 9-12 thousand new recruits every year • auxiliary service are on enlistment are not citizens but when term done granted citizenship -

wives and children included up until 2nd c. AD • after 2nd c.AD wife and children do not • produces a demographic mixing • military is an avenue of social mobility • Centurions - soldiers that rise through the ranks - top centurion = first javelin/spear • serving soldiers did suffer some legal disabilities

o when still on the move - Caesar Augustus prohibited legal marriages until early 3rd c. AD - there were still informal unions - there were children

o are allowed to make valid wills while in service, even if fathers are still alive - accumulate and pass on property

• veterans o honourably discharged o enjoyed certain privileges o exempt from many taxes o immune from billeting - civilians hosting passing soldiers at own expense

o exempt from compulsory public service - local citizens compelled to offer up service for betterment of city for a couple days (4-6)

• soldiers were sometimes a pest to same towns • soldiers serve in peaceful ways as well

o centurions in peace time capacity - act as judges in peripheries of empire o seconded to staff members of imperial financial officials o serving as personal involved in censes o act as tax collectors o act a labour - road building, mining, harbour construction o specks to construction prowess of Roman military

Post Republic Period • OCTAVIAN (=Augustus) →63 BCE – 14 CD

o Naval battle of Actium – 31 BCE, the Roman world was awash with men at arms; 51 – 55 legions (5000 men/legion) + sailors at arms

o Troops show conscription and tax drain on empire o Any claim to power could tamper with loyalty to the troops and lead to civil wars o Octavian moved to demobilize these troops o Set the number of legions to 28, which drops to 25 in CE 9 after a defeat o From CE 40 to CE 2, there are about 30 legions, and increases to 33 o Also reduces size of Roman fleet o Smaller naval bases ie in Syria and Alexandria o Kept most major armies under his control and kept loyalty to others away by rewarding

soldiers by his own funds and later institutionalizes a form of pension and bonuses from the treasury funded by his own money which was replenished by inheritance tax for Roman citizens

o Made it a largely volunteer force and eliminates conscription o Creates set term of service with 20 years for citizens, 25 years naval for auxiliary service

and for the elite Pretorian guard with 16 years o The average salary in denari is maintained at 200 silver denari which is later raised to

300, and then 500, then later to 800 denari → not all of it is in coin; often outsourced deductions like food, clothing, maintenances of religious structures, and supplies; should not be minimized and is slightly more than a skilled carpenter/woodworker to ensure professionalization of the army

o Gaius Marius institutes the training of swords and gladiators; systemizes the baggage train, and inventor in Roman technology (creates a new metal spear)

• TACTICAL STRUCTURE OF ARMY o Heavily armed Legion shock troops o Legion divided into 10 cohorts o Had a short sword, 2 javelins, a dagger, and a shield, a shirt, and a queras

o Main tactical unit is the cohort divided into 6 centuries with 80 men commanded by a centurion who was the back bone of the army; were ex-rankers w/ 10-20 years of service. Could be promoted directly from the equestrian order

o Centuries divided into 8 squads of 10 men, known as tent mates o Chief centurion of the first cohort (which is sometimes double strength) in all the

Legions was known as the first javelin was the senior non-commissioned officer. Could go on to hold officer positions

o Below the centurion = principle soldiers (immune soldiers) who are non-commissioned officers; they are excused from ordinary fatigues. Can be military surveyors, or have a variety of other jobs

o Main legionary commander (except Egypt who was though best to be given to that of an equestrian officer) was person of senatorial rank like a praetor known as a Legate

o Below the legate were six military tribunes who were either of (with at least one senatorial) senatorial or equestrian rank was the ranking member and second overall in the legion

o The third command (prefect of the camp) was a man of considerable power who had previously held first javelin of the camp

o Auxilia – non Roman citizens in enlistment who after 25 years receive their citizenship as an award after their completion of service → would have been 150,000-160,000 citizens in Legion and 160,000 – 170,000 auxilia commanded by citizen ranking soldiers

o Alae (wings) – cavalry wings who fought in the phalanx w/ c. 500 riders; o There were mixed cohorts of riders and cavalry men o The miliary units had about 1000 men o Numeri – irregular troops fighting as infantry or cavalry who are men enlisted under the

command of their native commands brought into Roman troops and show no complicated fore structures

o Weapons = bows, slings, long swords, throwing spears, and heavy lances o Praetorian cohorts are stationed at the praetorian camp made up of Roman citizens to

form the imperial body guard o Augustus’ guard had 9 cohorts with 375 starting denari to 700 to 1000; the number and

size varies but always had 8-10 o Josephus – accompanied the army and saw them at peace time and at war time (a

writer); refers to them as engaging in bloodless battles/bloody training • OPERATIONAL TACTICS

o Training was harsh by todays structures o Vexillations – drawn from a variety of legions to march in smaller numbers and move

with speed o 4:1 superiority o Training emphasized how to survive in things like trenches and gave them a sense of

psychological security; allowed them to have time to form in rank if attacked o Marching camp was a labour saving device in which few men were needed to guard

camp at night

Orders • ORDO – rank/orders; social categories defined by the state both through statutory (legal) and

customary rules • Augustus restored orders but with sharper definition especially the upper ranks • SENATORS • EQUESTRIANS (EQUITES) • DECURIONS

o Class of local town counsellors/office holders o Needed respectable birth, minimum wealth that varied based on the size of the town o Men with a criminal past, or those in demeaning jobs were not able to run (ie

auctioneers ect), and were in place to allow only those worthy to run of counsel and had property – sometimes people were appointed who were not ‘worthy’ ie in times of debt, allowed freeborn sons, foreigners, ect

o Had to sometimes pay a set fee to enter the counsel or become a priest • PLEBS (PLEBIANS) • SLAVES

The Aristocracy • Top of the hierarchy was the class of senate; small group and only ever 300 at a time → what

they did affected everyone due to interconnectivity • Senate were large landowners → forbidden from owning ships and engaging in commerce but

some found ways around it; most were sons of other senators but men from other families could enter senate if rich enough (new men)

• Only senators would hold the highest offices, and most were first elected to quaestorship (used to help with praetor and consuls as well as financial responsibly); senators were responsible to hold praetorship before consulship; could also serve as tribune of the plebes or aedile (supervised public works and games and the distribution of free grain)

• Laws evolved gradually in an effort to regulate the intensifying competition for power • Senatorial families had a strong sense of identity an their place in a tradition; ie at funeral

procession, actors impersonated their ancestors; the families defined themselves largely by their tradition of public achievement (ie office holdings and military victories)

• The history of Rome could be seen a string of ancestral accomplishments and aristocratic families thus identified themselves with the state to a profound degree

• Aristocracy’s inability to subordinate personal power to the prestige of the state was a factor to the Republic’s downfall

• The senator ranks remained under Augustus with about 600 senators in any given time who along with their immediate family were perceived worthy by worth, wealth and moral excellence

• Purged the senate of dubious standing during the civil war period; distinguished those of different ranks; had to meet a given amount of wealth of 1 mil cestricies (sp?) → known as the census

• Latus clavus – the ceremonial robes with a broad purple stripe that was restricted to the higher classes

• Co-opt adlect – the power to kick out senators • Allowed senators to marry ex-slaves and have concubines • Banded senators, their families, and equestrians from disgracing themselves by preforming in

public spectacles like gladiator games, chariot racing, performances • The ordo of senator was not always hereditary, but entry into the senate induced Augustus to

premade the hereditary principle to raise the stature of senators • Extended to descendants of senators for up to three generations itself • By second century AD, spouses as senators were considered to share the senatorial status of

their husbands itself

The Knights: Provincial Government and Corruption • PUBLICAN – the individuals who (wealthy) undertook public tax contract • EQUITES – knights which the main qualification was property in excess of 100,000 denarii • No sharp separation between senators and equites • Even after senators were banned from official equestrian order, sons remained equites until

became senators • RES REPETUNDAE – things to be recovered; the trying of magistrates for extortion; the corruption

was a major source of wealth for the senatorial lass; even a governor who did nothing illegal could gain a huge fortune → Gaius Gracchus replaced the jury of senators with that of knights

• Knights also had a financial stake in imperial administration →might punish a senator who had tried to limit their predatory practices by convicting him of extortion and at least one notorious case of this occurred

• Second ordo • Had a similar type to senators in sense that it was hereditary, restrictive, need for minimum

amount of wealth • Added by Tiberius • Many equestrians aren’t always able to claim free descent

o Needed at least two generations of free birth o Shows the need for separation between the classes

• Banned as well for public performances • Might have been 20,000 – 30,000 individuals • Public horse – honorific title which was a gift from the state which defines a true Equestrian -

made true equestrian as the emperor gave him the horse • Had the right to sit in the first 14 rows of the theatre for the holding of chariot races in Rome

and Roman colonies

• Some equestrians had moderate fortunes and had no political ideals beyond that of their own town

• Title of ‘excellent man’ was reserved for office holders and that of ‘most accomplished’ was attached to senior prospects and ‘most renowned’ to designate the top equestrian of them al

• Local elites m marked up the formal right of any equestrian to wear a large golden ring itself and had the right to wear the citizen toga (LATUS ANGUSTUS CLAVUS) – the narrow striped toga

Decurions • Class of local town counsellors/office holders • Needed respectable birth, minimum wealth that varied based on the size of the town • Men with a criminal past, or those in demeaning jobs were not able to run (ie auctioneers ect),

and were in place to allow only those worthy to run of counsel and had property – sometimes people were appointed who were not ‘worthy’ ie in times of debt, allowed freeborn sons, foreigners, ect

• Had to sometimes pay a set fee to enter the counsel or become a priest

Peasants: Gracchus’ Land Reforms/ Plebs • freeborn + citizen ex-slaves + peregrine (defacto/foreigners) • 133 BCE 0 a mob of senators and their dependents lynched Tiberius Gracchus, a tribune of the

plebes, and his supporters in the forum • Gracchus had taken up the cause of peasantry by proposing the redistribution of the land b/c of

economic crisis as too much land had made its way into the hands of the wealthiest families • Peasantry decline could have been due to military drafting • A law of 376 BCE limited the amount of public land that an individual could cultivate so Gracchus

proposed to enforce this law → rich felt threatened • Used the tribune’s constitutional privileges and was the first to use the power to veto →

enemies thought he was attempting to act like a patron to those it would help • Tribunes after Gracchus continued to propose similar reforms which eventually lead to the

Social War and finally was granted in 90 BCE

Slaves

• 1:4 people was a slave by the end of the Republic • Wealthy families could own hundred → often of foreign origins and POW or kidnapped and sold

by pirates • Estate is run by a foreman (vilicus). Urban domestic slaves might have intimate ties to their

owners →nannies, tutors, and wetnurses. Could have quite specialized jobs like skill workers (craftsmen, hairdressers, actors, midwives, doctors) of either free of slave status. Some would become poets as well. Were also secretaries, accountants, or stenographers.

• Emancipations is mentioned frequently as a normal occurrence • Freed slaves often retained social and economic ties with their former masters (patrons) and

some continued to live with and work for their patrons; patrons counted on their loyalty • Slaves rarely attempted to revolt by had other ways of resistance such as running away with the

exception of the revolt of Spartacus which stated at a school for gladiators which was crushed in 71 BCE whose army defeated 3 legions that were = 100,000

• Debarred from a variety of things • PRINCIPATE – the period ushered by the first emperor through a monarchy of Caesar of 27 BCE –

14 CE • Principal source of slaves was from war • Towards late republic period, an increase in anarchy takes place; piracy becomes an important

form of slaves →Would take prisoners • During it’s heyday, the southern Agean sea could process up to thousands of slaves in their

markets in one day (c. 10,000 slaves) at Delos • Caesar himself was captured by the pirates; Rome only stops form of slaves from pirates • Origins of slaves are more dirty • VERNAE – home born slaves that are distinguished in the sources; single largest source of slaves

→ allude to sources of slaves born to households which display compliments of their slave familia

• Formal marriage was denied to slave, but owners encouraged conjugal type unions to replenish slave numbers

• Many slaves came for Germany, Africa, Balkans, or even areas such as Syria and further on; there was a tax on the import of slaves who were brought into the empire itself

• Continued to engage in military engagements into Germany • Wars did not cease into the principate • INFANT EXPOSURE – setting out of children in the Greek world; parents would abandon newborn

infants on the confines of society for a variety of reasons; these children would mainly perish, but a good deal of them were raised as foster children, or raised and breed them as slaves; parents sometimes sold their children into slavery (especially in Anatolia)

• CONTRACT SLAVERY – would sell themselves into slavery → 25 – 30% of slaves in the expectation that there was a set term and the sale price was returned to the person who sold themselves at release as a form of slave allowance (Pelculium)

• People specialized in the slave trade were part of a wider portfolio; occupation was malodourous but could sometimes be people of substantial wealth

• Slave sales needed to provide information about slave → name, age, if suffered any illnesses, physical condition, escape attempts

• Occupation of slaves were varied → used in a variety of contexts: o In private urban households would take care of house’s accounts, wet nursing, hair

dressing, dressing, attendance of jewellery/furniture, watching entrance to house, cooking, cleaning;

o Petronius – a senator who wrote the SATYRICON which gives us a certain look TRIMALCHIO in which we learn an army serves him and his mistress and their guests; he punishes his slaves as they wait on him and his guests; also pleased Trimalchio and mistress sexually

o Slaves could be owned by a public entity → ie a town or civic corporation as a scribe/office attendance, heralds, guards.

o Slaves in the country sides served a variety of roles → did the same domestic contexts, but also helped with planting and processing of rural products; or ordinary farm hands who helped with animal husbandry.

o There were a serious of revolts in south Italian herders → last of the major slave revolts to rock Italy (by Spartacus)

o Freeborn people would work in the mines alongside the slaves o Many slaves lived in domestic contexts, and could become intimately involved in the

care of children and the concerns of their masters o Peculium – a slave allowance which they could use to eventually purchase their freedom o Were set up in business as agents to represent the work of their masters

• Slaves may represented 10 – 30 % of total populations of core areas of Italy, southern France, western Asia Minor, and Spain, and > 5% in other areas with a large amount of free labour

• Were the property of their owners and would be subjected to psychological and physical cruelty – injured/attempting to injure their masters would be treated with badly

• SECUNDUS - In AD 61, the Prefect of Rome was injured by his slave and killed • Premium on young children who acted like children → either innate or enforced • Would prevent flight by attaching collars with name, address, and reward → would impose

punishment on those who harboured slaves • Would add punishment to improve condition of slaves (ie ill ones) to promote stability and

attempt to reign in cruelty o Emperor Hadrian once poked out eye of slave

• Slave holdings could range from 1 – 2 members to hundreds of slaves, and sometimes several thousands

• Destinies – many slaves ended their days as free persons; having be freed by their masters. The most frequent form (manumition) occurred through formal manumition or by will. In the latter form, slaves were set free through the wishes of their master (testimonial). Would be done based on the profit to their masters

o Augustus needed to set caps on the number of slaves at one time who could be freed by establishing certain standards like age minimum of slave masters needed to free a slave

o Slaves freed through formal mean using a formal rod by a citizen would become a roman citizen themselves; freed by non-roman citizens would not become citizens

o Operae – would remain close to their masters and offer them services as a condition of their freedom

o Many wealthy free slaves might join institutions of AUGUSALES priests for the worship of the emperor

o Slaves could also be informally free; did not achieve full citizenship and perks → had a status less than full citizenship but needed to engage in a provision to the state to undergo a formal emanumition

o Ex-slaves could never completely escape the stigma attached to their formal slave. Freed men could not become magistrates or marry senators (freed women)

o Condition of full chattel slaves had converged to an extent in which the title slave all but disappeared

• Roman citizens are prohibited to sell themselves into slavery but can get sold into it in a various of ways

• Considered to be natural people but not free

Final Exam • Social stratification • the minimal wealth qualification in cetrities (learn about nest week)- 1 million cestricies to be a

senator • to what class by birth did Julius Cesar belong to? patricians • Senators typically commanded auxiliary units. True or FALSE • about patronage- by the late rebublican period the clients showed respect by ritually greeting

their patron at dawn and accompanied their patron to and from places, o The actual Q- What is not part of the patron client relationship?

C) Equality of relationship • The Fabii where an example of what? - D) Gens ("clan") • In ancient Rome Laus refers to what? - good reputation/ repute usually through ilitary activity • Chronology - The first secession of the plebs occurs in - 494BC