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Somalias Situational Environmental Health Assessment of Three Zones

Somaliland, Punt land and South Central-Mogadishu

Prepared for: WHO Office for Somalia

Project Period: From June 21st September 20th, 2010

Prepared by:

This report covers some areas only and does represent the whole profile of Somalia, though it reflects

strong similarities of the overall environmental health of the country. The areas covered include some of

the main urban cities, some rural areas and nomadic communities as well.

This report was prepared by the following members, with contributions from the local administration,

from the staff of WHO Somalia, local NGOs and, in many instances, by the common men and on the

streets.

Somaliland:

Dr. Ali Sheikh Omar Kabil Head of MOH/L Environmental Health (Public Health) Unit

Mr. Mahamoud Barre Deria Sanaag Regional Sanitation officer

Dr. Ali Ibrahim Bahar Project Team Leader and Coordinator

Puntland

Ahmed Abdihakim Ahmed Environmental and sanitation officer Mudug Region

Abdukadir Mohamed Burburshe Enviromental and sanitation officer Barri Region

South Central (Mogadishu):

Essa Haji Yusuf Head of Staff Sophpa

Ali Hussein Yusuf Communicable diseases officer

Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud Treasure of Sophpa

Mohamed Abdilahi Mohamoud Sanitation officer

Comments and suggestions may be forwarded to

abahar57@gmail.com

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Acknowledgements

The participants of this project acknowledge importance of this mission and thank the WHO-Somalia

Operation Office for financing this project, and providing all the needed technical support to facilitate

the sanitarians do their assignments. Undertaking this situation analysis and needs assessment for

environmental health in all zones in Somalia was a small window in assessing the situation up closely. I

am particularly grateful for all the support that WHO-Somaliland office in Hargeisa provided us during

our workshop. The inception workshop would not have been possible without the interest, technical,

logistical and resourceful support of the workshop coordinators in Hargeisa, Mr. Abdi Hassan Duale

(Abdi Gurey) and Asia Osman, WHO Hargeisa. Especial thanks to all WHO representatives in Puntland

and South Central (Mogadishu) for their guidance and technical support. Dr. Abdirahman Jama Hadi,

representative of WHO in Awdal region, provided all the necessary means for me to travel in around the

city of Borama to meet people and to visit sites of interest to the project. I thank him for his unwavering

attention.

I also wish to gratefully acknowledge the many individuals from many institutions and local government

offices, City Mayors, University staff, medical doctors and public health officials, business people and

local NGOs and others, who availed us their time to provide needed information and documents of

reference to accommodate our work. I also thank all the sanitarians who have done a tremendous and,

in some instances risky work to help this project.

Finally, a very special thank to Mr. Abdi Hassan Daule (Abdi Gurey) of WHO Hargeisa Office for his

relentless effort to see to it that I found whoever I needed to talk to and went where I needed to go

throughout the time I was working in this project. He even kept a constant contact with me as I traveled

alone to remote places for gathering information I needed for the completion of the project. Mr. Duale

made himself available to help me with all that at his disposal to make sure that I was comfortable and

taken care of well during my stay in Somaliland. I would like to express my sincere appreciation for his

help.

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The number of International and Local UN/NGOs who were consulted: ANNEX -A

Authorities consulted: ANNEX-B

SOMALILAND (Excess): Annex-C

The Somaliland Consumer protection Agency (SCPA): Annex-D

Laboratory Support: Annex-E

Hargeisa Group Hospital: Annex-F

Table of Contents

Acronyms ....................................................................................................................4

Exective Summary ......................................................................................................5

Background ...............................................................................................................11

Zonal Situational Analysis:Somaliland...................................................................25

Need fo National Environment Health Laboratories .............................................81

Conclusions ...............................................................................................................85

Recommendations .....................................................................................................86

Puntland Situational Analysis ..................................................................................87

Conclusions............................................................................................................ 107

Recommendations ................................................................................................. 108

South Central Situational Analysis ...................................................................... 108

Recommendations ................................................................................................. 118

Annex-A ................................................................ 1Error! Bookmark not defined.

Annex-B ................................................................................................................. 119

Annex-C ................................................................................................................. 125

Annex-D ................................................................................................................. 126

Annex-E ................................................................................................................. 128

Annex-F ................................................................................................................. 129

References .............................................................................................................. 136

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Acronyms

EPI Expanded Programme on Immunization

HBV Hepatitis B Virus

HCV Hepatitis C Virus

HCW Health-care waste

HCWM Health-care waste management

HIV Human immunodeficiency virus

ITCZ Tropical Convergence Zone

DDT tri-Chlorinated Hydrocarbon (pesticide)

PPP Private/Public/Partnership

NGO Non-profit-Organization

MCHs Mother/child/health services

EHA Environmental Health Assessment

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EXECTIVE SUMMARY

1. SOMALIA: CURRENT STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL

HEALTH

The traditional approach to environmental problems has been reactive. That is, the problem becomes

apparent: wildlife or people sicken and die, or drinking water or air tastes foul. Then researchers seek

the cause of the problem, and regulators seek to eliminate or reduce that cause1.

After more than 20 years of generalized conflict and violence in some areas, particularly the South

Central Zone, the destruction of all infrastructures in all zones, and the inabilities of the existing

governments to meet the basic needs of the public, Somalia is experiencing the worst environment

abuses ever, and consequently the environmental health has been in deep crisis. The tragedy in this part

of the world is that those above quoted traditional environmental approaches and precautionary

principles have been at the bare minimum at best, or have totally been nonexistent. Both the

environmental status and public health situations in all Somali populated regions have suffered a great

deal of disproportional tragic consequence as the result of total neglect, particularly the environment

and critical natural resources. The environment has been neglected and greatly damaged because of the

absence of strong government, lack of monitoring systems or effective regulations, lack of education on

part of the public and, above all, the presence of selfish and opportunistic groups of organizations or

individuals who are exploiting the fragile environment and taking advantage of the current situation in

the country.

1.1 Solid and Liquid Waste Management

While there are some important progresses have been made on the environmental initiatives of waste

nothing strategy by the developed countries, solid waste, just like many developing countries, is a

major problem in almost everywhere you look in Somalia, no matter what city or town you are in.

Empty, clear plastic bags, mixed domestic waste and trash bags filled with human feces and food

products are hanging from trees or scattered around all buildings. Urine-filled plastic bottles, chemical

waste from cars oil change as well as oil spill from gas stations and abandoned vehicles are desecrated

on the streets. Definitely, the amount of waste and piles of garbage in around the cities is as the result

of an uncontrolled and unmanaged hazardous waste, much of which has contributed to the frequent

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cholera and diarrhea break- outs that have been on the rise. High-tech trash of electronics and hardware

imported from China and used computers from the U.S and elsewhere are also on the rise. New small

industries, such as soap producing plants, hides and skin processing plants, water filtration plants, food

processing plants and furniture industries have been on the rise. These small industries are contributing

to rising waste of both solid and chemical waste. The public is exposed to these hazardous materials on

daily bases through air, food, water, and consumer products. Hospital waste, including biological waste

and vaccination- syringes, unused medicines and injection vials, some even containing contents of

chemicals, are scattered around the hospital buildings with no proper planning and waste management

or protection of the public from these biohazard wastes. Blood, animal body parts and waste from the

slaughterhouses are floating on dry rivers or constantly being dumped on temporary ditches around the

cities, where both human and animal scavengers are searching for through, side by side. The eye cannot

escape the sight of pillars of fumes and dark smoke, from open incineration of solid waste, hovering

over all cities and villages, while the smell of organic waste in the air is excruciating to the newcomers

nose. Though it is a common knowledge that all anthropocentric activities, if not controlled, have the

potential to render harm to humans and the environment, unfortunately no one claims responsibilities

for the apparent hazardous materials in the environment. Little, if any, of an efficient and effective

hazardous waste management strategy has been put in place in urban cities, where most waste is

generated. Though no one seems to think that protecting the environment is not important, different

groups have different explanations for what is taking place, or may even have different ideas of what

environmental responsibility means. The public may want to have clean water, clean air or safe food,

but feel that the local government should be doing something about the problem. To the tree cutters

and charcoal producers, it is about survival and feeding his family. And for the business people, Qat

retailers, small industries and plastic bag producers, dumping waste in to the streets or even rivers may

make sense, for alternative ways of disposing of waste are likely to cost them more and diminish profit.

And finally to the local governments (if there is one), their claim is mainly about not having enough

funds to manage solid waste.

The existing environmental situation results, not only a public health concerns, but also destruction of

biodiversity, environmental contamination and loss of beeches and coral reefs. There is no significant

environmental research being conducted to assess the ecological consequences and human health in

this region for the past twenty years. The areas of risk assessment and risk management, which is critical

to understanding who is at risk or where is at risk, has not been incorporated into the educational

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systems in the country. There are no effective environmental health institutions which are equipped

well to educate the public about the environmental threats and risks. There are no environmental

health labs that are equipped with the necessary tools to carryout critical environmental sampling and

analysis in order to set standards for food contaminants, air pollutants and water exposures. When an

activity raises threat [of harm] to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be

taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically1.

1.2 Misappropriation of Land Use: The Tragedy of the Commons.

The tragedy of the commons describes the consequences of using self-interest alone to guide the

exploitation of publically owned resources (air, water, land).

Contrary to John Muirs preservation ethics that believes wilderness mirrors divinity, nourishes

humanity, and vivifies the spirit, anthropocentrism or the human-centered ethics flourishes in todays

Somalia. Misappropriation of land and land grapping is a new phenomenon of real estate use in all

regions, where the land became a commodity of trade or the only major economic tool. One of the

obvious major problems associated with matching economic processes with the present environmental

resources is the way these natural resources are being abused. Market decisions fail to account for the

context of species or the interactions between resource quality and ecosystems function. No land is

preserved for national parks, recreation or even soccer fields for children in the cities to play. If you find

a piece of land, you own it; and that includes mountains, rivers and lakes, historical sites and

monuments. Of course, public properties and natural resources are being taken for personal use without

due process of law and without just compensation in todays Somalia. These illegal practices and

overexploitation of land and natural capital, on which humankind depends for food, security, medicines

and machines, including minerals and mountains as well as both renewable and nonrenewable

resources, could seriously deprive millions of Somalia to have the right to own a piece of land for

farming or for recreation in near future. Deforestation and desertification have been rampant in all

regions, particularly between the rivers in the South, which resulted disappearance of century -old trees.

The total loss of grass from grazing areas is followed by soil erosion in many parts of the country, not to

mention the total absence of animal zoo for wildlife and human interaction. There is no sign of

managing native species life for ecotourism in this biodiverse landscape. The lack of a strong

government in the whole country opened the doors for those who feel they have the right exploit the

natural resources for their own personal gains. A little value is put on the loss of ecosystems due to the

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lack of education on the part of the decision makers, investors and dividend earners. New Practices of

clear-cutting agricultural methods, use of persistent pesticides and increased use uncontrolled fertilizers

by poorly managed farming communities could endanger wild-life habitat or cause migration and death,

which will greatly reduce biodiversity and genetic variation in these regions. Proper use and better

management of ecological process require understanding the difference in time frame of markets and

ecosystems. The time frame for market decisions is short, while many ecosystem processes take place

over tens of thousands and even millions of years. Focusing only on the economic value of resources

while ignoring environmental health may mask serious changes in environmental quality or functions.

There is a need for an effective public education on the importance of the ecological systems, human

interactions with environment, a need for a strong and viable government, and a need for strong and

sustainable global support of significant dialogue addressing the current environmental problems in the

country. Protecting the planets genetic wealth made sense morally and economically. It was

considered, rightly enough, what decent, civilized people should do.3

Scientists have long argued that human actions have affected the environment; and Somalia is no

different. Human actions, anthropocentrism, have proven to be the chief cause of extinctions of large

animals. Many species and wild-life animals have either migrated, have become extinct or are in great

danger in todays Somalia. Though extinction is natural phenomena that involves a normally spread out

process of over time replacement, with the formation of new species, todays Somalia is experiencing a

great loss of habitat due to an accelerated human activities. A great loss of wild-life is due to rampant

human activities of deforestation in many parts of the country, alteration of the habitat for farming and

settlement, or cutting down trees in order to produce charcoal either for trade, economic benefits or

personal consumption. Such an impact exploitation of ecosystems led to a loss of Somalias wild-life and

extinction of many once kaleidoscopic birds and precious wild animals that once lived in a fertile

environment with rich biodiversity. Deforestation followed by desertification, erosion and soil

salinization are evident everywhere. These uncontrolled human actions have been the chief cause of

extinctions of many birds and large animals. Science has proven that when large the animals, such as

lions, elephants, cheetahs and horses, went extinct, the ecosystems in which they lived were affected.

Large herbivores were found responsible for distributing the seeds of many trees. When the herbivores

vanished, the fruit piled up under the trees and few seeds had the chance to sprout far enough from the

parent tree to thrive. In situations where the trees are being cut in a high rate like in Somalia, the large

trees are disappearing very fast. This is followed by the migration of many famous birds from many parts

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of the country due to the loss of their habitat, resulting diminishing in numbers or total extinction.

Restoring the ecosystems will require the restoration of large animals that are either facing extinction or

endangerment as these large animals interact and co-evolve with other species and influencing entire

ecosystems. Such efforts of re-wilding in a small-scale have been tried elsewhere and hold the potential

to partially restore important ecological processes3 of wildlife environment. Wilderness- where the

earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not

remain.3

1.3 Marine ecosystems

Marine ecosystems have been significantly influenced by people in virtually all parts of the world. In the

case of the Somali marine ecological status, a much more conscious and better-informed management

of the coastal ecosystems is critical. The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden extend over a distance of some 1700

nautical miles and are on average between 120 and 150 nautical miles wide2. This makes it a part of

major world shipping route which carries a good percent of global of global seaborne trade. A very high

percentage of the worlds crude and refined oil cargoes pass through the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden,

which better explains the piracy business in some areas of the Somali coastal regions. Consequently this

region suffers a significant damage from a constant oil spill which goes uncontrolled and unreported.

Local people in the coastal cities reported oil residues and tar balls often found on the beaches. Several

of the coastal and marine ecosystems which support economically significant activities such as fisheries

are very vulnerable to oil pollution. Oil related damage to mangrove, seagrass beds or coral reefs could

have a serious and long lasting impact on fish stocks4. There are also illegal fishing activities taking place

in many parts of the coastal areas due to the absence of strong government or other authorities that

could monitor and protect these oceans. In addition, local reports indicate that illegal commercial

fishing and introduction of new diseases contribute to decline of biodiversity of marine life in the region.

The Somali coral reefs, great natural treasures that the Somalis do not even know, are at great risk of

being washed away completely. Industrial fishing today in Somalia is exclusively carried out by foreign

vessels. The coral reef ecological systems in the area, a habitat for other marine resources, mangroves

and seagrass beds often entangle with the nets used by these illegal vessels and thrown away on the

beach. It has been reported by the local fishermen that Egyptian boats chartered by Ex-President, Dahir

Rayale, of Somaliland had employed destructive fishing methods where they have removed a great

portion of coral reefs ecological systems on the coast of Lughaya, Somaliland, for relocation to Egyptian

coastal areas. Recent overfishing, especially for lobster, threatens the Somali coastal marine life. These

illegal actions combined with port generated pollution, result a great deal of coral reef destruction. In

the absence of efforts to enact truly protective and far-sighted environmental policies, little thought is

being given to future environmental impacts. Large areas in the coastal cities are being covered by

plastic bottles and plastic bags that people are carelessly left behind, blown from city streets by the

wind, or washed by and carried by the run-off water to the ocean front or deep into the ocean, where

the benthic regions of the ocean is used as land-fill. In addition, due to the absence of quality systems

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for waste management, the public is constantly being exposed to hazardous waste materials, including

volatile organic compounds, some of which are emitted by uncontrolled small industries with an

increasing rate in these areas. The use persistent pesticides, including DDT5, on agricultures, on livestock

and for vector control has become very common practice. More serious than their physical presence on

the beach front is the fact that plastics have the capacity to leach out the chemical compounds

associated with their production and the public is not protected. Of course, the waste renders the water

less useful to wildlife or downstream humans and animals that are drinking the water. No one is

studying the health consequences of these daily exposures. Little, if any, epidemiologic studies have

been carried out to find out the toxicity, carcinogenic effects, or the chronic effects of these hazardous

materials on the public. Toxic chemical and solid waste pollution have been ignored or accepted for all

the ill-informed or selfish reasons. At the present, Somalia in general has no effective institutions or

strategy to address waste management in a coherent manner. There is a need for improved efforts to

create environmental policies and strict regulations to effectively get handle of the waste management

to safe our natural resources, including both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, which require

sustainability of their carrying capacity. For future generations to benefit from the resources available

for us today, we must follow the tenants of sustainable development.

1.4 Water Scarcity and Unsafe Drinking Water

For most human as well as some commercial and industrial uses in all over the world, the quality of the

water is as important as its quantity. Unfortunately, most Somalis are drinking unclean and

unchlorinated water from shallow boreholes, surface water, springs, rain water catchments of Barkeds

(cement catchments) and Ballis (earth catchments). Increased populations in the cities mean higher

water demands, more drained of aquifers, and consuming and polluting available surface water

resources. In addition, general sanitation of most of the population is very poor. Coupled with

overgrazing, removal of woods for fuels, and higher temperatures due to global warming the country is

facing water shortages. On the other hand, climate conditions such as draught sometimes continue,

particularly in certain areas in Punt land and Somaliland, for more than three consecutive years. Loss of

arable land, increase in farming, drought, degradation in the quality and availability of clean drinking water

and civil/tribal conflict are all partly responsible for spread of diseases. Recurrent drought, limited water

sources, lack of water infrastructure, and environmental degradation has led to a water and food security

crisis in some regions. Droughts have been a normal cycle of pastoral life generally in the country;

however with the rapid destruction of the environment caused by overgrazing and charcoal burning,

pastoralists have lost traditional coping mechanisms. The drought has at times become a humanitarian

crisis because distances between pasture and water have greatly increased as a result of desertification.

Poor and middle wealth-group pastoralists are unable to walk the distance from water points to good

pasture resulting in mass loss of livestock. Of course, there are few areas with adequate amount of

groundwater, with better managed quality system of delivery for the public, such as Boramas SHABA

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water company, which operates under private/public partnership (PPP) arrangement. However, the

concern over the depletion of the groundwater aquifers and reserves is an issue, as aquifers are being

drained or in some places become saline due to influx of saltwater. A growing awareness of groundwater

as a critical natural resource leads to some basic questions. How much groundwater do we have left?

Estimates of the volume of groundwater are poorly known. Hence, the volume of groundwater in storage,

its quality, and the yield to wells vary greatly across. In addition, groundwater is used locally so the effects

of localized pumping on a given region are primary concern of some hydrogeologists in the country.

2. BACKGROUND

The World Health Organization (WHO) has undertaken this project with the view of carrying out a

situational environmental health assessment in three zones in Somalia: Somaliland, Puntland and South

central (Mogadishu). This project was financed by the World Health Organization with the objective of

collecting data for an environmental health assessment and to provide important and much needed

recommendations. This report gives an account of the main findings and of the situational health

assessment undertaken in Somalia during the period of 21 June through September 20 th, 2010. It also

identifies generic issues, draws lessons for designing future interventions in Somalia and proposes an

action plan for remedial measures with a view of addressing the environmental issues in these three

zones. Furthermore, this environmental health review was conducted against the background of the

crisis that has plagued the South Central (Mogadishu) for the last 20 years.

2.1 Terms of Reference for Professor Ali Bahar: 4 months assignment

1) Undertake situation analysis and needs assessment for environmental health in all zones in

Somalia;

2) Draft a document, based on situation analysis and needs assessment, in which identified zonal

environmental health priorities can be used for drafting zonal environmental health action

plans;

3) Provide guidance on zonal consensus meetings for zonal environmental health action plans;

4) Formulate specific projects based on zonal environmental health action plans, that can be used

for fund raising ( e.g. CAP, flash appeals or submitted to bilateral donors);

5) Provide guidance on the establishment of zonal public health laboratories (health, water and

food); verify available laboratory equipment; identify missing equipment and supplies for the

proper functioning of PH lab services; and

6) Submit a final report.

2.2 The Physical Environment4 Somalia, the country, with a total land area of 637,540 Km2, occupies the tip of the Horn of

Africa. With the longest coastline in Africa, Somalias coastline of 3,025 km ranges from the

Gulf of Aden in the north to the Indian Ocean in the east and south, respectively with a

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coastline of 1,000 km and 2,000km. Somalia, the country, stretches close 1,550 km from north

to south between latitudes 12000 N and 1037 S, and 1,09km from west to east between

longitudes 41000 and 510 21 E. Somalia is for the most part a flat country, rising in the southern

and central regions to a few hundred meters above sea level near the Ethiopian border . Shimer

Berris in Sanaag region is the countrys highest peak with the height of 2,407 km.

Climate changes are influenced by the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Though

elevation is high in some parts of the country, particularly the north, most of Somalia has semi-

arid to arid, and is hot and dry throughout the year, with low and erratic precipitation. With

droughts occurring every 2 to 3 years, followed by heavy and devastating floods, seasonal

changes are the primary determinants for the overall lives of the Somalis, t iming and amount of

rainfall as well as adequacy of grazing of a particular season. There are, therefore, four

recognized seasons, two of which are rainy seasons (GU and Deyr) and the other two are dry

seasons (Jiilaal and Hagaa). The Gu rais begin in April and last until June (60% of the total rain).

Hagaa, July-September, is followed by Deyr, October- November, which is followed by Jiilaal

period that begins in December through March. The annual rainfall in the country ranges from

as little as 50 to 500 mm. The mean daily maximum temperatures range from 300C to 400C and

the mean daily minimum temperatures from vary from 200C to more than 300C.

2.3 Land Use and Environmental Degradation4

Somalias long-lasting civil strife has contributed to the current worsened environmental

conditions. Lack of insecurity and civil strife normally means that environmental issues have

been ignored and neglected, and such is the case here in Somalia. The total breakdown of

legislative controls governing the use and access to natural resources resulted deforestation in

populated areas, overfishing of selective and targeted offshore areas and near shore marine

species along the long coast from Ras Kabon to Zaila and in between. Natural resources and

precious minerals, such as diamond, gold, are being stolen without the knowledge of the public.

Such activities have been reported in the coastal areas and in the Golis ranges near Berbera,

Sheikh and Lughaya in Somaliland. The public has no access to these exclusive sites where

foreigners alone have the complete control of these sites. This further demonstrates how the

environment has been neglected and fell victim to few selfish, both local and international,

individuals. Many of these problems stem from or have laid the basis for the prolonged civil

strife which Somalia, especially the south central, continue to experience.

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2.3.1 Charcoal: Energy Sources

Charcoal use as source of energy contributes to the continuing inherent environmental degradation in Somaliland. Charcoal use and its demand for use at the household and community level have reached a critical point and yet has not been tackled. Trees and forest all the regions are being burnt down continuously through systematic and random riding by turning thick forest and large trees into charcoal not only for the local consumption but also for export to Arab countries (gulf countries). Charcoal dealers use the term of black gold for the charcoal trade. Charcoal is the most important single fuel for 100% of the households in urban, pre-urban centers and main villages for cooking, heating and for many other purposes at household by community levels including cooking and food catering establishment etc worst of all the bulk of charcoal produced by burning forests is exported for sale in foreign markets. While the scale of forests and trees destruction is leading to make entire forest lands become barren without trees and vegetation (environmental degradation) causing desertification. Virtually, there are either very limited or no remedies and interventions to avert the situation. The impact of charcoal production on forest, socio-economic life health and environment is aggressively mounting. Shortage of charcoal supply used for household consumption lead to charcoal price hikes ($5 10$ per bag). Increase in the price of charcoal encourage destruction of forests by charcoal dealers and poor families suffered from the expensive charcoal and were not able to buy and resorting to get or collect firewood outside their settlements in the towns. Occurrence of cyclical droughts in the regions, more frequent. These droughts affected the livestock of the pastoralist communities and caused widespread shortage of water, death of livestock and general malnutrition among children and vulnerable groups and deteriorated health situation of the drought stricken population in the regions. Poor sanitation resulting from the fumes where charcoal was burnt. Desertification of land leads to the lack of grass for animals/livestock, as well as reduction of rainfall, soil erosion, reduction in local food production (Farm Produce). Alternative sources of energy are either limited or costly e.g. electrically gas or gasoline. The excessive production of charcoal and the continuous wiping out of forests is creating the nation to inherit situations that are either impossible or costly to correct if immediate measures are not taken by now.

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The indicators of deforestation, main among them the charcoal, are imminent in every town, landscape and in every city where charcoal is being used the main source of energy. Thousands of such sacks come to the cities on the back of camels, cars and donkeys. A survey on the use of charcoal was carried out by a local NGO in Somaliland (NAGAAD) revealed that 98 percent of the household wives who responded to the survey use charcoal as their main source of energy, where charcoal is the principle source of fuel for cooking and space heating, whereas firewood is commonly used in rural areas. According to the survey, only five percent of this population use efficient charcoal stoves. Nonetheless, if properly used, these stoves can conserve as high as 40 percent of charcoal compared to the old traditional stoves. Furthermore, millions of charcoal sacks are being exported from Somalia to the outside world, especially to the Arab countries. Though these Arab countries have some other sources of energy such as oil, they demand of charcoal is due to their habit of smoking shiisha, where charcoal is a high demand. The problem for the Somalis is that the environmental resources have become commodities where few are using for their personal profit. Alternative sources of energy are either limited or costly e.g. electrically gas or gasoline. Furthermore, the excessive production of charcoal and the continuous wiping out of forests is creating the nation to inherit situations that are either impossible or costly to correct if immediate measures are not taken very soon.

This is due, on the most part, to the lack of government or the existence of very weak governments that failed to protect the environment. Furthermore, todays environmental degradation is an indicative of the lack of governing regulations.

These sacks contain charcoal

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In 1984, before her collapse, the Democratic Republic of Somalia has approached the executive

director of UNEP4. The government requested assistance in assessing the coastal and marine

environmental problems of the country. The request included, among other things, drawing up

a national action plan for the protection, management and development of its marine and

coastal environment4. The UNEP responded positively to this request and, in collaboration with

Deforestation results

desertification and

loss of biodiversity

Conservation of

rich biodiversity

Gacan Libaax,

Somaliland

Garaaca, Somaliland

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other members, (ESCHA, FAO, UNESCO, IMO, IAEA and IUCN), an eight-member mission

launched its work in Somalia from 11 to 25 June 1986. The terms of reference included:

1) Contingency planning for marine pollution, including incidents within ports and port

generated pollution;

2) Development of national capabilities for the monitoring and control of marine pollution

through training of staff and acquisition of employment; and

3) Development of national legislation for the protection and management of marine and

coastal environments.

The study concluded that there were no major pollution of the marine environment and

threat posed to the economy of Somalia. Deballasting and tank cleaning operations by

tankers were only significant forms of oil pollution reported at the time. The report also

mentioned that offshore oil exploration and production within the region was not taking

place at the time. Furthermore, land based sources of pollution was no a major concern or

threat to the marine life then. Industrial development was limited and the majority of

Somalias installed manufacturing plants were located within the urban centers in the

southern coastal zone. Industrial wastes discharges along the shore or directly into the sea

were estimated to be relatively small in terms of the total marine and coastal environment.

The major environmental pollutants at that time were the use pesticides, including DDT.

That was then. However, after the collapse of the governing systems the environmental

situation deteriorated tremendously.

Today the urban environment is in disarray and absence of adequate fisheries regulations

allows for almost unrestricted exploitation of living marine resources. Domestic sewage is

also a key contributor of pollution in coastal waters adjacent to major population centers.

The leaching of materials from dumps adjacent to the sea during periods of heavy rain

poses a serious potential hazard. In the absence of mechanisms or regulations to monitor

what are being washed into the ocean, large estimates of pathogenic organisms or toxic

wastes enter the coastal waters near the urban centers.

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2.4 The Waste Composition.

Fig.1: Waste Composition.

Lasqorey: The waste of fish & bones thrown to the seashore {xaabo}.

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uranium waste

Somali Tsunami washed toxic

Unwanted Fish and seafood thrown on the beach

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Bossaso seashore

Bossaso Fish Market

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Refuse Collection and disposal `

Mogadishu Beach: Somalia South Central Capital

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Barbera Beach

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Oil import from Yamen at Lughaya Beach

Waste at lughaya beach

Lughaya

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Lughaya Beach

Zeila: The neglected Historical City

Zeila

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The port of Zeila

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Salt production in Zeila

Somali coastal areas has experienced significant and widespread environmental degradation as a result

of increasing pressures from human population growth and expansion and intensification of land use4.

Consequently, large quantities of plastic waste, human sewage, unwanted industrial and domestic

waste, as well as fertilizers and pesticides are being dumped on the beaches or gradually make their way

to the sea as runoff. This increased stress on the coastal habitats Coral reefs, mangrove, beaches

estituaries, and seagrassbeds is mainly due to degradation of the environmental health surounding the

beach areas. The beaches and marine life in general are impacted by sedimentation, dynamiting for

fishing, the removal of of Coral reefs souvenirs by tourists or by the locals for trade, as well as the

dredging of habours. Other damaging anthropocentric activities include, though not limited, the waste

from the coastal industries, hazadous waste and garbage, speedboats, oil spills and damaging fishing

methods such as trawling and oil pollution. This type of pollution is prevalented in the Somali coasts as

the presented above indicate.

2.5 ZONAL SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS

2.5.1 Somaliland Overview

1. Situation Analysis. The development and implementation of effective environmental protection programs and the provision of efficient environmental health control services provided to the people of Somaliland has

Table salt

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been changing favorably-at least to some extent. In the post-conflict era in Somaliland since 1991, but, it has been constantly facing formidable challenges that so far remained unresolved. The complexities of environmental health activities promotion, in order improve environmental quality, cannot be underestimated for scaling -up the profile of environmental health. Investments in public health (environmental health) are known to bring about more pronounced and rapid effects to produce improvements in public health status rather than increasing investments in health care proper. Environmental health related hazards that pose threats to human health are numerous and in our context include : grossly polluted environment/poor sanitation, contaminated drinking water supplies, unsafe food breeding and proliferation of disease transmitting vermin and vector and lack of good hygiene living conditions and habits of the people that are epidemiologically responsible for the highest burden of disease among the population in general and children in particular have been at stake on country-wide basis. In Somaliland, environmental health activities, promotion, interventions and implementation of related programs were launched and have been going on with the involvement of government institutions, aid agencies. But, so far have not resulted increase in disease prevention and control, promotion of peoples health status and public well-being and safety at the most desirable levels. There is a wide spread recognition that current environmental pollution problems are posing imminent public health hazards requiring immediate corrections through the application of environmental health knowledge and principles using all pertinent measures and means in a well calculated approach:-

1 For the proper screening of all types of pollutants from the living environment (air, land and sea (water) and the proper disposal of all kinds of wastes in a manner that is ecologically sound, economically productive and socially helpful or sustaining healthy living habits and social norms.

In Somaliland, only 42% of the population has access to sanitary latrines and 41% have access to safe water supplies (MICS) Multi-Indicator Cluster Survey 2006, UNICEF and MOH/L Moreover, in Somaliland solid and liquid waste management and control, food protection programs (food sanitation) water safety plans, housing, residential and institutional environmental sanitation remain very rudimentary. Accumulated wastes and open dumping and defecating in open-land in and around places of human settlement and work areas is very widely common due to technical, economic, social and legal enforcement constraints. These constraints are compounded with the prevailing deep influences of rapid urbanization, population growth, IDPs/refugees, emergence of light industries, new and expanding technological advances (especially industrial wastes, plastic products) and not separately disposing of hazardous wastes (infectious, chemical and toxic wastes) and very limited resources available, as well as, lack of personnel with technical know-how and inadequately functioning institutional framework for legal enforcement measures. Finally, the lack of documenting, maintaining and using information from all available sources, a profile of environmental quality indicators showing the changing status and effectiveness of environmental health activities promotion and public health programs and their possible relationship to improved quality of life, morbidity and mortality throughout the country is major setback to expedite efficiency in sanitation and hygiene services. In Somaliland, the per capita production of waste is relatively small for the country is very poor, as the amount of wastes generated by a country reflects the level of affluence of that society. In the capital of Hargeisa, per capita production of garbage is estimated at 0.45 kg per person/day and the city population is about 700.000 persons. Hence, the daily production of garbage is 700.000 x 0.45kg = 315 tons 1000 kg Currently, the daily removal of garbage from the city is estimated on average to be 38 loads of 6 tons each (38x6=228) on daily basis. This means 87 tons are left lying in the town per day limited access to sanitary latrines by the people and poor hygiene throughout the country and the exceedingly being

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responsible for health problems of unmanaged wastes including hazardous wastes contributing to diarrhoeal diseases outbreaks. Acute watery diarrhoea/cholera outbreak and deaths (2007-2010) are exemplified as under: Cases Deaths 2007 (all regions) 5325 (all ages) 715 2008 (Sanaag) 1200 (all ages) 280 2010 (Maroodi-Jeex) 500 (mainly children) 21 Moreover, environmental pollutants in the air, food and drinking water supplies that is associated with chronic and degenerative diseases such as, Myco-toxins in food, inorganic and organic substances in food and water and increasingly growing unhealthy lifestyles including smoking and tobacco use call for sound standards and more effective pollution control and enforcement, as well as modified of lifestyles The lack of public health laboratory to establish and monitor standards of environmental quality is a major constraint. It has, therefore, become very crucial to gather information and analyze facts, make plans, establish priorities and make decisions for action programs and effective interventions that will be communicated to all concerned and interested parties. This can be achieved through environmental health assessment by experts in the field of practice and accordingly the assessment has been carried out in July-August 2010 with the support of World Health Organization (WHO). The assessment is to revolve on the level of the currently prevailing environmental sanitation and hygiene standards of the main towns, including streets, commercial centers, hospitals and other services delivery institutions, communal food markets, water supply and their sources (quality and quantity) and industries on one hand and the waste management and control systems on the other, is as follow:

1. Solid & liquid waste: waste reduction at the source, recycling, incinerators, landfills. Lagoons, composting etc.

2. Water supply: Water sources, quality and quantities. 3. Food Safety; Communal Food Markets and slaughter houses. 4. Industry; Type of industry, principal raw materials, by products and

recovery systems, finished products, factory operations, source of water supply, waste water treatment practices, etc

5. Chemical contamination Heavy metals, pesticides and aerosol hazards. The assessment identified main challenges, gaps and priorities and will recommend the desired actions and solutions.

2. Objectives of the assessment.

1 To assess and identify the factors critical to the causes of adverse environmental pollution and their effects on human health and environmental degradation/undesirable consequences and to accommodate recommended interventions for solutions.

2 To identify the strengths and weaknesses of main institutions involved in environmental health activities promotion and the overall impact of their interventions on disease prevention and control and improvement of public health status.

3 Generate baseline information and use the information so captured for future planning, priority setting and development of environmental health programs in the Republic of Somaliland.

3 Methodology of the Assessment. Dr. Ali Bahar, a professor of environmental science, was contacted by WHO EMRO for collaboration on to lead the process of conducting environmental health assessment in Somaliland, Punt land and Somalia. Then, the professor has arrived due time at Hargeisa and officially arranged the

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implementation of the assessment with the collaboration of, WHO office in Hargeisa from the health ministries and agencies of Somaliland and Somalia. Three days workshop was held at WHO compound on 2325 June, 2010 with participation of (8) persons, where Professor, Bahar and Mr. Abdi Hassan Dualeh of WHO facilitated the workshop. Among others, the workshop has focused on the main areas or variables of the assessment related to environmental health issues and guidelines to be used for the assessment , resources needed and timeline for the work undertakings. While, activity work plan Agreement was prepared and WHO office in Hargeisa has entered an agreement with two national counterparts in Somaliland to conduct the Environmental Health Assessment (EHA) in Somaliland and in effect the work has began on Ist July, 2010. Mr. Ali Sheikh Omer Kabil, head of environmental health unit of the ministry of health and labor has been responsible for the overall assignment in Somaliland and especially in the four regions of Maroodi-Jeeh, Sahil, Tog-dheer, and Awdal, as well as, working with Professor Bahar and Mr. Abdi Hassan Dualeh. While Mr. Mohamoud Bare Deria, the regional sanitation of Sanag region was duely assigned to collect assessment data from Sool and Sanag regions accordingly. The assessment outcome of the six regions has then been compiled and a national Environmental Health Assessment report is produced in a single document for the Republic of Somaliland. The environmental health assessment aims to understand and analyze the important problems related to environmental health issues, the causes of the underlying problems that challenged the need for conducting Environmental Health Assessment in Somaliland and the way forward to improve environmental health quality with reference to how the factors in the wider environment impact peoples health status. Thus, working towards developing, creating, maintaining and improving the mechanisms under which people and their environment should co-exist in peaceful harmony. Finally, for the purpose of conducting the assessment, the survey design has been highlighted during the workshop with a focus on the following.

4. Environmental Health Policy and Regulations. For the situation analysis and needs assessments for Environmental Health in Somaliland a Terms of Reference was made for the national health officers who were selected to conduct the assessment. The terms of reference included but not limited to:

1 To collect existing Environmental Health data, collect and make analysis. 2 To list the main priorities. 3 To suggest appropriate interventions. 4 To conduct consensus workshop on priorities validations. 5 To submit a situation analysis report.

The population of Somaliland is estimated around 3.5 million persons (Government estimate), with an average population growth of 3.5% (WHO/MOH/L/, (2006 annual report). Fifty five percent of the population is either nomadic or semi-nomadic, while the remaining Forty-five percent live in urban centers or rural towns. The mobile lifestyle of pastoralist communities is major challenge of accessing a health services in rural areas. The average life expectancy for males is 50 years and 55 years for the females (UN demographic yearbook 1999). While Somaliland national health policy has estimated the Somaliland population lifespan without differentiation by sex at 47 years (national health policy, version, 1999). Generally, poverty and seasonal communicable diseases outbreaks caused by poor sanitation and hygiene practices, such cholera, acute watery and bloody diarrhoeal diseases and malaria contribute to high morbidity and mortality rates mostly among children under five years of age. Child mortality rate (109) 1000 live births, and maternal mortality rate 1013/100,000 live births (MICS-2006) Therefore, health indicators in Somaliland are among the worst in the world. As a result of years of war, famines and underinvestment, the health sector remains very weak and the MOHL is unable to provide and guarantee adequate services for the entire population. Somaliland is experiencing an increase in the number of refugees from Somalia (40,000 refuges /IDPs, UN OCHA, 2007. report) live in very poor

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conditions in Somaliland) and economic immigrants from neighboring Ethiopia further exacerbates the pressure on health sector. Furthermore, scare resources impede the collection and analysis of health information data, in order to plan for effective responses. As a result, during drafting the environmental Health Assessment report major challenges were encountered due to lack of reliable information and data.

Organization of Services

Health care services and policies are managed by the ministry of Health. While services are rendered at the level of three public health tiers or three interdependent health facilities namely the public hospitals, MCHs (health centers) and health posts. There are 6 regional hospitals and 5 district hospitals, 84 MCHs and 152 health posts. Horgeisa Group hospital plays a major role as national referral hospital, as well as, M-jeeh regional hospitals. There are also one national Malaria center and eight TB centers, and B three mental health hospitals, In Hargeisa Group Hospital, Borama, Barbara and Burao hospitals there VCT centers within these hospitals that deal with HIV/ADIS patients. The MCHs and health posts have been summed for each region to indicate the total of MCHs and health posts that are located in each region. Preparation and organization of the Environmental health assessment in Somaliland Environmental health applies the knowledge of the principles of physical, biological and social sciences to the improvement, control and management of mans environment for two main reasons.

1 The protection of human populations from effects of adverse environmental health-related risk factors; and

2 The protection of the environments from the potentially deleterious effects of human activities and the overall improvement of environmental quality for human health, well-being and development,

To implement the Environmental health assessment the Somaliland assessment team was well prepared and organized, whereas an action plan was developed and regularly followed to complete the assessment on time and collaboration with Somaliland WHO Office in Hargeisa. The assessment envisaged identifying, understanding and analysis on the existing major environmental health- related risks factors/ problems, the causes of those problems and how such unresolved problems in the wider environment impact environmental quality and peoples health status and what could be done as lasting solutions. In line with our plan of action we have employed a multi-faceted study approach for gathering rigorous up to date, relevant and scientific information, then analyzed facts, established priorities, made decisions and plans for appropriate and cost-effective action programme and the use of monitoring indicators.

1 Top desk review (Secondary data collection) through reading and extracting needed information from the previous document on the main issues of concern relating to environmental health/ public health for the last five years.

2 These included MOHL annual reports, key documents from stakeholders records/ reports and research/studies (multi- indictors surveys, healthy city initiative (Hargiesa city health profile assessment, 2008 etc.

The available literature on the subject of study has been meticulously reviewed and summary notes have been made including gaps that will be bridged by the primary data.

1 Key personalities from government institutions, private sector, UN/LNGOs agencies, civil society and field specialist were contacted in their duty stations. Through consultative meetings the desired information on the key variables of interest related to environmental health has been gathered incorporated in to the final synthesis of the assessment report (outcome).

2 Mission visits have been carried out to reach destinations- workplaces, sanitary facilities,

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factories, communal food markets etc direct observations, check-ups/ investigations, writing anecdotes and having participatory meetings and discussions with relevant authorities, officers, individuals etc on the current achievements, constraints challenges (opportunities).

This variety of interwoven model approaches that have been employed by the Somaliland Environmental Health assessment team culminated the collection of much needed Bench mark Data on the current situation of environmental health standards and institutions framework throughout Somaliland, intern, environmental health programme management, financing, and use of technology. Priority setting capacity building of the institution involved in Environmental health, provision of sanitary facilities and waste handling practices, as well as monitoring outputs with use of indicators were much focused for assessment. Finally, recommendations were made, while recommended action plan and the recommended process for implementing the plan of action have developed and the whole report was submitted to professor Bahar.

The Sanitary Situation of Main Urban Centers The sources of garbage in urban centers are the households, commercial centers/market areas, industries, institutions street waste and those resulting from demolition and construction works etc. Summarily, residential and commercially waste constitute the largest source of both solid and liquid waste, problems related to poorly managed garbage is unsightliness, vector and rodents which transition during the per capital production of waste in Somaliland is estimated at 0.45kg per person/day. Collection, storage, transport and disposal of solid are highly rudimentary due to set of factors including lack of qualified personnel and inadequate unskilled crews to lead sanitation disposal procedures, transport, temporary garbage at collection points and inadequate or poorly used terminal dumpsites and in most instance open dumping, is practiced due to low level of public education and information and law-enforcement. No land fill operations or incineration system is used in almost all urban centers., the situation is favorably better than it was before ten years ago, given that the country is peaceful and stable and authorities and citizens at least mind to take responsibility to the tasks that are ascribed to them. The most pressing priorities include the following but not limited to:

1 Land use plans for the disposal of solid waste in temporary waste collection point and terminal dumpsites (sanitary infrastructure facilities)

2 Capital budget 3 Heavy machinery (garbage collection transport vehicles, bulldozers, graders and compactors) 4 Sufficient number of crew/employees for collection and loading 5 Trained are qualified public health inspectors and sanitation and officers supervisors 6 Vacuum tankers construction of lagoons for liquid waste disposal coordination 7 Effective stakeholder coordination 8 Scaling up the profile of sanitation to meet MDG 7 9 Extensive public education and legal enforcements of relevant laws 10 Performances & efficiency measurement systems supervision & monitoring 11 Solid waste & liquid waste disposal 12 Comprehensive waste management separation of regulatory responsibilities & national, regional

and district levels including supervision, control and service operation levels.

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Hargeisa: Solid Waste Hargeisa city population is 700,000 persons per capita production of garbage in city (all inclusive street,

household, commercial and industrial wastes).0.45kg per person/ day (Hargeisa city health profile

assessments survey document healthy city initiative 2008). People with access to sanitary facilities is

42% (M, CS, 2007), and people with access cafe, water supply 41% (M.C.S).

Poor sanitation related and water borne: Diseases (MOHL Annual/ reports 2005 & 2006).

Diarrhea Diseases rank the second in the top ten diseases morbidity and mortality. Waste handling

practice (collection, storage transportation and disposal) are highly rudimentary and there is no inter

Medical Dump Site. Waste disposal terminal sites (open dumping) and poorly managed large dug pits

found on observation located on landscape depression are subject to lead contamination of surface and

ground water. Integrated quality control for food and water consumption is lacking.

Gobanimo Market: Hargeisa

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Hargeisa municipality contracted out garbage collection in the city by two private companies:

1 DHIS private company is responsible for garbage collection from the northern part of the city. 2 Sabawanaag private is responsible for garbage removal from the southern part of the city.

DHIS removes 22 loads, of Solid waste each day municipality wants to relieve the burden of work form DHIS by taking assignment on garbage removal ensure part of the northern location of the city form temporary dump sites. Sabawanaag removes 18 loads of Solid waste per day from the householders, streets & temporary dump sites. The transportation of waste is done by tipper trucks to two terminal dump sites located in the north of the city and south of the city, the private companies were instructed to buy 10 plots by each of them for temporary garbage collection points-dump sites. So for, this has not been materialized. As part of our efforts to improve efficiency of the garbage collection from the city we have ordered 12 trailers from China in order to enhance the efficiency of the mechanized machinery. The mayor indicated that neither reducing the garbage at the source nor recycling system is in use the cutting edge of recycling the solid waste is the level of cost- recovery which provides a very minimal salvageable value in relation to investment (cost) in recycling. Hence, in the management of garbage the system of sustainability is a major issue of concern. The Honorable Mayor indicated that the most drastic product of the Solid waste is the plastic bags/ containers that are thrown away. WFP participates in the collection of plastic bag through food for work program but on ad-hoc basis. Both technical and financial constraints impede the removal of garbage from the city effectively he concluded. In the slaughter house, the major has indicated that the good sanitary operating practices are well maintained by the private company who runs the slaughterhouse. Finally the mayor has assigned one of his sanitation officers to take us to the dump site located north to the city (15km away).

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Mr. Abdi Hassan Duale Of WHO is

taking pictures of a waste truck.

Hargeisa

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Hargeisa under Smoke: Open incineration

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Solid Waste From Hargeisa

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This is one of the main dumpsites around the city of Hargeisa

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This is a dump site in Barbera, not too far from the beach. Mr. Abdi Hassan Duale (Gurey) of WHO was

taking a picture of one of our cars.

Burcoa: Solid Waste

Visit to Burao town Garbage terminal dumpsite During the environmental health assessment mission we have visited Burao town waste disposal site. The garbage terminal dumpsite located at 7km and southwards of Burao town, the terminal dumpsite was a large excavated dug dumpsite used for the disposal of solid wastes, in a semi-controlled tipping. We have seen that tipper trucks carrying solid wastes directly dumping inside the dug pit the tipper trucks are owned by Burao municipality. The site was guarded by site supervisors who were responsible to oversee and monitor that tipper trucks have dumped the loads of garbage into the pit. The solid waste was properly dumped into the excavated semi-land fill operated dumpsite. The disposal

Solid

waste fro

m

Barb

era tow

n

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procedure of the garbage in Burao town was better managed than the one in Hargeisa. There were no birds or wild animals roaming in the disposal site. The disposal site itself and the garbage has constituted a minimal public health threat to the town resident population or to those who live in far located areas at least for the time being. The system of garbage disposal in Burao town can be easily turned into sanitary landfill method provided some investment and machinery is made available. This will in turn become a model to be followed by other municipalities of Somaliland.

This truck picks up several loads of the solid waste a day from the City of Buroa, Somaliland.

The serious nature of the solid waste threat in every big city of the whole country and the

environmental needs have been presented in our salient discussions. The lack of efficiency, sufficient

funds, or commitment and effective strategy to deal with the municipal and industrial waste was

evident. Every local and international NGOs we had interviewed made similar comment when it comes

to the waste issue. There were general consensuses that the local governments in these different

regions were not adequately handling their end of the bargain in managing the waste problem. Likewise,

the local government was pointing the finger to a different and passing the blame. Though some of

these shortcomings were due to shortage of funds, it was lack of an effective strategy and commitment

on the part of the local government to enforce the regulations and follow up with a study on how well

their strategy was working.

Burcoa solid waste dumpsite

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This failure, on the major part, is the lack of environmental policies and effective vision on how to

control waste while following well defined regulations to meet the challenge. Another explanation could

be that, although some environmental policies are preventive, most have focused on cleaning up

messes after the fact-what the environmentalists call end of pipe solutions3. Preventive and proactive

measures should be taken to protect the environmental damages. It is not enough to address problems

only after they have become so obvious that they cannot be ignored often, literally waiting for the

dead bodies to appear or for coastlines to disappear into the ocean.

Borama: Borama town sanitation The town is generally poor in sanitation for the production of garbage and its removal are not proportionally matching accumulated garbage is seen in and around the quarters of the town, although, the municipal administration of the town who is the

caretaker of the sanitation do strive to promote town sanitation.The dumpsite for the terminal disposal of the solid wastes locates about 3 3.5km north of Borama town at the junction of the beginning of river valley (Dry River). It is indiscriminately dumped inside the large natural depression and around its surroundings outside the depression/garbage dumpsite. The danger of pollution of water sources is absolutely unavoidable, even though the solid waste was removed from the town and dumped in far away waste pit. Now the pit is nearly being filled up with garbage and new site is needed.

Waste from the city of Borama

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This man (truck driver) was explaining to us, during our visit to the site, that it was very difficult to pick up the waste from all places in the City of Borama because of financial difficulties that the local government was facing. There were no enough trucks to pick up the waste; not enough gasoline was provided by the local government to make more than three trips a day; and there were no enough incentives for the men who were loading and loading the waste with their bare hands. For example, this man on the top of the truck makes something like less than $0.4 a day (less than 40 cents). No one could live on or feed his family with this kind of income.

Erigavo town Solid Waste A similar situation to that of Borama town prevails in Erigavo town. However, Erigavo town is one of the cleanest towns in Somaliland for the municipality takes its responsibility to keep the town clean, and closely works with and takes advice from the regional sanitation officer, Mr. Mohamoud Barre Dualeh. The only major problem is that the dumpsite is a natural depression and is partly protected by fence, which is up now being filled. Therefore, a new terminal dumpsite is urgently needed.

Lasanod town Solid Waste Lasanod is perhaps the worst in solid and liquid waste management there is no official care taker of the solid waste, although, the municipality is entitled to do so and is minimally involved at least to organize clean up campaign with the participation of the resident population of the town. The garbage collection and disposal was previously implemented by a local NGO called SAVO headed by the late engineer Said Abdi. Since his death in 2005, things have fallen apart. The dumpsite is open land in between two small hills located north east of Lasanod. The poor sanitation condition can be easily accessed by large

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quantities of flies that are always remains a menace to sanitation and hygiene standards. Only Lasanod town cannot be associated with abundance of field, but also, Berbera, Borama and even Burao and Hargeisa do host such disease carrying vector in large quantities according to seasonal climate changes. All in all we need to improve our sanitation to the highest standards with our own efforts and resources appeal the international community, for urgent assistance both technically and financially. In summary, waste reduction at the source is not practically used at all levels, so also, neither sorting nor recycling is in use. Garbage burning in dumpsites is not in practice. While sorting of hazardous wastes and disposing it separately is not employed in all situations including hospitals and industrials waste. Finally, the general consensus of the public and government is that concerted efforts and collaborative actions must applied collectively to keep our cities towns rural settlements and environment clean, safe, pollution, free, aesthetic, healthful and pleasing. Hence, our expectations should match realities through action of the citizens of the nation as whole. While sorting of hazardous wastes and disposing it separately is not employed in all situation including hospitals and industrials waste. Finally, the general consensus of the public and government is that concerted efforts and collaborative actions must applied collectively to keep our cities towns rural settlements and environment clean, safe, pollution, free, aesthetic, healthful and pleasing. Hence, our expectations should match realities through action of the citizens of the nation as whole.

Inventory Sanitation equipments/facilities & machinery in the town Region: City/town machinery dumpsites Maroodi jeex Hargeisa 12 Tip per trucks 2 Bulldozer Gabiley 1 tipper truck 1 Togwajaale 1 tipper truck 1 Awdal Borama 2 tipper trucks 1 Sahil Berbera 2 tipper trucks 1 Togdheer Burao 4 tipper trucks 1 Sanag Erigavo 2 tipper trucks 1 Non-mechanized inventories such as, donkey carts, wheel-barrows, shovels and rakes are available for use, but are limited.

Liquid wastes in major urban centers

Liquid wastes here are referred waste water from domestic waste water, closet, septic tank, latrine, laundries, hotels,flushing etc, for practical purposes and from public health point of view, these waste water should be considered sewage (waste water) and containing pathogens from latrines septic tanks, bathroom showers, wash basins, from clothes washing, dish washing etc or otherwise should be treated. In Somaliland, such waste water is neither treated nor disposed of sanitarily in oxidation ponds. Vacuum tanker trucks carrying waste water from latrines, septic tanks and soak away pits spill over in open land fields especially valleys. The contaminated waste water (leachate) reaches to contaminate underground water through subsurface absorption system or is washed away by rainfall run off(rain storms) water into shallow wells, dams, in this practice is common in all urban settings we need introducing a system of waste water treatment and reuse.

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2.6 Slaughterhouses

Hargeisa Slaughterhouse We met the slaughterhouse management body, who gave us comprehensive information on the slaughterhouse ownership, facilities equipments operations and compliance with sanitary and hygiene procedures and standards (regulations). Good Sanitary operating Practices were observed.

Inspections/observation Location of the slaughterhouse: located in the eastern edge of the city with no zoning restrictions in place. Buildings and dwellings are as close as less than 100 meters to the site. Premises and infrastructure: Premises is protected by fence, buildings, work blocks and cemented concrete platforms for slaughtering animals in good repair, smooth, clean and had lighting, ventilation and adequate drainage for sewage and liquid waste disposal system. Septic tanks and refuse, offal manure, non-edible parts, condemned meats disposed of separately.

Health of livestock heads for slaughtering (Animals Health) Disease free from anti-mortem veterinary inspection and meat supplied to the market is certified for quality assurance by veterinary post-mortem permits. Water supply: the borehole was under repair and maintenance at the time of the visit. Water tankernig trucks supply water to the slaughterhouse with cost $250 per day. Struck tankers x 50 barrels x 200 liters = 50,000 liters/day. Transportation: 6 transport vehicles used only for edible meat, some of them equipped with cooling system, found clean and hygienic, meat wrapped and protected.

Overall slaughterhouse sanitation and hygiene In animal slaughtering areas, a high degree of cleanliness of the slaughterhouse is maintained and personnel observe hygienic safe practices. At the time of the visit, the slaughterhouse was clean and adequate water and cleaning agents and chemicals have been used, effluent biological liquid water sewage drained into water tight septic tanks. No overflow of septic tanks to the dry-riverbed nor

2.6.1 Hargeisa: Generated Blood and Biohazard Waste:

Hargeisa Slaughterhouse

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46

Inside the slaughterhouse was clean and well managed. It is operated by a private company with

partnership with the local government. The blood and the animal parts and waste are removed by

trucks and located to the earth catchments shown in the above pictures. Offensive odors observed on

inspection in the site. Two vacuum tanker trucks remove sewage from the septic tanks and the

hazardous biological waste are poured into open cesspools/ditches with overflow liquid drains into low

lands, gullies and rivers that lead to contaminate extensive areas. The sewage disposal ditches are

located near the Nasahablood hills. The lagoons are poorly designed unprotected and allowed to drain

liquid into the entire basin of watershed areas lying below towards the lagoons. Wild brid/ animals and

other carnivores swim in the pools and feed on the refuse and other organic (biological) wastes that are

indiscriminately dumped near the cesspools. There is high possibility of epizone diseases outbreak

affecting the population living in adjacent or far places in the downstream. Need to construct proper

oxidation ponds which should be treated and protected.

Management and ownership The slaughterhouse is owned and managed by a private company called Mandeeq. The premises are owned by Hargeisa municipality and the company has invested to expand the slaughterhouse. Hargeisa municipality ensures legal enforcement for the use of slaughterhouse in slaughtering animals by the public. Slaughtering animals outside the slaughterhouse is illegal and carries penalty personnel of the slaughterhouse: 96 persons. Butchers have code numbers to slaughter animals in the slaughterhouse that are strictly observed and followed. The whole premises were free from insects and rodents.

Number of animals slaughterhouse per/day

1. Sheep/goats: 1000 heads 2. Cattle: 60 cows/heads 3. Camels: 30 camels/heads

inside the slaughterhouse.

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Open Landfills: Biological waste from the main slaughterhouse in Hargeisa

Solid and liquid wastes disposal

Solid wastes Remnants or the unwanted parts of the slaughtered animals, offal manure and other solids were cleaned from the slaughterhouse premises and have been thrown crudely in open dumpsites (separate place or where garbage is of dumped) attracting fleets of car rivers birds and animals with resultant high level environmental pollution. No recycling system has been ever used.

Liquid waste Liquid waste is emptied from septic tanks in the slaughterhouse and poured into open pools up to the level of overflow, where flooded biological liquid wastes drain into down streams/open lands (Hargeisa). The overflow design of liquid wastes from the slaughterhouse into downstream valleys and open fields is the norm of practice to dispose of liquid wastes from slaughterhouses. Burao, Borama and Berbera slaughterhouses do the same. No standard sanitary disposal system for solid and liquid wastes in both private (commercial) slaughtering (Hargeisa slaughterhouse) and municipal slaughtering houses has been established to meet minimum sanitary and hygiene standards for compliance in the design, construction and operation of slaughtering houses as meat plants under regulatory-framework formulated to protect public health safety, and welfare. The lagoon system combined with initiative solid screening, biological effluent, treatment systems sludge (composting) for testing recycling to produce fertilizers as important measures.

Animal Bones

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Hargeisa: Blood from the slaughterhouse stored in an earth catchment near Nasa Hablood

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Animal Blood from Hargeisa slaughterhouse

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Nasa hablood immersed in blood.

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The above pictures and the proceeding ones from different waste sites demonstrate a great

damage and colossal negligence to the environment and the high risk it poses to the public,

who depends on it for survival. Clearly, these open landfills of both solid and liquid wastes,

including human and animal daily wastes, impact the environment and the ecological systems

surrounding all big towns and cities in the entire country. Even though the country is not

heavily industrialized, the uncontrolled municipal, agricultural and industrial wastes are being

scattered everywhere and every space available. Often these wastes are directly washed or are

flooded into the rivers and deep into the local drinking water. Most people and their livestock

drink from hand-dig, shallow water wells or directly from the rivers, Brakeds and other water

catchments, especially during the rainy seasons. There are no effective environmental

assessments carried out regarding whether the potential toxic exposure from these open waste

sites find their ways into the public food chain and into the breathing air. There are no

environmental health and exposure assessment agencies that are equipped to established

methods of exposure assessments and sampling techniques that could examine what the public

Animal Offal Waste

Human Waste

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is being exposed to through air, soil, water, food or through occupation. Furthermore,

population continue to increase, more people are being forced into the big cities by poverty

looking for jobs. Domestic waste and industrial waste will continue to increase exponentially.

Countries to Somalia, In addition, there reports of extensive illegal export of hazardous toxic

wastes, including radioactive waste, from industrial to Somalia. There are also growing local

industries inside the country that are remained unregulated even though they have the

potential to pollute the environment. Such industries include two leather tanning and

producing factories in Dacarbudhuq, between Hargeisa and Barbera and many more such as

soap producing industries that are scattered in the country without being monitored. These

new factories, whether they produce leather, water, cloth, plastic bags or furniture, do not

spend a dime on shouldering the burden of safe disposal in order to protecting the

environment and the public. These safeguard includes building modern landfills, maybe one in

every region where the waste could be managed. Such directive should require the

manufactures, restaurants and other businesses, under the leadership of the local governments

or independent agencies, to set up an infrastructure to collect the waste. It goes without

saying, therefore, that, in the absence of regulations, and without proper landfills or waste

treatment plants, this waste here and in the whole country will be out of control and the public

remains at the mercy of such exposure.

2.6.2 Burao town slaughterhouse Burao town slaughterhouse has been constructed in an open sky slaughterhouse design without roofing or rooms the slaughtering plots for sheep/goats, camels or cows have been having concrete floors, are drained and clean at the time of our inspection visit the cleaning operation of the slaughterhouse was in progress or going on while the slaughterhouse was observed relatively clean inside. However, the sanitary condition of the slaughterhouse for the disposal of liquid wastes was extremely a real threat to the whole environment around the slaughterhouse and entire basin of the dry river and along its further tip in the downstream. The septic tanks that are constructed many years for the collection and decomposition of liquid wastes have been destroyed and were no longer in use as soak away pits. Therefore, the liquid waste from the slaughterhouse is drained into the dry river bed (Togdheer river bed) and to the furthest point in the downstream. This has constituted an alarming public health hazard to the whole population of the town and to the communities who are living far located areas along the banks of the river or those who get water from the shallow wells located along the river banks or inside the river bed. The slaughterhouse in Burao town needs immediate relocation and redevelopment into modern slaughterhouse through proper design and construction of new one.

Ownership & Management: Burao Municipality

Number of personnel

Number of animals slaughtered:

Sheep and goats: 750 heads Camels: 25 heads Cows: 00 heads

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Blood and animal waste poured directly into the dry river

Waste from the slaughterhouse

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Borama Current slaughterhouse Borama slaughterhouse is the open sky traditional type construction of slaughterhouse. It locates south east of the town near the valley and the dry river called Qorgab, where a large number of shallow well locate to provide water supplies to a large portion of the town population, as well as, to rural and pastoralist communities. The slaughterhouse resembles that of Barbera or Burao town in the aspect of sanitation and hygiene standards and capacity to handle the number of slaughtered animals in the slaughterhouse per day. The slaughterhouse is constrained by lack of water supply for cleanliness and the hard crust of the earth where it locates has made difficult to dug and construct septic tanks for

River

Down into the riverbed

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sewage, hence, the sewage overflows on open land and drains into the Qorgab valley and river bed leading to constantly contaminate the shallow wells water. But now, a new slaughterhouse is being built and the problem will be solved in the near future at least partially.

Number of heads slaughtered

1. Sheep and goats: 130 heads 2. Cattle 20 heads 3. Camels 5 heads

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2.6.4 A New Slaughterhouse in Borama

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The waste from the slaughterhouse is separated at different steps. The solid waste is collected

at the first collection point and will be transported to an open earth catchment where is treated

with bacteria to break down the waste. The waste will be eventually used as a fertilizer. Any

remaining fatty material will be removed at the second chamber before the septic tank and is

added to the solid waste. The liquid waste passes through septic tank and will be released into

an open field where it will be absorbed into the soil. The unanswered question, however, is

whether this liquid is safe to be released into the soil. It was not clear from the conversation I

had with Dr. Wamalwa Kinyanjjui, hygiene consultant for FAO Somalia, whether all necessary

measures were taken to insure strict environment safety and the protection of the community

residing near and around plant after it became operational. He sounded as if the final decision

on how to address these concerns were not made yet, though her assured an overall safety of

the environment.

Fat

Septic

Solid

Solids separate in

here

Additional fat is removed

Sept