sh«z kuki and jean-paul sartre: influence and counter-influence in the early history of existential...

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Shuzo

*KukiandJean-PaulSartre

InfluenceAndCounter-InfluenceInTheEarlyHistoryOfExistentialPhenomenology

ByStephenLight

IncludingTheNotebook"MonsieurSartre"

AndOtherParisianWritingsOfShuzoKuki

EditedandTranslatedBy

StephenLight

ForewordbyMichelRybalka

PublishedforTheJournaloftheHistoryofPhilosophy,Inc.

SOUTHERNILLINOISUNIVERSITYPRESSCarbondaleandEdwardsville

title:

ShåuzåoKukiandJean-PaulSartre:InfluenceandCounter-influenceintheEarlyHistoryofExistentialPhenomenologyJournaloftheHistoryofPhilosophyMonographSeries

author: Light,Stephen.;Kuki,Shåuzåopublisher: SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress

isbn10|asin: 0809312719printisbn13: 9780809312719ebookisbn13: 9780585033723

language: English

subjectKuki,Shåuzåo,--1888-1941,Sartre,JeanPaul,--1905-,Existentialphenomenology,Time.

publicationdate: 1987lcc: B5244.K844L531987ebddc: 181/.12

subject:Kuki,Shåuzåo,--1888-1941,Sartre,JeanPaul,--1905-,Existentialphenomenology,Time.

Pageiv

ForTetsuoKogawaandOsamuMihashi

Copyright©1987byTheJournaloftheHistoryofPhilosophy,Inc.AllrightsreservedPrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaEditedbyCurtisL.ClarkDesignedbyCindySmallProductionsupervisedbyNataliaNadraga

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Light,Stephen,dateShuzoKukiandJean-PaulSartre:influenceandcounter-influenceintheearlyhistoryofexistentialphenomenology.(TheJournalofthehistoryofphilosophymonographseries)"Includingthenotebook'MonsieurSartre'andotherParisianwritingsofShuzoKuki,editedandtranslatedbyStephenLight."Bibliography:p.Includesindex.1.Kuki,Shuzo

*,1888-1941.2.Sartre,JeanPaul,1905-3.Existentialphenomenology.I.Kuki,Shuzo,1888-1941.II.Title.III.Series.B5244.K844L531987181'.1286-11861ISBN0-8093-1271-9(pbk.)

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CONTENTS

TheJournaloftheHistoryofPhilosophyMonographSeries vii

Foreword

MichelRybalka

ix

Preface

RichardH.Popkin

xiii

Acknowledgments xv

PartOneShuzoKukiandJean-PaulSartre:InfluenceandCounter-InfluenceintheEarlyHistoryofExistentialPhenomenology

StephenLight

1

PartTwoConsiderationsonTime:TwoEssaysDeliveredatPontignyDuringtheDécadeof8-18August1928

Shuzo

*Kuki

TheNotionofTimeandRepetitioninOrientalTime 43

TheExpressionoftheInfiniteinJapaneseArt 51

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PartThreeProposonJapan

Shuzo

*Kuki

BergsoninJapan 71

JapaneseTheater 75

APeasantHeIs 77

TheJapaneseSoul 79

TimeIsMoney 81

IntheMannerofHerodotus 83

SubjectandGraft 85

Geisha 87

TwoScenesFamiliartoChildren 89

GeneralCharacteristicsofFrenchPhilosophy 91

PartFour"MonsieurSartre":ANotebook

ShuzoKuki

99

Bibliography 145

Index 149

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THEJOURNALOFTHEHISTORYOFPHILOSOPHYMONOGRAPHSERIESTHEJOURNALOFTHEHISTORYOFPhilosophyMonographSeries,consistingofvolumesof80to120pages,attemptstoaccommodateseriousstudiesinthehistoryofphilosophythatarebetweenarticlelengthandstandardbooksize.Editorsoflearnedjournalshaveusuallybeenabletopublishsuchstudiesonlybytruncatingthemorbypublishingtheminsections.Inthisseries,theJournaloftheHistoryofPhilosophywillpresent,involumespublishedbySouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,suchworksintheirentirety.

ThehistoricalrangecoveredbytheJournaloftheHistoryofPhilosophyMonographSerieswillbethesameasthatcoveredbytheJournalitselftherangefromancientGreekphilosophytothatofthetwentiethcentury.Weanticipateincludingextendedstudiesongivenphilosophers,ideas,andconcepts,aswellasanalysesoftextsorcontroversiesandnewdocumentaryfindingsaboutvariousthinkersandeventsinthehistoryofphilosophy.

TheeditorsoftheMonographSeries,RichardH.PopkinandRichardA.Watson,willdrawuponthedirectorsoftheJournaloftheHistoryofPhilosophyandotherqualifiedexpertstoevaluatesubmittedmanuscripts.

Webelievethataseriesofstudiesofthissizeandformatwillfulfillagenuineneedofscholarsinthehistoryofphilosophy,andwehopetopresentimportantnewstudiesandtextstothescholarlycommunity.

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FOREWORDITWASGENERALLYKNOWN,THROUGHSimonedeBeauvoirandFernandoGerassi,thatJean-PaulSartrehadhadsubstantialtalksinthelatetwentieswithanunnamedJapanesephilosopherwhohadjustmetHeideggerinGermany,andthat,lateron,SartrehadtriedunsuccessfullytoobtainanassistantshipinJapan.In1966,duringSartre'sstayinthatcountry,itwaslearnedfromhimthathisinterlocutorwasindeedthephilosopherShuzo

*Kuki,alsoknownasBaronKukibecauseofhisaristocraticdescent.ThisintriguingEast-Westencounterremained,however,amystery;whenIinvestigateditinFranceafewyearsago,Iwasunabletocomeupwithanypreciseinformation.1

Then,amiracleofresearchhappened:StephenLight,ayoungAmericanscholarfromBerkeley,helpedbyhisknowledgeofFrench,byhisJapanesewife,andbyhispassionforphilosophy,gainedaccess,thankstoProfessorAkioSato,toKuki'spapers,amongwhichwasanotebookmarked"MonsieurSartre."ThisnotebookcontainedaseriesofbriefnotesonFrenchphilosophy,andloandbehold!onepagewasinthehandwritingofSartrehimself,thusgivinganunforeseendimensiontothewholedocument.

Inhiswell-researchedintroduction,StephenLightprovidesallnecessaryinformationaboutthelifeandworksofBaronKukiandstatesthatKukihadweeklytalkswithSartreduringtwoandahalfmonthsin1928,verylikelyfromSeptembertoNovember.ThesedatescanbeconfirmedfromwhatweknowofSartre'sschedule:inJune1928,hetookthestrenuousexaminationsfortheagrégationdephilosophieandfailedbecausehehadattemptedtodevelopalineof

thinkingwhichwasconsideredtoopersonal;hehadsomevacationswithhisfriendNizaninAugust,andreturnedtoParistowardstheendofthesummer,beingthusfreeforhistalkswithKuki.

WeknowfromthenotebookwhatSartre,moreorless,saidtoKuki,oratleastweareabletoreadwhatKukifoundusefultojotdowninasometimesfaultyFrench.ItislikelythattheexperiencedKukiaskedtheyoungSartre(whowasthentwenty-three)totellhimaboutthepresentstateofFrench

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philosophy,andthatSartre,freshfromthecomprehensivepreparationneededforagrégation,washappytooblige,happytomakesomemoneyandtocommunicatehisownpersonalideasandpreferences.Sartre,forinstance,mentionsanarticlebyhisformerprofessorofphilosophyattheLycéeLouis-le-Grand,Colonnad'Istria,andintroducesremarksoncommunistsandradical-socialists.ThepresenceofnameslikeProust,Valéry,andBretonassociatedwithnameslikeNietzsche,Alain,andBergsonshowsclearlytheimportancethatSartrewasalreadyattributingtotheconnectionbetweenphilosophyandliterature.SeveralpagesaredevotedtoDescartes,Pascal,Valéry,butnomentionismadeofFreudorMarx.

AcomparisonofKuki'snoteswithhisratherpositivistictexts(tobefoundlaterinthisvolume)onthegeneralcharacteristicsofFrenchphilosophyoronBergsonclearlyreveal,inmyopinion,thedifferencebetweentheJapanesephilosopherandSartre.Itisstriking,forinstance,thatthepageinSartre'shandwritinginsistsonnegationandproposes,asitappears,adialecticalapproachtotheproblemofbeingandnothingness.Thewords"Premièresolution:Esthétisme"linkedto"pessimisme"referalreadytoamajorthemeinSartre'sliteraryphilosophy,andespeciallytohisstudiesofBaudelaire,Genet,Mallarmé,andFlaubert.

Kuki'snotescancertainlybereadasanabbreviatedtextbySartre(orasaninterview),butitwouldbedifficulttofindinthemacentralunifyingvisionoracleardelineationofwhatSartre'sphilosophywillbecomelater.Inthisrespect,textswrittenbySartrein1927-28suchashisdiplômed'étudessupérieuresthesisontheimage,suchashisnovelUnedéfaite(whereSartreseeshimselfinthesituationofNietzscheinhisrelationshipwithRichardandCosimaWagner),suchastherecentlydiscoveredessay"Erl'Arménien,"basedonbook10ofPlato'sRepublicprovideamuchricher,amoreexplicitandmoreoriginalmaterial.

2

WasthereameaningfuldialoguebetweenSartreandKuki?WasSartreinfluencedbyKuki?TomyknowledgebutthisistobeverifiedthereisnowrittentraceinSartre'smanuscriptsofhisencounterwiththeJapanesephilosopher.Inhismaturelife,Sartrerepeatedtimeandagainthathethoughtthatdiscussionsamongphilosopherswerefutileandunproductiveandthatinventioninphilosophycouldbeachievedonlythroughwriting.Thedifferenceofageandofculture,thelanguagebarrier,theapparentrespectwithwhichKukitreated"MonsieurSartre"wereprobablynotconducivetoanopenexchangeofideas.Wecansurmise,however,thatKukiexplainedtoSartrewhathehadheardaboutphenomenologyinGermanyandthatthisexplanationhadsomeimportanceinSartre'sfurtherdevelopment.

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ItisobvioustodaythatthediscoveryofphenomenologybySartreisnotthesimpleaffairrelatedbySimonedeBeauvoirinhermemoirs.Muchbeforethefamousmeeting(in1932)withRaymondAroninfrontofapeachcocktail,Sartredisplayedinseveralofhisearlywritingsastrongpredispositiontophenomenologyandanacutesensitivenesstowhatwillbedefinedlateras"existentialist"themes.Ontheotherhand,weknowthatthepainterFernandoGerassi,whohadstudiedphilosophyinGermanuniversities,hadtoldSartrespecificallyaboutphenomenologyandaboutHusserlandHeideggerwhenhemethimin1929.Thus,Shuzo

*KukiiswithoutadoubtanearlyandimportantlinkinSartre'sprogresstowardaphilosophyoffreedom:throughKuki'snotebook,welearnthatin1928alreadypeoplewereina"tristeetneurasthénique"stateofmind,butthatfinally,"ilfautcroireàlaliberté."

Itwouldbeunjust(somewouldsayeuropocentric)tolimitKukitohisencounterwithSartre.HeisobviouslyamajorfigureinJapanesephilosophy,andweshouldbegratefultoStephenLightforintroducingustohiswork.

MICHELRYBALKA

Notes1.TheextensivebiographyofSartrebyAnnieCohen-Solal,publishedinOctober1985byGallimard,doesnotmentionthisepisodeatall.

2.ThetextofUnedéfaiteandof"Erl'Arménien,"editedbyMichelContatandme,willbepublishedin1986byGallimardinavolumeentitledLesEcritsdejeunessedeSartre.

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PREFACEWHENSTEPHENLIGHTFIRSTTOLDMEoftherelationshipbetweenJean-PaulSartreandShuzo

*Kuki,andoftheexistenceofKuki'snotebookofconversationswithSartre,Ithoughtitwasaninterestinghistoricalcuriositythatdeservedtobeexplored,andIencouragedhimtodoso.(LightismarriedtoNaokoHaruta,aJapaneseartist,andthroughherhewasabletomakecontactwiththeJapaneseacademicianswhohavegivenhimKuki'snotebook,plusmuchadditionalinformation.)Whenhesentmethefirstdraftofhispaper,alongwithaphotocopyofthenotebook,Iwastrulyamazedatthecross-culturalrelationshipsinvolved,andattheroleBaronKukiofJapan,studyinginGermanyandFrance,playedinbringingSartrefirstintocontactwithHeidegger'sandHusserl'sthought,andthenintroducingSartretoHeidegger.Later,whenLightsentmecopiesofthetalksandwritingsKukiproducedinFranceatthetime,Irealizedtherewasmoreherethancouldbecontainedinonearticle.YetitallhadtobereadtogethertoappreciatethepictureofanintellectualexplosiontakingplaceasaresultoftheSartreandKukimeetingin1928.

TheconclusionsthatflowfromLight'saccountseemedtomesorevolutionaryandimportantthatIsuggestedhesendhisoriginaldrafttoseveralspecialistsinexistentialistandphenomenologicalthoughtfortheirreaction.Theyallexpressedamazementandexcitementaboutwhathehadfound.Mycolleague,MichelRybalka,whohasdevotedsomuchtimeandenergytoSartrescholarship,thenagreedtowriteaforeword.

InconsideringwhatformofpublicationtorecommendtoLight,I

realizedthematerialhehadputtogetherhisarticle,theKuki-Sartrenotebook,andKuki'sFrenchtalksandwritingsof1928wastoomuchforasinglejournalarticle,yettoolittleforaconventionalbook.Itoccurredtomethatsometimesscholarscannotcondensetheirfindingsto30-40pagesofjournalprintingandwouldbestretchingtheirmaterialtoexpandittotheconventional200pagesforabook.Whatwasneededwassomethingbetweenthese

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twoextremes:amonographsizeroughly80to120pagesforcertainkindsofpresentations.Atthe1984meetingoftheBoardofDirectorsoftheJournaloftheHistoryofPhilosophy,IpresentedaplanforsuchamonographseriestoincludeLight'swork,astudyonHumethatwillfollow,andothersuchwritings.TheBoardagreedtocommencesuchaseries,andsoIamhappytopresentitsfirstvolume.

Thisparticularstudy,presentinganimportantdiscoveryaboutthehistoryofmodernphilosophy,providesanexcellentbeginningfortheJournaloftheHistoryofPhilosophyMonographSeries.Notonlyisitafinepieceofworkinitsownright,italsoshouldmakeusawareofcurrentsofinfluencethatdonotfitintopreconceivedmodes.Wearetoousedtostudyingdevelopmentsofphilosophicalmovementsprimarilyintermsofantecedentswithintheirowncultures,orintermsofinfluencesofadjacentcultures.StephenLight'sfindingsshouldmakeusawarethatmoredistantculturalmeetingscananddooccur,andmayhavesignificantconsequencesinthehistoryofthought.PerhapsonceweassimilatethesignificanceofthetaletoldbyLight,wecanexplorewhathasobviouslybeenhappeningthroughEuropeancolonizationandimperialismandthroughthedislocationofintellectualscausedbywars,revolutions,andtyrannies,aswellasbythespiritofadventure,andfindmanymorecasesinwhichsuchunexpectedcross-culturalfertilizationhasoccurred.ItisagenuinepleasuretohavebeenabletoencourageStephenLightandtoworkwithhimandwithmycolleaguesRichardA.WatsonandMichelRybalkainarrangingthismonographseriesandbringingthisvolumetofruition.

RICHARDH.POPKINWASHINGTONUNIVERSITY,ST.LOUIS

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTSNAOKOHARUTA,PROFESSORAKIOSATO

andProfessorRichardPopkinwithoutthemthisbookcouldnothaveappeared.ThankfulthatShuzoKukicantodaycomebeforeanewaudience,Iamgratefullyindebtedtothem,andespeciallytoProfessorRichardPopkinforhisgraciousinterestandeffortsonbehalfofthisvolume.

Thenotebook''MonsieurSartre"isreproducedwiththekindpermissionoftheShuzoKukiArchiveatKonan*University(Kobe*,Japan)andofitsdirector,ProfessorAkioSato.

PARTONESHUZO*KUKIANDJEAN-PAULSARTREINFLUENCEANDCOUNTER-INFLUENCEINTHEEARLYHISTORYOFEXISTENTIALPHENOMENOLOGYByStephenLight

INJAPANITHASLONGBEENSAIDTHATTHEJapanesephilosopherShuzo

*Kuki(1888-1941)whileinFranceinthe1920shadengagedaFrenchstudentasalanguagetutor.ThisstudentwassaidtohavebeenaphilosophystudentattheEcoleNormaleSupérieure,oneJean-PaulSartre.1Theinterestinthismatterhas,ofcourse,restedontheroleKuki,longversedinphenomenologyandfreshfrommeetingswithandstudiesonHusserlinFreiburgandstudieswithHeideggerinMarburg,mighthaveplayedinturningSartre'sattentiontowardsGermanphenomenology.2ThequestionhasbeenofallthemoreinterestbecauseSimonedeBeauvoir'ssecondvolumeofmemoirs,LaForcedel'âge,hasalwaysbeentakenasadefinitiveaccountofSartre'searlyphilosophicaldevelopment,recountingasitdoesthatSartre'sinterestinphenomenologywasfirstsparkedin1932byRaymondAron,who,backfromstudiesattheFrenchInstituteinBerlin,hadspokeninacaféontherueMontparnassetoSartreofHusserlandphenomenology.Sartre,eagertoinformhimselfonthesubject,rushedouttopurchaseEmmanuelLevinas'sbookonHusserland"leafedthroughthevolumeashewalkedalong,withoutevencuttingthepages."3

Infact,KukididmeetSartreinParis,butnotexactlyinthecontextofhavingengagedalanguagetutor.RatherKuki,desiringapartnerwithwhomtodiscussFrenchphilosophy,wasdirectedmostprobablybyEmileBréhier(1876-1952),thenprofessorofphilosophyattheSorbonnetothestudentSartre4.Sartrehimself,whenhewasinTokyoin1966,confirmedthisinaninterviewwithTakehikoIbuki.InresponsetoIbuki'squeryabouthisencounterwithKuki,SartrerepliedthatwhenhehadbeeninhisthirdorfourthyearattheEcoleNormale,heandKukihadmetweeklyforthetwoandahalfmonthsKukihad

beeninParisandhaddiscussedFrenchphilosophyfromDescartestoBergson.SartrealsoconfirmedthefactthatKukihad

inthecourseoftheirdiscussionsbroughtupthesubjectofHeideggerandphenomenology,notingthat"Kuki...wasveryenthusiasticaboutHeidegger."

5

Clearlythen,Kuki,anumberofyearsbeforeAron,hadarticulatedforSartrethenatureofthenewlyemergentGermanphilosophy.Infact,theJapanesephilosopherTakehikoKojimahasnotedthatwhenSartre,impelledbyAron,arrangedtosucceedAronattheFrenchInstituteinBerlinin1933,hetraveledtoGermanybearingaletterofintroductiontoHeideggerfromKuki.6

Wehave,thus,inthismeetingbetweenShuzo*KukiandthethenyouthfulJean-PaulSartre,aremarkablecircumstance,oneallthemoreinteresting,asfamiliaritywithKukiwillsoonshow,becauseofaseriesofstrikingsimilaritiesbetweenKukiandSartre.WhothenwasShuzoKuki?theWesternreaderwillask.KukiwasborninTokyoin1888,thefourthsonofRyuichi*Kuki,laterBaronKuki,onetimememberoftheJapanesedelegationinWashington,D.C.KukibeganhishighereducationinGermanlaw,althoughhehadearlierexhibitedaninterestinbotany(aninteresthewouldsustainthroughouthislife).UponenteringDaiichiKotogakko*(FirstHigherSchool)theJapaneseequivalentofthe(atthattime)FrenchlycéeHenri-IVorlycéeLouis-le-GrandKukichangedovertothehumanities(bunka).7KukicompletedhisstudiesatDaiichiKotogakkoin1909andinthefallofthatsameyearenteredthephilosophydepartmentatTokyoUniversity.TherehestudiedwithRaphaelvonKoeber(1848-1923),"KoeberSensei,"aRussianofGermanextractionwhohadbeenteachinginJapansince1893andwhohadexertedinfluenceonanentiregenerationofJapanesephilosophystudents.Graduatingin1912,Kukibegangraduatestudiesinphilosophyinthesameyear,

subsequentlyfinishingatTokyoUniversityin1917.In1918hemarriedhisbrother'swidow,andin1921,undertheauspicesoftheJapaneseDepartmentofEducation,heandhiswifeleftforEurope.Therehewouldspendthenexteightyears,studyingfirstatHeidelberg,thenattheSorbonne,andlateratFreiburgandMarburg.

InOctoberof1922Kukiattendedtheneo-KantianHeinrichRickert'slectures"FromKanttoNietzsche:AnHistoricalIntroductiontotheProblemofthePresent"atHeidelbergUniversity,andatthesametimeengagedRickertasaprivatetutorinordertoreadKant'sCritiqueofPureReason.8Inaddition,healsostudiedKantwithEugenHerrigelhimselflaterknownforhisshortbookbasedonhisexperiencesinJapan,ZenintheArtofArcheryattendingtheGermanphilosopher'slectureson"Kant'sTranscendentalPhilosophy."

AfteratriptoSwitzerlandandtoDresdeninthespringof1923,Kuki

returnedtoHeidelberginMay1923andonceagainattendedRickert'slectures,thistimethesummerlecturesbearingthetitle"IntroductiontoEpistemologyandMetaphysics,"andparticipatedinRickert'sseminaron"TheConceptofIntuition."Kuki,itshouldbenoted,wasnottheonlyJapanesephilosopherinHeidelbergatthistime.HehadbeenjoinedbyhisfriendTeiyu

Amano(1888-1980),and,inaddition,JiroAbe*(18831959),Hyoe*Ouchi*(1888-1966),MukyokuNaruse(1885-1958),Goro*Hani(1901-),andKiyoshiMiki(1897-1945)allwereinattendanceatHeidelberg.9Infact,theGermanphilosopherHermannGlockner,thenRickert'sassistant,wouldlaterinhismemoirsspeakofvariousJapanesephilosophersinresidenceinHeidelbergintheearly1920s:"OnedayRickertsurprisedmewiththenewsthathehadnowdecidedtotakeonaJapanesevisitorinprivatestudy:anextremelywell-to-dosamurai,whohadaskedtoreadtheCritiqueofPureReasonwithhim.Thisgentleman,ofunusuallydistinguishedbearing,appearedentirelydifferentfromhisfellowcountrymen:oftall,slenderfigure,hehadasomewhatsmallface,analmostEuropeannose,andhandsofextremelydelicateproportion.HisnamewasKuki...."Kuki'sprivatestudywithRickertwasnotwithoutinfluence,albeitanindirectone,onRickerthimself.OccasionedtoonceagaintakeupthelaterKant,Rickert,Glocknerwrites,''dailymadenewdiscoveries.""ComparedtoKant,"RickertanimatedlytellsGlockner,"PlatoisonlyabeginnerandHegelandSchopenhauerhavemuchtoocarelesslythrownoverthefundamentalsofKantianism.Allrecentphilosophers,insofarastheyareofanyuse,returntoKant."10(IcannothelpbutnoteparentheticallythatKuki,neverapartisanofneo-Kantianism,wouldnothaveentirelyagreedwiththisreassertionoftheneo-Kantianmotto.)

KukileftHeidelberginAugust1923andtraveledtotheAlps.Hisbotanicalinterestshavingremainedwithhim,hespentmuchtimecollectingplants,thusjoiningatraditionofwhichRousseauandGoethearethebetterknownnames.Intheautumnof1924KukijourneyedtoParis.11Therehewouldremainuntilthespringof1927,engagedinthestudyofFrenchphilosophy(hewouldbeginattendinglecturecoursesattheUniversityofParisinOctober1925),inthepreparationoftwophilosophicalmanuscriptslatertobecometwoofhismostimportantworks,andinthecompositionofaseriesofpoeticmanuscriptswhichhewouldbeginsendingtoJapanforpublication.

ThusitwasthatKukiinApril1925sentaseriesoftankastraditionalJapaneseshortpoemsbearingthetitlePariShinkei(SpiritualViewsofParis)totheJapanesejournalMyojo*wheretheywouldlaterbepublished.Duringthecourseof1925and1926Kukisentthreeotherseriesofpoems,

thistimepoemsinopenform,tothesamejournal,seriesbearingtherespectivetitlesParinoMado(WindowonParis),PariShinkei(SpiritualViewsofParis),andParinoNegoto

*(ParisSleep-Talking).12

InDecember1926Kukifinishedamanuscript,IkinoHonshitsu(TheEssenceofIki),thefirstdraftofwhatwouldlaterbecomehisclassicworkIkinoKozo*(TheStructureofIki),firstpublishedin1930.13BeforeleavingParisforFreiburginApril1927Kukialsocompletedanothermanuscript,Oin*niTsuite(OnRhyming),amanuscriptwhichwouldsubsequentlybecomeanotherkeyworkinhisoeuvre,NihonshinoOin(RhyminginJapanesePoetry).14

InFreiburgKukistudiedphenomenologywithOskarBeckerandwasabletomeetanumberoftimeswithEdmundHusserl.ItwouldbeatHusserl'shomethathewouldmeetMartinHeidegger.15Thus,inNovember1927KukimovedtoMarburginordertoattendHeidegger'slectures,"PhenomenologicalInvestigationsofKant'sCritiqueofPureReason,"aswellasHeidegger'sseminar,"Schelling'sTreatiseontheEssenceofHumanFreedom."Inthespringof1928KukiattendedHeidegger'slectureson"Leibniz'Logic"andHeidegger'sseminar,"PhenomenologicalStudies:InterpretationsofAristotle'sPhysics."IfHeidegger'sphilosophyfoundanadmirerinKuki,KukiinturnleftalastingimpressiononHeidegger.16YearslaterHeideggerwouldpayKukilastinghomageandwouldrecountthediscussionsinwhichthetwohadengagedathis,Heidegger's,home,discussionsinwhichKukihadattemptedtoconveytoHeideggertheresultsofhisphilosophicalinvestigationsoniki.17ItwasinMarburgtoothatKukibecamefriendswithanotherphilosopher,KarlLöwith,thenHeidegger'sassistant.Later,in1936,KukiwouldberesponsibleforsecuringLöwithapostatTohoku

ImperialUniversityinSendai,apositionLöwithwouldholdfrom1936to1941.18

KukireturnedtoParisinJuneof1928.InAugusthewasinvitedbytheFrenchwriterandscholarPaulDesjardinsmemberalongwithHenriBergsonandJeanJaurèsofthefamedpromotionof1878attheEcoleNormaleSupérieureandfounderandorganizerofthefamousdécadesheldatPontignytoparticipateinaphilosophicaldécadeon"ManandTime.RepetitioninTime.ImmortalityorEternity."19HereatPontignyonAugust11andonAugust17,1928,Kukideliveredtwolectures,oneon"TheNotionofTimeandRepetitioninOrientalTime,"theotheron"TheExpressionoftheInfiniteinJapaneseArt."ThesetwolecturessubsequentlyconstitutedKuki'sbookPropossurletemps,publishedinParisin1928.20

Thefirstdécadeofthesummerof1928:wecanimaginethesetting.IntheaudienceareGide,MartinduGard,theGermanCurtius,theRussianBerdyaev,theEnglishmanStrachey;hostingareDesjardinsandduBos;on

handtomakepresentationsareDominiqueParodi,EmileNamer,AlexandreKoyré,VladimirJankélévitch,andfreshfromsuccessintheagrégation,(asuccesshis"petitcamarade"Jean-PaulSartrehadnotfound),theyouthfulRaymondAron.Attheheadoftheroomaspeakerfromaforeignland,inimmaculatedress,isrecitinginFrenchacelebratedJapanesepoem:"'...wherethosewhoknowandthosewhodonotknoweachothermeet....'"Thepoemconcluded,thespeakerpauses,andthenbeginsacommentary:"Again,anexampleof'timelost'andof'timeremembered.'Itisthatinstantwhentworoadsmeet....Itisthemomentofapresentofinfiniteplentitude....Itistheblessedmomentwhenonesoulinterrogatesanothersoul....ItisalsothismomentwhichwepasshereinthissaloninPontigny,herewhereIspeaktoyouofaverseofSemimaru,wherewewonderifwemightnothavelivedthismomentbefore,ifwemightnotliveitagain...LetusleaveittoourvenerableblindSemimarutomeditateontheproblemofchanceandcirculartime.LetuspraythathenowtakesuphisbiwaandplaysusanancientYamatoair."

AtPontignyKukihimselfoffereduptheharmoniesoftheYamatoair,presentedtwosuperbdiscussionsofJapaneseculture,discussionsbearingtheimprintofaneruditionrangingovermanyaspectsofJapaneseartandliterature;ofaphilosophicalconceptionoftimemarkedbyGermanphenomenologythat,ifhereonlytouchedupon,mustneverthelesshavemarkedoneoftheveryfirst,ifnotthefirst,publicdiscussionsinFranceofHeidegger'srecentreflectionsontemporalityinSeinundZeit;andofanappreciationforandamasteryofjustthatliteraryculturerepresentedbyLaNouvelleRevueFrançaiseandthatmusicalculturerepresentedbyFrenchimpressionismconstitutingthepredominantorientationofhisaudienceatPontigny.

21

InthefirstessayofPropossurletemps,Kukiaimsnotatasustainedanalysisoftime.Rather,thediscussionoftimeaimsatthevindicationofthat'will'foundinBushido*(asIshallhaveoccasiontodiscussinmoredetailbelow),aimsatthederivationofanethiconthebasisofcontingentexistence.Thus,giventheethicalcontext,itisquitenaturalthatKukifindsin"anticipation"the"mostimportantcharacteristicoftime."22

Kukispeaksof"anticipation"intimewithreferencetoGuyauandHeidegger(andHermannCohen).Guyau(1854-1888),amoralphilosopherofgreattalentwhoselifewascutshortattheageofthirty-three,sawintimethegrowthofexperience.CounteringtheKantiannotioninwhichtimewastheconditionofexperience,Guyausawintimetheresultofthatveryexperience.Thus,time,beingconsideredinthisphilosophyoflifethe"concreteorderofourexperience,"mustbeanalyzednotinrelationtotheoutwardworldofmotion,transformation,andevent,butintermsofmem-

ory,imagination,andwill.

23IfthenKuki,attemptingtovindicatethewillinBushido*attentive,thus,tonotionstyingtimetothewillhasfelttheimpactnotonlyofGuyau'scritiqueofKant,butofBergson'saswell(ofBergson'scritiqueoftimeasemptyandhomogeneousmilieu),itisquitenaturalthathewillfindcongenialtherecentHeideggeriannotionwherebyinatriadicstructureofekstasespast,present,andfutureconstitutingtime,theessentialmomentoftemporalityislocatedinthefuture.Aswillbecomeapparentmorefullybelow,elementalintheethicheretobederivedisthemotto"Letnotyourencounterstakeplaceinvain!"

AppropriateWesternnotionssurveyed,Kukiturnstothoseorientalnotionsinwhichtimeisconsidereddependentonthewill,notionsfoundprimarilyinIndiantexts.Thus,Kukibeginshisdiscussionoftimebywriting:"Ifonehastherighttospeakof'orientaltime,'itseemsitcanbeaquestionofnothingotherthanthetimeoftransmigration."24Periodictime,the"timeoftransmigration,"posesliberationfrom"thewheeloftime,"liberationfromtheendlesscycleofreincarnatedbirths,asagoal.AndthisquestionoftheliberationfromtimegivesKukitheopportunityofsettingBuddhismandBushidoinopposition,anoppositionwhich,however,issetuponlyintermsof"theirbasictendencies."''Therecannotbetheleastquestion,"Kukiwrites,"ofdenyingthegreatvalueofBuddhism.""WeoweaneminentpartofourorientalcivilizationtoBuddhism."Withthisinmind,Kuki,tothenirvana*ofIndianinspiration,todeliverancefromrepetitivetimebymeansoftheintellect,bymeansofthedenialoftime,tothisBuddhisticintellectualism,KukioffersthevoluntarismofBushido:amoralidealism,animmanent,nottranscendent,liberationfromtimeanunconcernwithtime"inordertolive,trulylive,intheindefiniterepetitionofthearduoussearchforthetrue,thegood,the

beautiful."25

WiththebeautifulwemovetothesecondessaycontainedinPropossurletemps,"TheExpressionoftheInfiniteinJapaneseArt."Thebeautiful,liberationparexcellencefromtime:inmovingfrommoralidealismtotheabsoluteidealismofJapaneseart,"theinwardartofYamato,"KukimovesfromtheinfinitestrivingofthegoodwillfoundinBushido,tothesensuousexpressionoftheinfinite,frometernalstrivingtothe"beautifulimageofeternity."HereintheaestheticrealmKukiisnolongerconcernedwithviewingBuddhismandBushidofromthestandpointoftheiropposition;rather,intakingupaJapaneseartofpurespirituality,hetakesupanartwhosenaturederivesfromatriplesource,themysticismofIndianreligion(Buddhism),thepantheismofChinesephilosophy,andBushido,the"cultoftheabsolutespirit."

Inreferringtothis"triplesource,"anunderstandingofwhichaloneenablesanunderstandingofJapaneseart,26Kuki,astheopeningquotation

ofhisessayshows,followstheanalysesofKakuzo

*Okakura'ssagaciousintroductionofJapanesearttotheWest,TheIdealsoftheEast,astudy,writtendirectlyinafineandlyricalEnglish,whichappearedin1905.27HereOkakuraposesIndianreligionandChinesephilosophyasthetwinpillarsofonesingleedifice,Asianculture:Asiaisone.AndinthisperspectiveitbecametheprivilegeofJapantorealizewithespecialclearnessthis"unity-in-complexity"ofAsianculture.Kuki,ofcourse,isnothereconcernedwiththequestionoftheunityofAsianculture.Butheisconcernedwiththeutilizationofanidealistheritage.Thus,hisquotationfromOkakura:"ThehistoryofJapaneseartbecomesthehistoryofAsiaticideals."28

Okakurahadwritten:"JapanesearteversincethedaysoftheAshikagamasters,thoughsubjectedtoslightdegenerationintheToyotomiandTokugawaperiods,hasheldsteadilytotheOrientalRomantisticidealthatistosay,theexpressionofthespiritasthehighesteffortinart.Thisspirituality,withus,wasnottheasceticpurismoftheearlyChristianfathers,noryettheallegoricalidealisationofthepseudo-renaissance.Itwasneitheramannerism,noraself-restraint.Spiritualitywasconceivedastheessenceorlifeofathing,thecharacterisationofthesoulofthings,aburningfirewithin."29TheriseoftheAshikagashogunstopowerinthemiddleofthefourteenthcenturyinitiating,thus,theMuromachiperiod(1392-1573)representsanimportantturn:Japan'sreopeningofintercoursewithChinaandtheconcomitantinfluenceuponJapaneseartofSungcultureandofZen;thedevelopmentsininkpaintingrepresentedaboveallbySesshu*;therisetomaturityofanationalmusicaswellasthedevelopmentofNo*drama.Theaestheticidealoftheperiod:"Beauty...orthelifeofthings,isalwaysdeeperashiddenwithin

thanasoutwardlyexpressed,evenasthelifeoftheuniversebeatsalwaysunderneathincidentalappearances.Nottodisplay,buttosuggest,isthesecretofinfinity."30

WhatforKukiisthemeaningofJapaneseart?Itis"theidealistexpressionoftheinfiniteinthefinite."31AndinhisdiscussionofJapaneseartinPropossurletemps,KukiinaseriesofdetailedanalysesfindsinalltherealmsofJapanesearttechniquesperfectlysuitedfortheexpressionofjustthatmetaphysicalandspiritualexperiencelyingatthebottomofthesearts,theliberationfromspaceandtimetobefoundinIndianmysticismandChinesepantheism.TheliberationfromtimeiseverywhereaccomplishedinJapanesepoetryandmusic.Theliberationfromspaceisaccomplishedintheplasticarts,aboveallininkpainting,aninkpaintingwhereinatasteforsimplicityandanostalgiafortheinfiniteserveintheperfectrealizationofthevery"aestheticofsuggestion"characteristicofthe"inwardart."

InKuki'slittleParisianvolume,then,aredisplayed,eveninalanguagenothisown,sentimentswhoseflavorwillbeapparentinallhissubsequent

works,an"I-know-not-what"flavorwhichwilleverywheregivethereaderthefeelingofhavingbeentrulyandgenuinelycharmed.

WhileinParisKukialsoauthoredanumberofshortpiecesakininthemetoPropossurletemps.WiththesepieceswefindsimilaritytotheproposoftheFrenchphilosopherAlain(nomdeplumeofÉmileChartier[1868-1951]),agenrecreatedbyhim.EarlyinhiscareerAlainbeganwritingaseriesofshortentriesforaFrenchprovincialnewspaperinRouen.Limitinghimselftotwopages,Alainwrotealmostwithoutstopandalmostwithoutcorrection.Anecdotal,aphoristic,atoncephilosophicandliterary,theproposcouldbecalledanessayinminiature,ifitwerenotthattheveryuseoftheword"essay"wouldalreadyencroachonthesuigenerischaracterofthepropos.Genreuntoitself,theproposwouldbeimproperlytranslatedifrendered"remarks,"orevenifrenderedmoreformallyas"considerations."InAlain'sworkeachproposbecameaworlduntoitself,andyeteachproposcouldbecomethepartofagreaterwhole.TheproposbecamethebuildingblockofthisgenuisofFrenchprose,thebuildingblockofeachofhismarvelouslylucidandunifiedworks.ForAlain,"whoserichness[was]thought,"theproposwasanidealform,enablinghimto''spread[histhought]everywhere"(Valéry).

Kuki,consummatemasterofaFrenchcultureofwhichAlainwasanessentialpart,foundhisownthoughtsflowingwithmarvelouseaseintothisformparexcellence,thepropos.Thus,wewillfindhispropossomeofwhich,theoneon"ThéâtreJaponais,"forexample,seemingtohavebeenwrittenwithinclusioninPropossurletempsinmindservingasprismsthroughwhichthethoughtsofPropossurletemps(where,however,Propossignifiedonly"remarks")arespreadinrenewedrefraction.Thepieceon"JapaneseTheater"carriesKuki'sanalysisoftheexpressionoftheinfiniteinJapaneseartintotherealmoftheater;thepiecesonthe"JapaneseSoul,"andon"TwoPicturesFamiliartoChildren,"takeupKuki'sdiscussionofmoralidealism;the

pieceentitled"Geisha"alreadyhintsatKuki'sanalysisofiki.

EnglishtranslationsofPropossurletempsandKuki'spropospiecesappearinthepresentvolume,alongwithtranslationofoneotherpiece,Kuki's"Caractèresgénérauxdelaphilosophiefrançaise,"originallyalecturedeliveredinbothJapaneseandFrenchinJapanin1930attheJapanese-FrenchCulturalSociety.

32

Kuki'scharm,hisuniquesensibility,canservetohighlightthesuigenerisplaceoccupiedbyKukiintheworldofmodernJapanesephilosophyandletters.WhenKukiultimatelyreturnedtoJapanin1929hereceivedapostatKyotoUniversity.33TherehejoinedonthephilosophicalfacultyKitaro*Nishida(1870-1945),whomKukiinanarticleonBergsonhadalready

referredtoas"perhapsthemostprofoundthinkerinJapantoday,"andHajimeTanabe(1885-1962).

34ButeventhoughtherelationsbetweenNishida,Kuki,andTanabewerethoseofthehighestmutualesteem,KukineverbelongedtotheKyotoSchool.Kuki,likeNishida,hadassimilatedHusserlianphenomenology,butunlikeNishida,heremaineddistantfromHegelianphenomenology.ProfessorHisayukiOmodakainspeakingoftheintellectualismofNishidaandthevoluntarismofTanabeandthusofthestrainsofspeculativeIndianphilosophyinNishidaandChinesepracticalphilosophyinTanabemarksoffKuki'sphilosophybytheimportancetheregivenaffectivity.35OmodakamakesparticularreferencetoKuki'sconcernwiththoseaspectsofJapaneseculturesuchasikiandfuryu*.

Mentionhas,ofcourse,alreadybeenmadeoftheelementofdetachmentiniki.Furyu,awordmadeupofthecharactersfu*(wind)andryu*(flowing)anddesignatingrefinedelegance,alsosignifiesaformofdetachment.InastudyoffuryuKukidescribesthetranscendentcharacterofthe"freepersonoffuryu"asthatofa"currentofwind"(kazenonagare).36Butitisimportanttoemphasizethatthisisnotaquestionofanother-worldliness,norisitaquestionoftheextremeaestheticismof,forinstance,Huysman'sDesEsseintes.Wedonothaveherethedetachmentofthemysticoreremite,ratherwehavethedetachmentoftheflâneur.AndintheflâneurwehaveinmanyrespectsKukihimself:"Iwishtocontemplate(shisakusuru),tofeel(kankakusuru),toyearn(shokeisuru),wandering,withafewreaders,thelittlepathbetweenphilosophyandliterature,seekingferventlytheeternaltranquilityoftruthandbeauty."37Philosophicalflâneur,Kukitookthe"littlepath.''Thus,astheJapanesephilosopherTetsuoKogawahasnoted:"tooliberalforthoseadheringtothe

Nishida-TanabelineofJapaneseidealism,...tooartisticforthoseofMarxistcircles,...heneverbelongedtoanymainstream,rightorleft."38

Aphilosophicalflâneuruponthe"littlepath"butmistakeshouldnotbemadeastothenatureofthisflneur'scontemplations.AndhereImaycitetherigorofthoughtcharacteristicofanearlierstroller,theoriginalPeripatetikos*.WehaveinKukiararecombination,oneinwhich"delicateandpassionatesentimentsarelinkedtoacalmandrigorousreason."Kukiheldita"crimetofashionaveilofgreyphilosophy.""Iamtootormentedbymypassions,"hewrites,"toliveinthegreyworldofabstractions."39PartisanoftheBergsoniancritiqueofabstractrationalism("Toseizethepalpitationoflife,tofeeltheshiveroflife,thatisphilosophy,"Kukiwrites),KukiistheauthorofaphilosophyofwhichmaybesaidexactlywhathaselsewherebeensaidofBergson's,thatit"submitsitselftotheexigenciesoflanguagewhoseexactituderequireacompleteanalysisinordertotranslatepreciselythatwhichresistsanalysis."40Dialecticalrigor,meticulousandprecise,will

animateKuki'sworks,workswovenwithalanguagewhosegossamer-likepuritywillcarryinitsthreadsthemarvelousclarityofhisideas.Sublimeaestheticsentiment,therigorofphilosophicalcalmthesewillbefoundforeverunitedinthe"passages"ofKuki'souevre.

Intheautumnof1928KukionceagainvisitedHenriBergson,whomhehadcometoknowduringhisfirstvisitinParis.AtBergson'shomehemetFrédéricLefevreofLesNouvellesLittéraires,towhichKukiwouldsubsequentlycontributeanarticleontheoccasionofBergson's1928receptionoftheNobelPrizeforliterature.ThearticleKukicontributed,"BergsonauJapon"alsoincludedinthepresentvolumecanincertainrespectsbeconsideredaphilosophicalself-portrait,revealingtheuniquedevelopmentwherebyJapanesephilosophywasledfromneo-KantianismtoHusserlianphenomenologybywayoftheBergsonianintuition.

41

WithKuki'sreturntoParis,wereturntohisencounterwithSartre.Whendidtheyinfactmeet?Severaldifferentdateshavebeenproposed:1925,1926,and1928.42Sartre,asnotedearlier,spokeofthemeetingashavingtakenplaceduringhis"thirdorfourthyearattheEcoleNormale,"whichwouldcorrespondtotheacademicyearofeither1926-27or1927-28.ThedateoftheirmeetingisimportantbecauseifKukimetSartrein1928,ratherthanduringhisearlierstayinParis,themeetingwouldhavebeenafterthepublicationofSeinundZeitandafterKuki'sstudiesinFreiburgandMarburgonandwithHusserlandHeideggerinotherwords,afterKuki'sfullassimilationnotonlyofHusserlianphenomenologybutalsoofthenewhermeneuticalvariationrepresentedbyHeidegger.

Thatthedateoftheirmeetingwas1928,sometimeafterKuki'sreturntoParisinJuneof1928,is,however,somethingthatcanbe

determined.InKuki'sprivatelibrary,unexamineduntilitwasorganizedbyProfessorAkioSato*in1976duringthepreparationoftheShuzo*KukiArchiveatKonan*UniversityinKobe*,43anotebookofKuki's(approximatelyeightbysixinchesinsize)withbrowncoverbearingtheheadingSarutoru-shi,thatistosay,"MonsieurSartre,"wasdiscovered.Thisnotebookcontainednotes(primarilyinFrenchwithafewscatteredjottingsinJapanese)onwhatwereobviouslythevarioustopicsKukiandSartrediscussedduringtheirweeklymeetingsreferredtobySartreinhis1966interviewinTokyo.Whatismore,oneofthepagesofthenotebookwasinSartre'sownhand!Herewashappyconfirmationof,andhithertounsuspectedinsightinto,thenatureoftheKuki-Sartreencounter.44

Thenotebook,however,carriednodateonanyofitspages.Indeed,outsideofafewseeminglypersonalremindersinJapanese"whichbook,""typewriter,"andsoforth(themostinterestingofwhichreminderswasanentry,ontheninthpageofthetext,reading"Chartier'saddress,"leading

onetowonderwhenandifKukimettheFrenchphilosopherAlain)therewereonlythethirty-fivepagesofentriesonthephilosophicaldiscussions.Thus,itseemedthattheexactdateofKukiandSartre'smeetingwouldasyetremainunknown.ButalreadyonthefirstpageofentriesareferencetoJulienBenda'sLaTrahisondesclercs,publishedin1927,canbefound,andonthefourthpageoftextthereisreferencetoAndréBreton'sNadja.Thus,theriddlecanbesolved,foranexcerptofNadjaappearedinLaRevolutionSurréaliste(no.11)inMarch1928,thebookitselfappearinglaterthatyear.SartreandKukimust,then,havemetsometimebetweenKuki'sreturntoParisinJune1928andhissubsequentdepartureforJapaninDecember1928.

ItwasnotedearlierthatSartreinhisinterviewwithTakehikoIbukisaidthatheandKukihadmetweeklyforthe"twoandahalfmonthsKukiwasinParis."Theremarkis,ofcourse,inaccurateasregardsKuki'sstayinParis,forKukiwasinParisformorethantwoandahalfmonths.Yet,perhapsnotsoinaccurateasallthat.KukiandhiswifereturnedtoParis,asMadameKuki'sjournalshows,ontheeveningofMay31,1928.FromAugust11,KukiwasatPontignyforthephilosophicaldécadeandreturnedtoParis,aftervacationingattheFrenchseaside,onSeptember6,1928.KukiandhiswifethendepartedforJapanonDecember9,1928.Thus,eithertheperiodfromKuki'sreturntoParisthelastdayofMayuntilhisdepartureforPontignyinAugustortheperiodfromhisreturntoParisinSeptemberuntilhisdepartureforJapaninDecembercouldcorrespondtoSartre's"twoandahalfmonthsKukiwasinParis."Whichoftheseperiodstochoosethen?Perhaps,havingjustreturnedfromfourteenmonthsinGermany,KukiwasanxioustobrushuponhisFrenchconversationskills.ThiswouldaccountforEmileBréhier'sremark,previouslycited,implyingthatKukiwas,inpart,lookingforpracticeinemployinghisFrench.ButinviewofKuki'slanguageskills,his

previousthree-yearstayinParis,andSartre'sdenialthathehadservedasalanguagetutor,thisdoesnotseemaltogetherlikely.Itismorelikelyandthis,again,merelytoattempttogiveareasonforchoosingthefirstperiodreferredtoaboveKukisimplysoughttooncemoreimmersehimselfinFrenchphilosophy(suchversionwouldnotbeinconsistentwithEmileBréhier'sremark).Ontheotherhand,inthe"MonsieurSartre"notebook,referenceismadetoGeorgesFriedmannandPierreMorhange,membersofagroupofyoungleft-wingphilosopherstowhichSartre'slycéeandnowEcoleNormalecompanionPaulNizanalsobelonged.

45AndwrittenbesideFriedmann'snameisaparentheticalnotereading''camaradedeJankélévitch."Aswenotedearlier,VladimirJankélévitch,substitutingforhisformerteacherLéonBrunschvicgdetainedinPariswas,alongwithKuki,oneoftheparticipantsintheAugust1928philosophicaldécadeat

Pontigny.

46MaywetakethistomeanthatKuki'snotebookand,thus,hismeetingswithSartredatefromafterKuki'sappearanceatPontigny?WemightdosoonlyifweknewforcertainthatKukihadnotmetorcometoknowofJankélévitchpriortohis,Kuki's,participationatPontigny,andifweknewwhethertheparentheticalnotewasanoteofKuki'soranotebasedonaremarkofSartre'swhichistosay,ifweknewthatwhichcannotbefullyknown.Thus,weareleftwiththechoicebetweentheperiodbeforeandtheperiodafterKuki'svisittoPontigny.

Nonetheless,withthediscoveryofKuki's"MonsieurSartre"notebook,wearegivenKuki'sconfirmationofSartre'saccountoftheirmeetingsonFrenchphilosophy,aswellasaccess,muffledthoughitmaybe,totheseverymeetings.Manyoftheentriesinthisnotebooklistingsofarticlesandbooks,listingsofvariouswritersandphilosophers,notesonaspectsofthese,andsoforthhavealltheappearanceofnotesjotteddownduringanongoingconversation(theentryinSartre'shandindicatesthis),whileotherscouldwellhavebeenwritteninpreparationfor,orfollowingupon,adiscussion.Thereis,ofcourse,nodefinitivewayofinterpretingallofthevariousentriesinthenotebook,whichistosay,nodefinitivewayofgivingthecontentofthediscussionsinquestion.Itfollows,then,thatthereisalsonodefinitivewayofdeterminingineverycasetowhat(orwhom)theentriesoughtbeattributed,toaremarkofSartre'sortoathoughtofKuki's(thisforthoseentriesappearingtocomefromaconversation).

Ofcourse,eachentrydeterminesitsownrangeofpossibleinterpretations.Herethewayinwhichonepositionsthespeakersinthediscussioninquestioniscrucialindetermininganinterpretation.

Howweighthedifferencesinageandintellectualdevelopment?Kukiwasforty,Sartretwenty-three.HowweighKuki'spositionasforeignvisitor?IsthisorthatentryafunctionofKukimakinginquiryof,orstatementto,SartreinregardtoanaspectofFrenchphilosophyorculture,orafunctionofSartreseekingtoinformhisforeignvisitorofsomethinghe,Sartre,mighthavefeltimportant?Suchquestionscouldbemultiplied.

Best,itseems,toimaginetheseveralpossibilitiesineachcase;then,discardingandalteringasmaybenecessary,arriveatanapproximatepicture.Ishallnot,ofcourse,takeupherethetaskofgivingcontenttoallofthediscussionsandentries.(Andonemustrememberthatthereisnowayofdeterminingwhetherandhowmanydiscussionsmighthavebeenomittedfromentrycoverage.)Rather,IwouldliketofocusonthosemomentsinthediscussionsofparticularinterestinregardtothesignificanceofKukiandSartre'sencounter.

ThenotebookisdevotedtoFrenchphilosophy.Anditisimportant,attheoutset,tomentionthateventhoughFrenchphilosophyhadbynomeans

beenignoredinJapanBoutroux,Bergson,andothershavingbeenassimilatedbeforeWorldWarInevertheless,FrenchphilosophywasnotpaidtheattentionofitsGermancounterpart.ItwouldbeKuki,inpartthroughhislecturecoursesatKyotoUniversityonFrenchphilosophy,whouponhisreturntoJapan,wouldberesponsibleforincreasingJapaneseattentioninregardtothistraditionlecturesthatcanwellbeseenasquintessentialexamplesofthetransmissionofaphilosophicalandculturalheritage.AndinthiscontextKuki'snotebook,withitsentriesonsuchphilosophersasBrunschvicg,Alain,andBlondel,canbeviewedasdirectlypreparatorytotheseverylectures.

47

Sartre,asnotedbefore,spokeofdiscussionsonFrenchphilosophyfromDescartestoBergson.Andthenotebook,particularlywithanumberofpagescontaininglistingsofreadingson,forexample,Descartes,Pascal,Comte,andMainedeBiran,givesevidenceofthis;butthenotebookalso,primarily,givessignificantattentiontothencontemporaryFrenchphilosophy.Thus,anditwouldhavebeenhardtoimagineitotherwise,theearlypartofthenotebookisdevotedtotwooftheleadingfiguresofpost-WorldWarIFrenchphilosophy,LéonBrunschvicg(1869-1944)andAlain.48Brunschvicgwasatthattime,afterBergson,themostimportantphilosophicalpresenceinFrance,hismajorwork,thetwovolumeLeProgrèsdelaconsciencedanslaphilosophieoccidentale,havingappearedtheyearprevioustoKukiandSartre'smeeting.Givenhispositionasaprofessor,theprofessor,attheEcoleNormaleSupérieure,itwaswithBrunschvicg'sphilosophythatallthenormaliensofthetimehadtocometoterms,positivelyornegativelyasthecasemayhavebeen.PaulNizan'sLesChiensdegarde,asevenhisAden-Arabiebeforeit,wasofcoursetheclassicalnegativeaccount,scathingandmordant,albeitfromthe

politico-existential,notphilosophical,standpoint.49BethatasitmayandinspiteofourpositionretrospectivetothedevelopmentsinFrenchphilosophyinitiatedinpartbyoneBruschvicgpupil,Sartre,theremarkofanotherdistinguishedpupil,JeanHyppolite,isnotwithoutapplication:"Evenwhenwereactedagainsthisthoughtorsoughtindifferentdirectionsarenovationofourintellectualperspectives,itcouldnotescapeourrecognitionthatwehadbeenprofoundlymarkedbyhimandthatbeyondcertainformulas,therewasaspiritofBrunschvicgianphilosophytowhichweremainedeverfaithful."50AsforAlain,hewasoneofthecentralfiguresofFrenchintellectualandliterarylifeintheperiodbetweenthetwowarsandwasanotunimportantinfluenceontheyoungSartre.51

KukiandSartreappeartohavediscussedBrunschvicgandAlainindetail.Aspartofthis,thetwoFrenchphilosophersarefoundcomparedtooneanotherinthenotebook.Onthefirstpageofthenotebookbeneatha

figureinwhichthenamesParodiandLeSennearebracketedbesidethatofHamelinisareferencetoBrunschvicg'simportantessay

52"L'Orientationdurationalisme,"whichhadappearedinLaRevuedeMétaphysiqueetdeMoralein1920.ThearticlewasBrunschvicg'sresponsetoDominiqueParodi's1919workLaPhilosophiecontemporaineenFrance.There,Parodi,specificallytargetingBrunschvicg'sphilosophyasexemplified,forinstance,inthe1912volumeLesEtapesdelaphilosophiemathématique,asks:"Mustcontemporarythoughtdefinitivelydrawbackbeforethetaskofaproperlyphilosophicalsystematizationofnature?"53HegavehisresponsebywayofpresentingOctaveHamelin's1907EssaisurlesélémentsprincipauxdelareprésentationasthatrepresentationalformofidealismthatcouldsurmountwhatforParodiwasthereticentidealism,theidealismofjudgment,ofBrunschvicg.In"L'Orientationdurationalisme,"anentryintotheorientationofBrunschvicg'srationalismandthusanexcellentplacetotakeupdiscussionofBrunschvicg'sphilosophy,BrunschvicgopposingHamelinandbehindhimthefinitistpositionofRenouvier'sneo-criticism,54theconceptualismintheAristotelianilfauts'arrêterquelqueparteverywhereopposesconceptandsynthesisinthenameofjudgmentandanalysis.Thus,Brunschvicgstateselsewhere,ina1921discussionoftheSociétéFrançaisedePhilosophiedevotedtojustthisissuebetweenParodiandBrunschvicg:

"Forthedialecticianofcategorieswhohasconstructedafiniteanddiscontinuoustableau,thediscoveryofanewspeciesofnumber,ofanewkindofspace,ofanewmodelofmechanics,willresultonlyinputtingtheequilibriumofthedoctrineinperil.Hewillemployallhispatienceandallhisingenuitytopreservehisidealessencesfromdangerouscontactwiththediversityofthenotion'saspectsinordertoreducetheseaspectstotherankofsecondary,derivedforms.If,onthecontrary,numberandspace,

timeandcause,arenotframeworksforeverfixed,butlawsofindefinitelyprogressiveactivity,rationalidealismwillsaysomuchthebettertherewheresyntheticidealismwillsaysomuchtheworse."

ForourpurposesitisinterestingthatinjustthisparticulardiscussionoftheSociétéFrançaisedePhilosophieGabrielMarceltakesissuewithBrunschvicg,arguingthatifHamelinattemptstoconstructbeing,Brunschvicgeliminatesbeingaltogether.Seekingtodefendontologyontheonehand,theparticularontheother,MarcelpolemicizesagainstBrunschvicgbyarguingthat"whatcountsistoknowifthereisahierarchyofplanesofthoughtormodesofexperienceorcategories...[and]iftothisquestiononeholdsitnecessarytorespondnegatively,thentherecanbenometaphysics,Iwouldevensaynophilosophy....Thoughtdeniesitselftherewhereit

deniesbeing...."ThevalidityofBrunschvicg'sripostethat"toahierarchyofconceptsunfoldingexteriortoconsciousness,asifonapaintedcanvas,Iformypartopposetheprogressoflivingthought,immanenttothesoulinwhichithastakenrootandwhichitcarrysalongwithinitself"

55cannotbeourconcernhere.Rather,wemightwondertowhatdegreethequestionofontology,thequestionofbeing,seizeduponbyMarcel,mightnotalsohaveemergedforKukiinthiscontext,leadinghimtobringupwithSartrejustthatphilosophywhichhadsorecentlyplacedthequestionofbeingatitscenter.ThatSartrewasdissatisfiedwiththerationalismrepresentedbyBrunschvicg'sphilosophyandsoughtawaybeyondithasalreadybeennoted.Wasitherethathewasfirstgivenanideaastothephilosophicaltoolswithwhichhewouldeventuallyfashionhisphilosophicalliberation?

Thereis,ofcourse,littledoubtthatBrunschvicg'sphilosophycameunderfireinKukiandSartre'sdiscussions.ThesuddenreferenceinKuki'snotebook,inthemidstofthenotebook'sremarksonBrunschvicg,totheaforementionedFriedmann-Morhangegroup(Nizan,Politzer,Guterman),aswellastosurrealismandAndréBreton'sNadja,musthaverepresentedabreakinthediscussionofBrunschvicg,abreakinitiatedbythisverydiscussionanddevotedtooppositionalcurrentsinFrenchintellectuallife.ItdoesnotseeminappropriatetoattributethisreferencetoaremarkofSartre's.56Nizan,asIhavementioned,playedanimportantroleinthisphilosophesgroupofyoungMarxistphilosophers;hispoliticalchoiceservedassignificantreferencefortheyoungSartre.Furthermore,surrealismtogetherwithCéline's1932VoyageauboutdelanuitwouldserveSartreinhisliberationfromtheclassicalprosestyleofanAlainorValéryevidentinSartre'searlyworkLaLégendedelavérité.

Inanycase,itisnotsurprisingtofindreferencetooppositionalcurrents.Brunschvicg'sabsolutelysupplethoughtNizancharacterizedBrunschvicgasathinkerhavingthe"precisionofawatchmaker...thesleight-of-handofaconjurer..."57wastheothersideofaphilosophyofculture,ofahumanismofculture,whichforallitsmagnanimitycouldnothaverepresented,eveninthenon-MarxistSartre'seyes,anythingbutanofficialculture.

Thenotebook'sreferencetooppositionalcurrentsinFrenchcultureissignofasurprisingpoliticalleitmotifthatrunsthroughoutthenotebook'sentriesonbothBrunschvicgandAlain.Thus,whenKukiandSartreturnattentiontoAlain,itistohisMarsoulaguerrejugéeandtohisElémentsd'unedoctrineradicale.Marsoulaguerrejugée,Alain'sbrilliantcondemnationofthewar,appearstohavebeendiscussedquiteextensivelybyKukiandSartre.ThefrequentreferencestoAlain'spoliticshisradicalism(liberalvariant)andsocialismaswellasanotebookentrychartingallpositionsalongthepoliticalspectrum,showthatitwasinapolitical,andnot

onlyethical,contextthatAlain'stextswerediscussed.Thesereferences,togetherwithanotebookentrydetailingtwoformsofradicalism(nowinitsgenericusage),oneartistocratic,theotheranarchistic,areallthemoreinterestinggiventherelativeabsenceofapoliticalreflectioninKukiandgiventheyoungSartre'sstudied,nuanceddistancefromtheleft-wingoptionstowhichhewas,afterall,inclined.Wecannot,ofcourse,findananswertotheintriguingquestion:HowwouldBaronKukiandtheiconoclasticyoungSartrehavediscussedthesetwoformsofradicalism,aristocraticandanarchistic?Butweshouldberemindedofwhatisalreadyknown:thatSartre'spoliticalhistoryonlypartiallylendsitselftotheview,thusschematic,ofanapoliticalyoungSartre,apoliticalpost-WorldWarIISartre.

58

InregardtoBrunschvicgandAlain,itshouldalsobementionedthatSartre'sundoubtedoppositiontotheircenter-leftpoliticsandhisevidentdissatisfactionwiththeirrationalismsofjudgmentoughtnotservetoobscuretheinfluence,alludedtobefore,ofBrunschvicg'sphilosophy,whichforallthatitwasaphilosophyofintelligencewasbythisveryfactaphilosophyofliberty;oughtnotobscureamoreimportantfact,thatthedistinctstoicdimensioninL'Etreetlenéantwasderived,inpart,fromthestoicism,howevermuchmediatedbyitsCartesianandSpinozisticvariants,ofthatstoicsageparexcellence,Alain.

IfforSartreapolemicalrelationtoBrunschvicgandAlainwasincertainrespectstheothersideofanundeniableinfluence,59inthecaseofKukithefactofanalreadyachievedintellectualindependence,underscoredbyKuki'simplantationinanotherculture,wouldnothaveentailedthebreakingofinfluences.Indeed,everythingconspiredto

makeofAlainafigureofaffinityforKuki.Kuki'svalorizationofthevoluntaristelementinBushido*wouldleadhimtoanespecialappreciationofAlain'sstoicethic,andKuki'saestheticsensibilitycouldnotbutdeepenhisfeelingofaffinitywiththisphilosopherwho,parexcellence,wasunécrivain,withtheauthorofSystèmedesbeaux-arts.

Indeed,KukiandSartretookupdiscussionofSystèmedesbeaux-arts,perhapsthecenterpieceinAlain'soeuvre.WorthnothingherearethespecificreferencesinKuki'snotebooktochapters1and5ofthefirstsectionofAlain'swork,chaptersontheimagination.ThesespecificreferencesareworthnotingpreciselybecausetheydealwithchaptersthatSartrewouldcriticallyanalyzeinhisfirstpublishedbook,the1936L'Imagination,abookinwhichAlain'stheoryoftheimaginationisanalyzed(asaconcludingexampleinahistoricaloverviewoftheoriesoftheimagination)andsupercededbymeansofHusserl.Thatthis1936workwastherevisedversionofSartre'sthesis,writtenforhisdiplômeattheEcoleNormale,offersthe

opportunitytowonderwhattypeofdiscussionKukiandSartregivenKuki'sfamiliaritywithHusserlianphenomenologyengagedinwithreferencetoAlain'stext.

ConcludingtheirdiscussionsofBrunschvicgandAlain,KukiandSartreturnedtheirattentiontoanotherleadingfigureofthencontemporaryFrenchphilosophy,theCatholicMauriceBlondel(1861-1946),givingthemselvesovertoareadingofBlondel's1893workL'Action.

60Thischoiceisnoteworthy;forthesetwofutureexponentsofexistentialphenomenologytotakeupthereadingofaworkthatinitsdepictionofactionas,touseLouisLavelle'sphrase,"anelanbywhichbeingstrivestosurmountitsowninsufficiency"hasbeenseenbysometohaveprefigured(albeitinaCatholiccontextwherefaithisthegoal)notionsinFrenchexistentialism.Thus,wehaveBlondel's"Condemnedtolife,condemnedtodeath,condemnedtoeternity,how,andbywhatright,ifIhaveneitherknownnorwilledthis?"61

ThenotebookcontainsalistingofanumberofchaptersofBlondel'sbook,presumablychapterstobereadanddiscussed,butthenotebook'spagereferencesreferonlytotheopeningchaptersofthework.HereBlondelcarriesoutanintensepolemicagainstanihilistposition,nowdubbedaestheticism,nowdubbeddilettantism,thatwouldattempttoevadetheproblemofaction,thecondemnationtoaction,by"willingthenothingnessofmanandhisacts."Thissolutionisshowntobreakdownbecausebeneatheverynegationaloveofnegationisfound;denialentailstheconstitutionofdenial,hasapositiveresolution.Thenihilist's"nolonté"itself"dissimulatesasubjectiveend."'''Idonotwanttowill,'nolovelle,isimmediatelytranslatedinthelanguageofreflectionintothesewords,'Iwantnottowill,'volonolle."Itisinthiscontext,Blondel'sdiscussionofthe

aesthetic-nihilistsolution,ofthis"volontédenéant,"thatwefindapageofthenotebookinSartre'sownhand,aschemaoftheaesthetic/pessimistsolutionandofthecontradictionfoundatitsbasebetween,asBlondeltermsit,"twodivergentmovements,theonebearingthewilltowardsagrandidea,towardsanobleloveofbeing,theothergivingituptothedesire,thecuriosity,theobsessionforthephenomenal."62TheexistenceofanotebookpageinSartre'shandisbeyondtheimmediatelyevidentreasonsimportant,foritbearsoutthenotionthatcertainofthenotebook'sentrieswerejotteddownduringanongoingdiscussion.Thatjusthere,inthecontextofBlondel'scritiqueofa"volontédenéant,"apageinSartre'sownhandappearsismorethanlikelymerelyamatterofchance.Butthereisreasontowonder.InthecourseofhisentriesonBlondel,Kukijotteddownthephrase,"onnothingness,asinBergson."Kukihadinmind,ofcourse,Bergson'scritiqueofthe"deificationofnothingness"inL'Evolutioncréatrice.63Nothingness,nihilism,negationKuki,itshouldbenoted,was

atjustthistimeworkingonapaper,"Negation,"begunduringhisparticipationtheyearbeforeinHeidegger'sseminar.

64WouldnotthiscontexthaveespeciallyinvitedKukitointroducehisyouthfulFrenchpartnertothenewexistentialvariantofphenomenology?

ThediscussionofBlondelgiveswayinthenotebooktotheaforementionedpageswherelistingsofreadingsonDescartes,Pascal,MainedeBiran,Comte,andothersarefound.Variousinformalnotesscatteredamongthelistingsofthenature,forexample,"badtranslation"and"verygood,"giveonethefeelingthatKukimayhaveconsultedorperhapsevenconstitutedtheselistswithSartre.FollowingtheseliststhenotebookmovesontoPaulValéry.Earlierinthenotebook,amidpagesdevotedtoAlain,therearereferencestoEupalinos,L'IntroductionàlaméthodedeLeonardodiVinci,andLaJeuneParque.Inthelatterpartofthenotebook,KukiandSartregivecloseattentiontothepiecesinValéry'sVariétéI.Andhere,inthecontextofValéry,isanotherintriguingfeatureoftheKuki-Sartreencounter,foritisprobablethatindiscussingthiswriterinwhosepoeticsthepositionoftheMusewasheldbytheMistressChance,KukiandSartrewereledtoadiscussionofcontingency.ItneedhardlybementionedtheplacecontingencywouldholdinLaNauséetheearlydraftofwhichSartrehadreferredtoasFactumsurlacontingence65aswellasinL'Etreetlenéant.TheyoungSartreconsideredcontingencyhiscentralphilosophicalintuition,asisillustratedbySimonedeBeauvoir'sdescriptionofSartre'spurchaseofLevinas'sbookonHusserl:"[Sartre's]heartmissedabeatwhenhefoundreferencestocontingency.Hadsomeonecutthegroundfromunderhisfeetthen?Ashereadonhereassuredhimselfthatthiswasnotso.Contingencyseemednottoplayanyveryimportantpartin

Husserl'ssystemofwhichinanycaseLevinasonlygaveaformalanddecidelyvagueoutline."66

Contingencyhad,ofcourse,beencentraltoSartrefromthetimeofhisdaysattheEcoleNormale.InaseriesofdiscussionswithSimonedeBeauvoirheldin1974Sartrerecountedthathehadinhisstudentyearsbegunenteringreflectionsoncontingencyintoanotebookhehadchanced(!)uponwhileridingthemetro.Films,Sartrerecalled,hadbeentheoccasionofhisdiscoveryofcontingency.Exitingamovietheater,hehadbeenstruckbythecontrastbetweenthenecessityoftheeventsinfilmsandthecontingencyofthecomingsandgoingsofpeopleinthestreet.Contingencyexisted.Sotoo,Sartrecametofeel,existedanelectiveaffinitybetweenhimselfandthisnotion:"Ifoundthatthenotionhadbeenneglected....AllMarxistthoughtculminatedinaworldofnecessity;therewasnocontingency,onlydeterminism,dialectics;therewerenocontingent

facts....IthoughtthatifIhaddiscoveredcontingencyinfilmsandexitsintothestreet,itwasbecauseIwasmeanttodiscoverit.

67

Weneednotlingeroverthisre-entryofnecessitybywayofdestiny.Contingencyandfinalitycanbereconciled.Rather,whatissoveryinterestingisthatcontingencyoccupiedacentralplaceinKuki'sownphilosophy;indeed,hiswaspreciselyaphilosophyofcontingency.68Contingencyhadbeenthetopicofhis1932doctoraldissertation,Guzensei*(Contingency),ofwhichhis1935workGuzenseinoMondai(TheProblemofContingency)wastheconsiderableelaboration.69Kuki'sinterestincontingency,however,wellpredatedtheseworks.Hehad,forexample,deliveredanimportantlectureoncontingencyin1929atOtani*UniversityshortlyafterhisreturnfromEurope.Andthenotionwasinevidenceinhis1928Propossurletemps.Inthefirstessayofthisbook,Kukiisconcerned,aswasnotedearlier,withthederivationofanethiconthebasisofcontingentexistence.Settingoff,incontradistinctiontolineartime,anorientaltime,a"timeoftransmigration,"Kukinotesthat,ifthesupremeevilforBuddhismliesintheperpetualrepetitionofthewill,thisisthesupremegoodforBushido*."Bushidoistheaffirmationofthewill,thenegationofthenegation.Theinfinitegoodwill,whichcanneverbeentirelyfulfilled,whichisdestinedalwaystoremaindeceived,musteverandalwaysrenewitsefforts."Bushidosays:"Letusconfronttransmigrationfearlessly,valiantly.Letuspursueperfectionwithaconsciousnesswellawarethatitwillremaineverdeceived...."PartisanofthevoluntarisminBushido,KukitakesissuewithwhatheseesastheGreektendencytoseeinthemythofSisyphus,forexample,amythofdamnation.ForKukithereisnotragedyhere,ratherthepossiblefoundationofamoralattitude:"EverythingdependsonthesubjectiveattitudeofSisyphus.Hisgoodwill,awill

steadfastinalwaysbeginninganew,ineverrollingtherock,findsinthisrepetitionitselfacompleteethic,and,consequently,allitshappiness."70

ItispreciselytheseanalysesthatwillreappearanumberofyearslaterandformpartofKuki'ssystematictreatmentofcontingencyinGuzenseinoMondai(TheProblemofContingency).Anaccountofthisbookcannotbegivenhere.ButIshallnotethatafterasustainedanalysisofcontingencyinitsthreemodalitiescategorical,hypothetic,anddisjunctiveananalysisinwhichcontingencyisrevealedasthemetaphysicalabsolute,thearrivalpointoftheworkbecomesthederivationofanethic,the"interiorizationofcontingency."AndhereiswhyKukiinProporssurletempsvalorizedthatHeideggeriantemporalityinwhichthemeaningoftimeisfoundedon"thefutureascomingtowardstheselfandpassing,thereby,intothealreadyexistingpast,"thatHeideggeriantemporalityinwhich"ifpossibility[is]a

comingtowards,"itisso"becausethelogicalnatureofpossibility[lies]inthefuture"forinregardtothe"interiorizationofcontingency"Kukiwrites:"[That]'nothingtakesplaceinvain'signifiesmyfuturepossibilityofinteriorizingtheverythou(nanji)conditioningme.Thealmostimpossibletiniestpossibility(gokubinokanosei

*)becomesrealityincontingency,andthiscontingency,evergivingrisetonewcontingencies,leadsontowardnecessity.Hereliesthesalvationofman....Asenseofeternaldestinycanbegiventocontingency,containingnothingnessinitselfandwhosedestinyisevertoloseitself,onlybyvitalizing(ikashimuru)thepresentbymeansofthefuture."Thus,KukicouldbringGuzensei*noMondaitoclose:"Whenrealityisconfrontedwithnothingness,unabletorestrainoursurprisewecryoutwithMilanda:Why?...Tothe'why'ofMilandawecanonlyrespondthatcontingencyisaninevitableconditionofconcreterealityinthedomainoftheory,butthatinthedomainofactionitis,perhaps,possibletofillthelacunaoftheoryifwegiveourselvesthisorder:Letnotyourencounterstakeplaceinvain(outemunashikusugurunakare)."71Hereinthisconcludingcommand,takenfromtheBuddhistJodoron*,wefindpreciselythatgoodwillpreviouslyrenderedtoSisyphus.

Theauthorofaphilosophyofcontingency,Kukiwasalsotheauthorofanaestheticofcontingency,fashioningapoeticsofwhichthefirsttextwashis1927Oin*niTsuite(OnRhyming)inwhichcontingencyholdscentralplace.What,inthisregard,isthefunctionofrhyme?Itisto"makeofthepoeticformaplaceofcontingency,aplacewhere,fugitively,wordsmeetandsoundsrespondtooneanother;itisinpoetrytosignifysymbolicallythepulsationoflife....Thus,thefullforceofpoetryisfoundwhereoneknowshowtomakemanifestinaprecariousandfragileaestheticformthatsenseofcontingencywhich

isattheheartofone'sfaithinlanguage,inthespiritofwords."AndwithcontingencyandrhymewereturntoKuki'snotebook,forinfashioninghisworkonthepoeticsofrhyme,KukiwasinfluencedpreciselybythepoeticsofPaulValéry:"FromthepointofviewofformPaulValéryconsiderspoetryasthepuresystemofthedestinyoflanguageandspeaksofthephilosophicalbeautypossessedbyrhyme."72

Bywhatdestiny,then,bywhatchance,thismeetingbetweenthesetwophilosophersofcontingency?Wecannot,ofcourse,knowforcertainwhetherKukiandSartrediscussedthequestionofcontingency,butinviewoftheattentionpaidValéryinKuki'snotebook,itseemslikely.Andiftheydid,itwouldcarryallthemoresignificancegivenSartre'sfeelingofelectiveaffinitywiththephilosophyofcontingencyandgiventhefactthattheyverycertainlydiddiscussthephilosophyofexistence.Sartre,ofcourse,couldnotlaterhavereadGuzenseinoMondai.Thus,onlyKukicouldhaveknownofthesubsequentreflectionsoncontingencyofhisphilosophicaldiscussion

partner.ButasearchofKuki'slibrarydidnotturnupLaNauséenoranyofSartre'sotherprewarworks.Kuki'sknowledgeofSartre'ssubsequentdevelopmentisnottherebyruledout,butitcannot,obviously,bedemonstrated.

73Inanycase,this"contingent"parallelremainsarresting.

Asforotherparallels,theyhavealreadybeenwellinevidence.Thus,ifSartrewastobecometheleadingexponentofexistentialphenomenologyinFrance,KukiwastooccupyasimilarpositioninJapan.AndKuki'saforementioned1933workonHeidegger,his1934JitsuzonnoTetsugaku(ThePhilosophyofExistence),andhis1937NingentoJitsuzon(ManandExistence)werenotonlyworksrepresentativeoftheexistentialphenomenologicalcurrentinJapan,theywereworksthatalsomadeentryofthiscurrentintoJapanpossibleinthesingularwaythatinthemaportionofthevocabularyofexistentialphenomenology,previouslynotexistentinJapanese,wascoined.Jitsuzon(existence),forexample,wasawordcreatedbyKuki.74And,then,aremainingparallel:KukiandSartrebothdividedtheirtimebetweenphilosophyandliterature,Sartreinthenovelanddrama,Kukiinpoetry.

Itremains,then,toconsiderKuki'sinfluenceonSartre,toconsiderthesignificanceoftheirencounter.AtthetimeoftheirmeetingSartrewasatwenty-three-year-oldstudent,oneyearawayfrompassingtheagrégationinphilosophy.75Ifincontingencyhehadalreadyseizedupononeofthecentralnotionsofhissubsequentmaturephilosophy,hewouldnotbeinapositiontosystematicallydevelophisintuitionsuntilhehadcompletedhisapprenticeshipinHusserl,Heidegger,andHegel.Kuki,ontheotherhand,wasfortyyearsold,possessorofanenormouscultureand,nowhavingmeditatedonthelessonsofGermanphenomenology,beginninganindependentphilosophical

productionthatwouldmakehimoneoftheoutstandingtalentsinmodernJapanesephilosophy.Sartreinhis1966interviewinTokyonotedthatifKukihadintroducedhimtoHeidegger'sphenomenology,he,Sartre,asyetonlyastudent,hadnotbeeninapositiontotakeupHeidegger.AsregardsHeideggerandphenomenology,then,itwasKuki'sdistinctroletohaveturnedSartre'sattentiontoHeideggerandphenomenology,tohavegivenSartreanagenda,nomatterthatitcouldnotbeimmediatelyattended.

ButwhatoftherolegivenRaymondAroninSimonedeBeauvoir'sLaForcedel'âge?Clearly,AroncouldnothaveintroducedSartretophenomenology.76ButdoubtlessSartre's1932conversationwithAronwasimportant.ThatSartrewasthusimpelledtomakearrangementstostudyinGermanyatteststothatfactandshowsthatAronhadquickenedtheurgencyofSartre'sagenda.Sartre'sreceptivitytophenomenologyhadsurelyincreasedintheyearssubsequentto,indeedbyveryvirtueof,hisencounter

withKuki.HewasnowbetterplacedtohearthatwhichAronhadtotellhim.Andtoday,withtheseeminglyever-presentjournalsofthedrôledeguerre,Sartrehimselfprovidesusinsightintothenatureofthisreceptivityand,whatismore,offersusawayofdiscussingthesignificanceof,aswellasjustthataforementioneddestinyin,Sartre'sencounterwithKukiforthereattheheadofanentry(ofFebruary1940)isfound:"IfIwanttounderstandtheshareoflibertyanddestinyinwhatiscalled'undergoinganinfluence,'IcanreflectontheinfluenceHeideggerhasexercisedonme."

77

InthisentrySartregivesinawaynotavailablebefore,thechronologyandsignificanceofhisencounterwithHeidegger.SartrehadjourneyedtoBerlininthefallof1933withtheintentionofreading"thephenomenologists."TakingupfirstwithHusserl,heplannedhavingpurchasedacopyofSeinundZeitinDecembertoreadHeideggerthefollowingspring.However,hefounduponcommencingwithHeideggerthathewas"saturatedwithHusserl."TheintensestudyofHusserlhadexhaustedhimthatyearforphilosophy.OfSeinundZeithewasonlyabletoreadfiftypages,thedifficultyofthevocabulary,inanycase,puttinghimoff.78SartrewouldfindthathisapprenticeshipwithHusserlwouldrequirefouryears,carryingwellinto1937thetimeofhiscompositionofthenever-to-becompletedLaPsyche(ofwhichonlythesectionontheemotionswouldeverbepublished).IfSartrebrokeoffwritingthiswork,itwasbecausehisdissatisfactionswithitrevealedtohimhisdissatisfactionswithHusserl:with,forinstance,thepassivityentailedbythesensationalismrootedintheHusserlianhylé(thehyleticdatathroughwhichintentionalobjectsweregiven);withhis,Sartre's,inabilitytofindsatisfactioninHusserl'streatmentoftheproblemoftheother'sconsciousness,thetreatmentofwhichproblemnecessitated

forSartreassurancethat"twodistinctconsciousnessesperceivethesameworld";andfinallywithHusserl'srefutationofsolipsism,"inconclusiveandweak."79

DissatisfactionwithHusserlnowimpelledSartretoturntoHeidegger"inordertoevadetheHusserlianimpasse."Thus,Sartrenotes,"oneseesthatIcouldnothavestudiedHeideggerearlierthanIdid."ButifthereasondelayinghisengagementwithHeideggerthenecessityofhistrulypassingthroughHusserlhadbeenofanobjectivenaturethisveryreasonnowcoincidedwithanothersetofobjectivities:thehistoricalsituation."History,"Sartrewrites,ledhim"toseekoutaphilosophywhichwouldnotonlybeacontemplation,butawisdom,aheroism,asaintliness,anythingatallinfactthatwouldallowmetocometogripswiththesituation."ItisHeideggerassage.Sartrewrites:"IwasintheexactsituationoftheAthenians,who,afterthedeathofAlexander,turnedawayfromAristotelianscienceinordertotakeupthemorebrutal,themoretotalitariandoctrinesoftheStoicsand

Epicureans,doctrineswhichcouldteachthemhowtolive."

80InHeideggerSartrefelthehadfoundhisZeno,hisEpicurus:"Thisinfluencenowappearstomeprovidentialsinceittaughtmeaboutauthenticityandhistoricityjustatthatmomentwhenthewarrenderedthesenotionsindispensibletome.IfItrytoimaginewhatIwouldhavemadeofmythoughtwithoutthesetools,Iamtakenwitharetrospectivefear.HowmuchtimeIhadgained."81

AnimpassewithHusserlandaperiodofhistoricalcrisisprovidedSartrewithHeidegger.Sartrereflects:"SufficientlydetachedfromHusserl,seekingoutaphilosophyofpathos(unephilosophie'pathéthique'),IwasripetounderstandHeidegger."Yetwhatistheretosayofchance,ofthefortuitousappearanceofCorbin'stranslationofHeidegger'sWasistMetaphysik?ChancenotatallSartrewrites,for"thepublicationofQu'est-cequelamétaphysiquewasahistoriceventinwhoseproductionIhadformypartjustlycontributedashare."82

Sartrehadheardspeakofthephenomenologists,hadfoundhiscuriosityraisedinregardtophenomenology.Hehadread"afewrareFrenchworks"onthesubjectandlaterhadgonetoBerlin.Returningwithsomedegreeoffamiliarity,hetaughtwhathehadlearnedandthus"augmentedthisinquisitivepublic"ofwhichhesawhimselfapart.Subsequently,thispublicgrew.IfthenCorbin'sbookappeared,itwas,Sartreargues,preciselybecauseapublichadcometodemandthisbook:"Corbinhadproducedhistranslationforus.Allthathadbeennecessarywasthisfirstcuriosity....Thus,ifCorbinhadtranslatedQu'est-cequelamétaphysique,itwasbecauseI(amongothers)hadfreelyconstitutedmyselfaspublicawaitingthistranslationandinsodoinghadassumedmysituation,mygeneration,andmyepoch."Thus,afterspeakingofthecircumstancewherebyHeideggerandnotHusserlwasfirsttranslatedwhichcircumstance

Sartreexplainedwithreferencetothegreaterattractionaphilosophyofpathos,notwithstandingitsincomprehensibilitytothegeneralpublic,wouldhave,andinwhichcircumstancehesawthedictationoftheaforementionedinquisitivepublicSartrecouldconclude:"Inotherwordsitwasmyepoch,mysituation,andmyfreedomwhichhaddeterminedmyencounterwithHeidegger.Andinthistherehadbeenneitherchancenordeterminism,buthistoricalconvenience."83

Yetonenecessity:fortheCorbintranslationtohaveappeared"allthathadbeennecessarywasthisfirstcuriosity."AndsowearereturnedtoKukitohimwhowouldprovideSartrethisfirstcuriosity;indeed,tohimwhobyvirtueofhisintercousewithFrenchphilosophicalcirclesinParisandatPontignywouldserveasoneoftheveryfirstinthetransmissionofthenewGermanthoughttoFrance;tohimwhowouldthusserveintheaugmentationofthatverypublicthat,tofollowSartre,wouldleadtothepossibilityofphenomenology'snaturalizationinFrance.

Ofthenotionsofphenomenology,Sartrecouldwriteinhisnotebook:"IdreamedofthesenotionswhichIknewbutpoorlyandaboutwhichIdesiredtoknowmore."

84Andwecan,inthisregard,thinkofMerleau-Ponty'slaterdeclarationtotheeffectthat"ifwesoreadilywelcomedphenomenologyitwasbecauseitwaswhatwehadeverywheredreamedaboutforsolong."Kuki,then,providedSartrethatveryspecialkindofcuriosity,thattypeofexpectancyfortheneeded,forthenecessaryasyethidden,scarcelyknown:thatinternaltropismofthoughtandtastethatcanleadonedaytothediscoveryofanelectiveaffinitythereseeminglyfromtheverystarthappilyfound."Influence,"thisprovision?Provisioncertainly,andoneatthatsoveryfelicitous.Thus,bywayofconclusion:Kuki,bywordandinhispersonitself,exposedSartretohis,Sartre's,veryownfuture,addedtohispredispositionforit.

Notes1.AfootnotegivesbriefmentionofthisinY.Nitta,H.Tatematsu,andE.Shimomisse*,"PhenomenologyandPhilosophyinJapan,"inAnalectaHusserliana,vol.8,ed.Anna-TeresaTymieniecka(Dordrecht,1979),p.17,n.24.

2.TheJapanesephilosopherKitaro*Nishida(1870-1945)initiatedJapanesediscussionofHusserlinanarticleof1911.ThefirstFrencharticleonHusserlappearedin1910.However,ifdiscussionofHusserlasphenomenologistcommencedinearnestinJapanintheearly1920s,suchdiscussiondidnottrulybegininFrancetillthelate1920sandearly1930s.FortheFrenchreceptionofphenomenologyseeHerbertSpiegelberg,ThePhenomenologicalMovement:AHistorical

Introduction,vol.2(TheHague:Nijhoff,1960),pp.401-8.

3.SimonedeBeauvoir,ThePrimeofLife,trans.PeterGreen(NewYork:Meridian1962),p.112.

4.ThephilosopherYasumasaOshima*,inanarticleonKuki,hasrecountedthatwhenhiseldercolleagueYasutaro*AwanowasinParisin1934,AwanoaskedEmileBréhierifBréhiercouldprovidehimapartnerforpurposesofdiscussingFrenchphilosophyandthusemployinghisFrench.Bréhier,exclaiming,"thatwasjustKuki'srequest!"introducedAwanotoayounglycéeprofessor,MauriceMerleau-Ponty!OshimatakestheremarkassignthatitwasprobablyBréhierwhohadearlierdirectedKukitoSartre.(SeeYasumasaOshima,"KukiShuzo*toGuzensei*noMondai"[ShuzoKukiandTheProblemofContingency],ChuoKoron*82[September1967]:394.)ToshihitoNaito*alsocitesBréhierashavingprovidedKukiintroductiontoSartre.(SeeToshihitoNaito,"KukitoSarutoru"[KukiandSartre],Geppo*12[March1982]:7-9[insertinsupplementaryvolume(Bekkan)ofKukiShuzoZenshu*(TheCollectedWorksofShuzoKuki),11vols.andsupplementaryvolume(Tokyo:Iwanami:Shoten,1980-1982),ed.HisayukiOmodaka,AkioSato*,andTetsujiIshigaki)].ReferencestoKukiShuzoZenshuwillhereafterbecitedasKSZ.ItshouldalsobenotedthatinJapanesethesurnameisgivenfirst.Toavoidconfusion,however,Ihavechosennottofollowthisorder.Allnamesare,thus,giveninEnglishorder.ExceptionismadefornamesappearinginJapanesepublicationtitles.)

5.ThetextofIbuki'sinterviewappearedinthenewspaperSankeiShinbun,October6,1966.RelevantpassagescanbefoundinOshima,"KukiShuzotoGuzenseinoMondai,"p.394,andNaito,"KukitoSarutoru,"p.7.SartreindicatesthathedidnotserveasalanguagetutorinapassagequotedinOshima(p.394).

6.AccordingtoKojima,HeideggerinthecourseofadiscussionwithKojima(inGermanyin1955)remarked:"DidyouknowthatSartrecametome(watashinomotoniyattekita)withaletterofintroductionfromKuki.WhileastudentattheUniversityofParisSartreservedKukiasatutorandwassurprisedtolearnfromKukiofthedevelopmentsinGermanphilosophy.Sartrethoughtthesedevelopmentsoriginatedwithmeand,therefore,cametoseekmeout(watashiotazunetekitandayo)."Kojimaaddsthathe,Kojima,hadnotheardthisstorybefore.(SeeTakehikoKojima,"Boden

kohanniHaideggaoOtonau"[VisitingHeideggeralongBödenLake],inSekaiNippo*[WorldDailyReport],Feb.13,1981.Naito*,citingKojima,alsospeaksofsuchaletter.)MadameSimonedeBeauvoir,however,informsmeinaletterthatSartredidnotpossesssuchaletter.Itisknown,ofcourse,thatSartrealmostcertainlydidnotmeetHeideggerduringhis1933-34stayinGermany,meetingHeideggerbutonetime,inFreiburginlateNovemberorearlyDecemberof1952.Inaddition,nolettersbetweenKukiandpossibleEuropeancorrespondantsseemtobeextant.

Kojimawasnot,however,theonlyrecepientofHeidegger'sinformation.ProfessorTetsuoKogawaremarkedtomeindiscussionthatcommencingintheearly1950sHeideggerspoketoallhisJapanesevisitorsaboutKuki.ThiscanalsobegatheredfromthetestimonyofProfessorTomioTezuka(seefootnote16below).Puttingasideforthemomentthequestionoftheletterofintroduction,Heideggeristhusoneofthesources(perhapsthesource)forthestoryinJapanregardingKuki'smeetingwithSartre,astorythat,asToshihikoNaitonotes,hadalwaysafabledtoneaboutit(isshudensetsutekinairoai).Furthermore,ProfessorHerbertSpiegelberg,thehistorianofthephenomenological

movement,inalettertomewritesthathehadfirstheardKukispokenofduringaninterviewheheldwithHeideggerinGermanyin1953.HeideggerspokeofKukias"his[Heidegger's]sourceofinformationaboutSartre."Inaddition,ProfessorSpiegelberginanoteforwardedtomebyProfessorRichardPopkinwrites:"When,accordingtomynotebookofinterviewswithvariedwitnessesofthephenomenologicalmovement("Scrapbook"),IvisitedHeideggerathisskihutnearTodtnasbergon15September1953,hementionedinanswertomyinquiriesabouthiscontactswithSartre:SartrehadstudiedHeidegger'sSeinundZeitatthesuggestionofaCountKuki,agiftedJapanesewhohadstudiedwithHeideggerinMarburg."

AllthiswouldseemtolendsupporttothenotionthateitherSartrepossessedaletterofintroductiontoHeideggerfromKukiorandthisisthemorelikelyeventgiventhatSartredidnotmeetHeideggerin1933-34thatKukihadwrittendirectlytoHeideggerregardingSartre.FortowhateverdegreeHeidegger'stestimonyaboutalettermustbeviewedwithcaution(anditmustbe),histestimonyisaccurateinthatKukiandSartredidmeetwhileSartrewasastudent.

HowthenaccountforHeidegger'stestimony?Onepossibility:Kukihadin1933writtenaletterofintroductiondirectlytoHeideggerforayoungFrenchlycéeprofessor,who,however,didnotcometocalluponHeidegger.Subsequently,afterthewarandtherisetoprominenceofthisprofessor(andtherecommencementofJapanesevisitorstoHeidegger),HeideggerwasremindedoftheletterhehadreceivedfromKuki.Histestimonytwentyyearslaterwouldthenmerelyhaveconfusedthemannerinwhichhereceivedtheletter.Itisonepossibility.Thereisanother.InamemoirofHeidegger,HansA.Fischer-BarnicolnotesthatKukiduringhisstayinParishadsentHeideggeraneditionofDescartes'works.(SeeHansA.Fischer-Barnicol,"Spiegelungen-Vermittlungen,"inErinnerungan

MartinHeidegger,ed.GüntherNeske[Pfüllingen:Neske,1977],p.102.)MightKukiinaletteraccompanyingtheDescartesworkshavementionedtoHeideggerhismeetingwithaFrenchstudentofphilosophy?PerhapsthisstudenthadinformedKukiastoasuitableeditiontopurchase.And,again,afterthewarthelettertookonmeaningforHeidegger.Andthereisstillanotherpossibility.Heidegger'stestimonyseemstocommenceintheearly1950s.CouldithavebeentheresultofhismeetingwithSartrein1952?PerhapsinthecourseoftheirconversationHeideggermentionedKukiwiththeresultthatSartrethenspokeofhisownrelationswithKuki.

7.Itisworthmentioningthatatthistimeotherstobecomesubsequentlyfamous,suchasthewriterJunichiro*TanizakiandthephilosophersTetsuro*WatsujiandTeiyu*Amano,thelatterto

becomeKuki'sdevotedandlifelongfriend,werealsoinattendanceatDaiichiKotogakko

*.FormoreonWatsujiandAmanoseenotes15and9respectively.

8.ThereisadiscussionofKukiinHeidelberginKeizoIkimatsu,"HaiderubergonoKukiShozo*"(ShuzoKukiinHeidelberg),Geppo*1(Nov.1980):3-6(insertinKSZ,vol.2[Tokyo,1980]).

9.AllofthesemencametooccupyimportantplacesinJapaneseintellectuallifeupontheirreturntoJapan.Amano,aswenotedearlier,Kuki'sdevotedfriend,becamealeadingKantscholar,aswellastheauthorofanumberofethicalworks.HaniandOuchi*becameimportantMarxisthistorians;Naruse,alsoafriendofKuki's,authoredworksonthequestionofcontingency.

Jiro*Abe*andKiyoshiMiki,however,playedthemostimportantroles.Abe,primarilyanaesthetician,influencedbyGermanromanticism,hadalreadyattainedprominencewithworkssuchasthe1916philosophicaldiarySantaro*noNikki(TheDiaryofSantaro),the1917Bigaku(Aesthetics),andthe1920Jinkakushugi(Personalism).KiyoshiMiki,astudentofKitaro*NishidaandSeiichiHatano(1877-1950)atKyotoUniversity,inHeidelbergin1923deliveredalecture,"WahrheitundGewissheit,"attendedbyhisJapanesecolleagues.HealsointhatyearcontributedanappreciationofRickert,"RickertsBedeutungfürdieJapanischePhilosophie,"totheFrankfurterZeitung.(BothoftheseessayscanbefoundinMikiKiyoshiZenshu*[TheCollectedWorksofKiyoshiMiki],vol.2[Tokyo,1966],pp.15-26and43-49respectively[noteshouldbetakenthatJapanesebooksreadfromrighttoleft;theforeignlanguagematerialinthevolumeherecitedhas,however,beenprintedinWesternorderandcarriesseparatepagination]).

Miki,whosefirstbook,publishedin1925,wasdevotedtothesubjectofmaninPascal,authoredimportantworksintheareasofsocialphilosophy,thephilosophyofhistory,andphilosophicalanthropology.HisphilosophicalenterpriseassimilatedHeidegger(whoseseminarheattendedwhileinGermany)ontheonehandandtheHegelianMarxismofLukácsontheother.Arrestedandimprisonedforashorttimein1930,Mikiwasonceagainarrestedin1945anddiedinprisonthatsameyear,twomonthsafterthewar'sconclusion.

TheWesternreadercanfindanoutlineofmodernJapanesephilosophyinGinoK.Piovesana,RecentJapanesePhilosophicalThought,1862-1962(Tokyo:SophiaUniv.Press,1968).

10.HermannGlockner,HeidelbergerBilderbuch:ErinnerungenvonHermannGlockner(Bonn:H.Bouvier1969),p.232.GlocknerrecountsthatRickertreferredtoKukias"BaronNeunteufel,"Kukihimselfhavingindicatedthisasthemeaningofhisname(thetwocharacterscomprisinghisname,kuandki,signify9anddevilrespectively).

11.Kuki'smovementsinEuropecaneasilybefollowedowingtolistingsofarrivalsanddeparturesinadiary-journalkeptbyMadameKuki.IamindebtedtoProfessorAkioSato*ofKonan*University,directoroftheShuzoKukiArchiveatKonanUniversity,forgraciouslyprovidingmewithrelevantexcerptsfromMadameKuki'sdiary.

12.Myojo*(MorningStar)wasfoundedin1900bythepoetTekkanYosano,whosesecondwifewasthefamedpoetessAkikoYosano.ThejournalwastheorganofYosano'sgroupShinshisa(NewPoetrySociety).Themostinfluentialreviewofitstime,(duringitspre-WWIperiod),atthecenterofthemodernmovementandthetankarevival,attentivetothevisualartsandWesternpoetry,MyojoattractedmanyofthemostableJapanesepoetsofthedayandwascrucialin

establishingmodernJapanesepoetry.(SeeTheodoreW.Goosen,"Myojo,"inTheKodanshaEncyclopediaofJapan,vol.5[Tokyo:Kodansha,1983],p.290.)

Kuki'smanuscriptswerepublishedinMyojoundertheinitialsS.K.or,asinthecaseofParinoNegoto*,underthepseudonymRokozoKomari.In1938KukiunderhisownnamepublishedexcerptsfromtheseriesPariShinkei.In1942,ayearafterhisdeath,theentireseriesofParispoemswerecollected(withtheadditionofonenewseries,"Kyo*noFuyu"[KyotoWinter])andpublished,alongwithanafterwordbyTeiyu*Amano,underthetitlePariShinkei.ThisvolumewaslaterincludedinKSZ,vol.1(Toyko,1980),pp.109-218.

13.IkinoKozo*wasfirstpublishedinthejournalShiso*(Thought)intheearlypartof1930

andappearedinbookformlaterthatyear.IkinoHonshitsuandIkinoKozo

*areincludedinKSZ,vol.1,pp.89-108and3-83.Inaddition,anotebookofKuki'scontainingpreparatorynotesforIkinoKozohasbeenpublishedundertheeditor'stitleIkiniTsuite(OnIki)inthesupplementaryvolumeofKSZ,pp.3-35.

IkiwasanaestheticandmoralidealspecifictothemiddleclassesofEdo(Tokyo'snamebefore1868)duringtheBunka-Bunseiperiod(1804-1830).Apersonholdingthisidealsoughttolivearefined,tastefullife.Ifinclinedtowealth,heorshescornedattachmenttomoney;ifinclinedtoamorouspleasure,heorsheresistedbeingcarriedawaybydesire.Notignorantofthedetailsoftheeverydayworld,indeedlivingdecidedlyintheworld,thepersonofikisoughttomaintainaformofdetachment.(SeeMakotoUeda,''IkiandSui,"inTheKodanshaEncyclopediaofJapan,vol.3,pp.267-68.)Thus,inIkinoKozoKukicancontrastikiwiththeblindintoxicationcharacteristicofStendhalianamour-passion.Ikicarriesarejectionofexclusiveattachment;detachmentissought"inordertolivefarfromthisworldinthetransparentatmosphereofamour-goût"(KSZ,vol.1,p.23).

Kuki,manofikihimself,wasactingasifbyelectioninselectingikiasasubjectforanalysis.Iki,aculturalformandphenomenonofconsciousnessspecifictoJapan,is,asKukishowsintheopeningmethodological(andetymological)chapterofIkinoKozo,anuntranslatabletermtheFrench"chic"andtheEnglish"elegant"carryingonlyone-sidedmeaningsofthetermandfindsitsmodelrepresentativeinthegeisha.Theidealofthegeishaisatonce"moralandaesthetic...iki...aharmoniousunityofvoluptuousnessandnobility."Atthebaseofikiasexualrelationto

anotherisimplied.Thus,ikiturnsouttobeaformofcoquetrymodifiedbytwootherelements,ontheonehandikiji,acertainspiritofrebelliousnessandpluck,boldnessandworldliness(ikioriginallymeant"spirit"or"heart"),derivedfromtheethicofBushido*,"thewayofthebushi"(or,inWesternparlance,"thewayofthesamurai"),andontheotherhandbyakirame,resignationorrenunciation,derivedfromtheBuddhistexperienceoftheimpermanenceoflife.(SeeKSZ,vol.1,pp.16ff.)Thus,"iki...isthatcoquetryactingasamaterialcause...modifiedbytheformalfactorsofBushido'smoralidealismandtheBuddhistnotionoftheimpermanenceoftheworld,bythetwomaincharacteristicsofJapanesecivilization."Anuancedcomplexbywhichasystemofmoralandaestheticvaluesfindsexpression,ikiisinfactfundamentallyaformofcharm,acharm"carryinganinfiniteauthority"andplaying"asignificantpartinJapaneseculture,"acharmandauthorityevidentinthelateEdoperiod(1603-1868)saying,quotedbyKuki,"Ah,[her]ikispirit(ikinakokoro),leadingmetotakeastruthswhatIknewtobelies"(ibid.,p.23).

InIkinoKozothephenomenologicalinfluenceofHusserlandHeideggerisimmediatelyapparent,bothfromthestructureoftheworkasawholeandfromthemethodologicalcautionsKukisetsforthattheopeningofthework,wherehewarnsagainstquestioning"theessentia(honshitsu)ofikibeforequestioningtheexistentia(sonzai)ofiki"(KSZ,vol.1,p.13).Hermeneutical(kaishakuteki)understandingiscounterposedtoamereformalist(keisoteki)understanding.Thus,thebookwillanalyzeikifirstasacomprehensivestructure,thenasanextensivestructure,beforemovingontoananalysisofthenaturalaswellasaestheticmanifestationsofiki.Intheselattertwochapters,marvelousanalysesofvariousaspectsofJapanesecultureabound,andwecanfindhereanaestheticofiki,whichistosay,incertainrespects,Kuki'sownaesthetic.

14.NihonshinoOin*dealsnotonlywithJapanesepoetry,butrangesovermanyoftheworld'smajorpoetries.It(aswellasKuki'spoetryitself)playedaninfluentialroleamongseveralJapanesepoeticmovementsandgroups,particularlythe"MatinéePoetique"group,duringthe1940s.Aversionoftheworkwasfirstpublishedin1931inthelectureseriesNihonBungaku(JapaneseLiterature)ofthepublisherIwanamiShoten.Another,shorterversionwaspublishedinthesameyearinthenewspaperOsakaAsahiShinbun.Kukiremainedoccupiedwiththissubjectthroughoutthe1930s,reworkinghis1931manuscript(aswashiswontwithmanyofhismanuscripts)severaltimesbeforepreparingin1941afullyrevisedversioncontainingsubstantialnewadditionstobeincludedinavolumeofwritingsonliteraturehewasputtingtogetherforpublication.Thevolume,Bungeiron(LiteraryStudies),appearedin1941

shortlyafterKuki'sdeath.Itnowmakesupvol.4ofKSZ(Tokyo,1981).The1931versionsoftheworkareincludedinKSZ,vol.5(Toyko,1981),pp.264-270and271-471respectively.

15.InaletterofOctober22,1927,toHusserl,Heidegger,inapassagerecountinghisownworkandupcominglectures,referstoKuki.TheinformalityofthereferenceindicatesthatKukiisnostrangertoHussers(andHeidegger's)circle:"...withthelecturesandthetwostudiesandthetalksinKölnandBonnandinadditionKuki"([BriefanEdmundHusserl],inEdmundHusserl,PhänomenologischePsychologie,Husserliana,ed.WalterBiemel[TheHague:Nijhoff,1962],band9,pp.600-601).

AfterWorldWarI,JapanesephilosophersbegantravelingtoFreiburginordertostudywithHusserl.AsaresulttheyhadcometoknowHussersassistant,Heidegger.InJapanthesevisitsbecameknownastheFuraiberuguMode(FreiburgPilgrimage).This"FreiburgPilgrimage"continuedintothe1930sandrecommencedafterWorldWarII,augmentedbythevogueHeideggerandexistentialismknewafterthewar.

HeideggerhadbecomeknowninJapanasearlyas1921whenatranscriptofoneofhisseminarswasbroughtbacktoJapanbyseveralJapaneseparticipants,HajimeTanabeamongthem.(SeetheremarksofTomioTezukainMartinHeidegger,"AuseinemGesprächvonderSprache,zwischeneinemJapanerundeinemFragenden,"inHeidegger,UnterwegszurSprache[Pfüllingen:Neske,1959],pp.83-155.)Tanabe'sarticle"Genshogaku-ni

okeruatarashikitenko-Haidegga-nosei-nogenshogaku"(ANewTurninPhenomenology:Heidegger'sExistentialPhenomenology),publishedinShiso*(Thought)inOct.1924,wasoneoftheearliestarticlesdevotedtoHeidegger,allthemoresignificantinthatit

appearedseveralyearsbeforeSeinundZeit.

TheJapanesepresenceinGermanyinthe1920sresultedinaninterestinghistoricalcircumstance:thefirstforeignphilosophicalculturetofeeltheimpactofHeidegger'sphilosophywastheJapanese.Andinthisregardtheremaybecitedaninteresting,albeitindirect,resultofthisimpact:thephilosopherTetsuro*Watsujiasnotedbefore,aclassmateofKuki'satDaiichiKotogakko*readSeinundZeitwhileinBerlininthesummerof1927.Impressedwiththedescriptiongiventemporalityinhumanexistence,WatsujifeltthatHeideggerhadneglectedtheexistentialdimensionofspace.Thus,WatsujiwouldauthorhisFudo(ClimateandCulture),aphilosophico-anthropologicalanalysisoftherelationbetweenclimateandhumanexistence(climateherewritlarge,thatistosaynotlimitedtoitsmeteorologicalsense,butratherseenasatotalphysico-culturalframework).AnEnglishtranslationoftheworkisavailableasAClimate,trans.G.Bownas(Tokyo:PrintBureauoftheJapaneseGovt.,1961).Watsujiwas,ofcourse,amajorfigureinmodernJapanesephilosophy.AmongtheworksinhisvastoeuvrearehisnumerousworksonJapaneseaswellasEuropeancultureandhisimportantthree-volumeethics.EnglishreaderswillprofitfromthesagaciousstudyofProfessorRobertBellah,"Japan'sCulturalIdentity:SomeReflectionsontheWorkofWatsujiTetsuro,"JournalofAsianStudies,24,no.4(1965):573-94.

16.KukibeganpublishingonHeideggerasearlyas1929,theyearofhisreturntoJapan.Hisstudy"JikannoMondai:BerukusontoHaidegga"(TheProblemofTime:BergsonandHeidegger)appearedinTetsugakuZashi(TheJournalofPhilosophy)inMay1929.His1933studyHaidegganoTetsugaku(ThePhilosophyofHeidegger),publishedintheIwanamiShotenlectureseriesTetsugaku(Philosophy),wasoneoftheveryfirstfull-lengthaccountsof

Heidegger'sphilosophyinanylanguage.ItandtheearlierstudyontimeareincludedinKSZ,vol.3(Tokyo,1981),pp.199-271andpp.295-337.Kuki'sbook-lengthsetoflecturesonHeidegger,deliveredatKyotoUniversityin1931-32,canbefoundinKSZ,vol.10(Tokyo,1982),pp.1-257.

HeideggerheldKukiinhighestesteem.ProfessorTomioTezukainanarticleinthevolumecontaininghisJapanesetranslationofHeidegger'sdialoguefromUnterwegszurSpracheremarksonthewarmthwithwhichHeideggerspokeofKukiandnotesthatpriortohisownvisittoHeideggerinMarchof1953,HeideggerhadaskedanotherJapanesevisitor,KeiichiUchigaki,forpicturesofKuki'sgravestone.SubsequentlyUchigakihadthesepicturessenttoHeideggerfromKyoto.TezukasaysthatHeideggershowedthesepicturestohimduringhis

visit.(SeeTomioTezuka,"Haidegga

*tonoIchijikan"[AnHourwithHeidegger],inMartinHeidegger,KotobanitsuitenoTaiwa[DialogueonLanguage],trans.TomioTezuka,[Tokyo:Risosha*,1968],pp.159-60.)Inhis1957prefacetotheposthumouspublicationofKuki'slecturesonFrenchphilosophy,GendaiFransuTetsugakuKogi(LecturesonModernFrenchPhilosophy),Teiyu*AmanonotesthatHeideggerin1957hadremarkedtoKoichi*Tsujimura,thenstudyingwithHeidegger,thathewashappytoseethepublicationofKuki'slecturesandthathewouldliketowriteaprefaceforaGermaneditionofoneofKuki'sworks(TeiyuAmano,Jo[Preface]toKSZ,vol.8[Tokyo,1981],p.iii).InactualityAmano'sprefacedoesnotdirectlynamesuchaGermanedition,merelythatHeideggerdesiredtowriteaprefaceforoneofKuki'sworks.However,inalettertothepresentauthorProfessorHisayukiOmodaka,editorofKuki'slecturesonFrenchphilosphy,kindlyprovidesclarificationofthismatter,namelythatHeideggeranticipatedthatKoichiTsujimurawouldtranslateoneofKuki'sworkseitherIkinoKozo*orGuzensei*noMondai,orpossiblythelecturesonFrenchphilosphyintoGermanandthathe,Heidegger,verymuchdesiredtoprovideaprefaceforsuchGermanedition.Unfortunately,theplannedtranslationwasneverundertaken.(FormoreonKuki'slecturesonFrenchphilosophyseenote47below.)

17.SeeHeidegger,"AuseinemGesprächvonderSprache."MadameKuki'sdiarynotesthesevisits,aswellasfarewellstoHeideggerupontheKukis'departureforFrance.

18.Löwith'swidow,MadameAdaLöwith,recountsinamemoirtheimportanceofthispost,comingasitdidduringtheLöwiths'exileinItaly,andspokeofKuki'sgraciousnessashost,ofthepleasanttimes

spentinconversationduringvisitstoKuki'shome("KukiKyoju*noOmoide"[RemembrancesofProfessorKuki],trans.AkioSato*,Geppo*6[April1980]:6-8[insertinKSZ,vol.5]).

19.Threedécadesonedevotedtoliterature,onetophilosophy,onetopoliticswereheldeachsummerfrom1910to1939(withtheexceptionoftheyears1915-1921)atatwelfth-centuryabbeypurchasedbyDesjardinsin1906whentheCatholicChurch,secularizingitsholdings,putitupforauction.Thesedécadessoonaftertheirinstitutionin1910becamethegatheringplaceeachsummerforsomeofthemostdistinguishedintellectualsandwritersofFranceandofothercountries.TheRussianphilosopherNicolaiBerdyaev,inattendanceatmanyofthedécadesatPontigny,leftthisdescription:"OfalltheformsofintercoursewithFrenchand,generallyspeaking,foreigncirclesinwhichIhavetakenpartthemostinterestingwerethedécades...atPontigny.ItwastherethatIreallycametoknowFrenchcultureandFrenchlife,andnottheleasttheFrenchman'sattitudetoforeigners.[Thesedécadeswere]alsoattendedbyagreatnumberofintellectualsfromabroad:English,Germans,Italians,Spaniards,Americans,Swiss,Dutch,Swedes,andJapanese"(DreamandReality:AnEssayinAutobiography,trans.KatherineLampert,[NewYork:Macmillan,1951],pp.267-68).

20.PropossurletempswaspublishedbyPhillipeRenouard.Bothofitstwoessays,werealsopublishedseparately:thefirstessay,ontime,appearinginCorrespondancedel'unionpourlavérité(Mar.-Apr.1929),thesecond,onJapaneseart,appearinginCahiersd'Etoile(Jan.-Feb.1929).Inaddition,thefirstessayappearedinJapaneseunderthetitle"Toyoteki*JikanniTsuite"(OnOrientalTime)in1937inthejournalZengakuKenkyu*(StudiesonZen).Finally,Propossurletempswasincluded,alongwithaJapanesetranslation,inKSZ,vol.1.(NoteshouldagainbetakenoftherighttoleftprintingformatinJapan.Foreignlanguagematerialis,however,printedinWesternorder.Thus,theJapanesetranslationappearsinregularpagination,pp.

399-434,whereastheoriginaltextofPropossurletemps,inadditiontocarryingthevolume'sregularpagination,herecorrespondingtopp.296-263,alsocarriesseparatepagination,giveninparentheses[pp.54-86].Afinalnote:thetextintheKSZisthesameasthatintheoriginalvolumeexceptthattheKSZeditioncarriesoneadditionaleditorialpageidentifyingthoseofKuki'squotationsunidentifiedbyhiminthefirstedition.)

KukisentacopyofPropossurletempstoProfessorKitaro*NishidaofKyotoUniversity,alreadyatthattimeacclaimedthefirstintelligenceinmodernJapanesephilosophy.Nishida,inaletterofDecember21,1928,wrotetohisformerstudent,nowhiscolleagueatKyoto

University,thephilosopherHajimeTanabe:"Shuzo

*Kukihassentmealittlebook,Propossurletemps,whichhehasjustpublishedinFrance.HereisamanofrealBildung.ItwouldbegoodtohavehimhereatKyotoasalecturer"(NishidaquotedinKSZ,supplementaryvolume,pp.293-94.)

21.Masterofhisownculture,Kukiwasalsothemasterofothers.IflikemanyotherJapanesephilosophersofhisandothergenerations,KukistudiedinGermanyandthoroughlyimbibedGermanculture,attheverysametimehecompletelyassimilatedFrenchculture.IfGermanphenomenologyultimatelyplayedaverysignificantroleinhisphilosophicalinvestigations,inculturalmattersFrenchculturewasclosesttohisheart(bracketing,ofcourse,Japaneseculture),afactnotcontradictedbythepredominanceofFrenchoverGermancultureinhisprivatelibrary.(SeeAkioSato*,"KukiShuzoBunkoniTsuite"[OntheShuzoKukiArchive],Geppo*1[Nov.1980]:6-8[insertinKSZ,vol.2].)

Also:ifKuki,obviously,knewtheprincipalclassicalandmodernEuropeanlanguages,healsoknewChineseandSanskrit.Thus,theaccessheregivenasupremephilosophicalintelligencetothethreemajorworldcivilizationscouldnotbutdeepenthenatureofallKuki'scomparativeinvestigations.

22.KSZ,vol.1,p.54.

23.Jean-MarieGuyau,LaGenèsedel'idéedetemps(Paris:Alcan,1923).

24.KSZ,vol.1,p.54.Thephrase"Ifonehastherighttospeak"isimportantbecauseasKukiknew,onecannotinfacteasilyspeakof(one)orientaltime.ItiscertainlynotpossibleandKukiofcourseinnowayattemptsthistodefinitivelycounterposeanorientaltoaWestern

time,eitherintermsofthecategories"cyclical"and''linear"orintermsofsubjectiveandobjectiveconceptions.Thus,Kuki,alreadyinthebeginningofhisdiscussion,speaksofsubjectivenotionsoftimeintheOrientandintheWest,andlaterspeaksofcyclicalnotionsoftimeintheGreeks.Ifadistinctionistobeposed,itmustasJosephNeedhamhaselsewhereshownbeposedintermsofanIndo-Hellenisticnotionofcyclicaltimeontheonehand,andaJudaeo-Christiannotionoflineartimeontheother.Sotooitmustbekeptinmind,asNeedhamhasagainshown,thatthepredominantnotionsoftimeinChinahavebeenlinear,thecyclicalnotionsappearingonlyintheTaoisttradition(laterinfluencedbyIndianBuddhism)"ReturningisthecharacteristicmovementoftheTao,"saystheTaoTeChingandinneoConfucianism,which,inthisregard,merelydrewonancientTaoism.(SeeJosephNeedham,TimeandEasternMan[London:RoyalAnthropologicalSociety,1965].)If,then,linearitydominatedintheChinesemind,conceptionsoftimeasrealalsopredominatedthere.Cyclicalandsubjectivenotions(thetwodonotnecessarilygotogether)abounded,bycontrast,inIndia.Entirelyconsistentwiththis,Kukiindevelopinghisdiscussionofperiodic,repetitivetimereliedpreciselyonIndiantextssuchastheUpanishadsandontheoneChinesetext,theTaoTeChing.

25.KSZ,vol.1,pp.64-65.

26.ApolemicthreadrunsthroughKuki'sdiscussion,forheaimstooverturnthenotion,posedinFranceatthetimebythosesuchasAndréSuarès,whomKukiwilllaterquoteatlength,that"Japaneseartneverturnsinward."

27.Criticandphilosopherofart,Okakura(1862-1913)hadstudiedatTokyoUniversitywithErnestFenellosaandhadpursuedstudiesofWesternartinEurope.AnimportantfigureinthemovementtorestoreandpreserveJapaneseart,hebecame,throughanumberofjourneystotheUnitedStatesandEurope,theleadinginterpreterfortheWestof

JapaneseartboththroughworkssuchasTheIdealsoftheEast,TheAwakeningofJapan,andTheBookofTeaandthroughworkdoneatBoston'sMuseumofFineArts(beginningin1905),firstasadvisortoandthenascuratoroftheChineseandJapanesedivisionthere.(SeeM.WilliamSteele,"Kakuzo*Okakura,"inTheKodanshaEncyclopediaofJapan,vol.6,p.79.)

In1937KukiwroteamemoirofOkakura,"OkakuraKakuzoshinoOmoide"(Remem-

brancesofKakuzo

*Okakura).ItisnowcollectedinKSZ,vol.5.KukihadmetOkakuraseveraltimesathis,Kuki's,mother'shouse(Kuki'sparentswereseparated)duringhisyouth.Kuki'srelationtotheolderman,afriendofKuki'sfatherbeforeKukiwasbornandlaterafriendofKuki'smother,was,ashismemoirshows,complicated.

OkakurabelongedtothatgenerationofJapaneseintellectualsthewritersSoseki*NatsumeandOgai*MoricanbeconsideredasamongtheleadingrepresentativesinthisregardreactingmuchmoresoberlyandsagaciouslytotheWestthandidtheimmediatelyprecedinggeneration,enamoredasitwasof"thingsWestern."SuchnoteisaddedbecauseMichitaro*TadaandTakeshiYasudaintheirbookIkinoKozo*oyomu(ReadingIkinoKozo)(Tokyo:AsahiShinbuusha,1979)speakofSosekiNatsumeinliteratureandKukiinphilosophySoseki,born1867,wasofthegenerationprecedingKuki'sasthosetwoearly20th-centuryJapaneseintellectualswhobestunderstoodtheWest(withoutinanywaylosingtheirself-consciousrootednessinandtheirprofoundcomprehensionandappreciationofJapaneseculture).

28.KakuzoOkakura,TheIdealsoftheEastwithSpecialReferencetotheArtofJapan(London:J.Murray1905),pp.1-5;KSZ,vol.1,p.66.

29.Okakura,TheIdealsoftheEast,pp.168-69.

30.Okakura,TheIdealsoftheEast,pp.176-77.ItistheartofthisAshikagaperiodthatOkakuraespeciallyappreciates.Thisperiod'saestheticisalsodeartoKuki,whotakescaretoadvisehisWesternauditorsagainstthenotionthatinreferringtoJapanesearthereferstothemorepopularartsofEdo-periodJapan(woodblockprintsandso

forth).

31.KSZ,vol.1,p.68.

32.TheshortpropospieceswerefoundamongKuki'spapersandpublishedforthefirsttime,alongwiththearticle"BergsonauJapon"(whichhadoriginallyappearedinLesNouvellesLittéraires,December15,1928,pp.1-2),undertheeditor'stitleChosesJaponaises,inKSZ,vol.1,pp.261-39(inJapanesepageorder)."Caractèresgénérauxdelaphilosophiefrançaise"wassubsequentlypublished(inabridgedversion)inthebulletinoftheJapanese-FrenchCulturalSociety.ThecompleteversionwasincludedinKSZ,vol.3(Tokyo,1981),pp.1-9pp.423-15inJapanesepageorder.

33.KukireturnedtoJapaninDecemberof1928viatheUnitedStates(inWashingtonD.C.hemetPaulClaudelwithwhomhediscussed,amongotherthings,Alain'saesthetics).Onboardshiphecompletedtwostudies,"Futsudokutetsugakkai-nogenjo*(ThePresentSituationofFrenchandGermanPhilosophy)and"NihonBunka"(JapaneseCulture).TheWesternphilosophieshehadjustassimilated,theJapaneseculturehewould(underimpactof,amongotherthings,thesephilosophies)somarvelouslyanalyzeitseemsfittingthatonareturnvoyagetoaJapanhewouldsubsequentlyneverleaveKukishouldconcernhimselfwithjustthese.ReceivingapostaslecturerinFrenchphilosophyatKyotoUniversityinAprilof1929,hebecameanassistantprofessorin1932andafullprofessorin1935.HeremainedinKyotofortherestofhislifeleavingonlytovisithisfamilyinTokyolivingformanyyearsnearNanzenji(NanzenTemple)andthenin1940,ayearbeforehisdeath,movingtotheoutskirtsofKyoto.

34.KSZ,vol.1,p.89.NishidaandTanabeinitiatedanidealistcurrentofphilosophywhich,afterWorldWarII,wouldbecomeknownastheKyoto-ha*,theKyotoSchoolofphilosophy.Nishida'sfirstwork,the1911ZennoKenkyu*(AStudyofGood),signaleddefinitivelythataperiodofJapanesereceptionofWesternphilosophyhadbeen

supercededbyindependentandcreativephilosophicalproduction.(Inotehere,parenthetically,thatbothKukiinhisFrencharticleonBergsonandMikiinhisGermanarticleonRickertalludedtotheweightofNishida'sphilosophy.)

AnumberofNishida'sworksareavailableinEnglishtranslation:(1)AStudyofGood,trans.ValdoH.Viglielmo(Tokyo:PrintBureauoftheJapaneseGovt.,1960);(2)ArtandMorality,trans.DavidDilworthandValdoH.Viglielmo(Honolulu:Univ.ofHawaiiPress,1973);(3)IntelligibilityandthePhilosophyofNothingness,trans.RobertSchinzinger(Tokyo:Maruzen,

1958);(4)FundamentalProblemsofPhilosophy,trans.DavidDilworth(Tokyo:SophiaUniv.Press,1970).

35.IntroductiontoLeproblèmedelacontingence(Tokyo:UniversitédeTokio,1966),pp.viii-ix.ThisisOmodaka'sFrenchtranslationofGuzensei

*noMondai(Tokyo,1966).

36.Kuki,"Furyu*nikansuruIchikosatsu"(ThoughtsonFuryu)inKSZ,vol.4,p.82.

37.Kuki,Jo(Preface)toBungeironinKSZ,vol.4,p.4.

38.Lettertothepresentauthor.NoteshouldbetakenthatifKuki'sIkinoKozo*hasbecomeawell-knownwork,Kukihimselfbothduringhislifetimeandintheyearsfollowinghisdeathwasknownonlybythe"happyfew"asitwere.AsProfessorHisayukiOmodakaremarkedin"RecollectionsofProfessorKuki,"a1979discussioninKyotobeforetheJapanese-FrenchPhilosophicalSociety,aswellasinhis1980and1982discussions"TestimonyoftheEditorofShuzo*Kuki'sCollectedWorks"and"AftertheKukiShuzoZenshu*,''Kukiwasintheyearsfollowinghisdeathneverpaidtheattentionwarrantedbythefascinationandbrillianceofhispersonandoeuvre.AndProfessorOmodakanotedthatevenwherehewasknownitwas,generally,onlyinpartiality,onlyforIkinoKozohere,onlyforhisliterarystudiesinBungeironthere.(SeeHisayukiOmodaka,"KukiShuzooShinonde,""KukiShuzoZenshuhenshanoKotoba,"and"KukiShuzoZenshunoHenshu*ooete,"inOmodaka,WagaShi,WagaTomo:SonaShiso*toIkikata[MyTeachers,MyFriends:TheirThoughtandTheirWayofLife](Tokyo:Keizaioraisha*,1984],pp.32-39,40-43,and49-58.)Inshort,itcanbesaidechoingalinefromBossuet'sfuneralorationforNicolasCornet("Thus,thegloryofthisillustriousmanliesinhis

havingremainedahiddentreasure")thatKukihas,hitherto,beenthe"hiddentreasure"ofJapanesephilosophyandletters.Withthepublication(overdue)ofKuki'sCollectedWorks,withthetranslationofseveralofhiswritings,maytheword"hidden"beremovedfromthehomage.

39.Omodaka,Introduction,p.v;KukiquotedinOmodaka,Introduction,p.v.

40.HenriGouhier,IntroductiontoHenriBergson,Oeuvres,ed.AndréRobinet(Paris:PUF,1959),p.viii.

41.ItwasHenriGouhierwhomaderequestofKukiforacontributiononBergson,GouhierhavinghimselfbeenaskedbyFrédéricLefevretoputtogetherthisspecialBergsonissue.GouhierhadcometoknowKukiwhenKukihadcalleduponhim,presentingGouhieratthattimeacopyofPropossurletemps.(AtBergson'shomeKukihadalsopresentedBergsonacopyofPropossurletempsinscribed"AMonsieurHenriBergsondeAcadémiefrançaise,cerespectueuxhommagedemareconnaissance.")Inalettergraciouslywrittentothepresentauthor,Gouhierrecounts:"IwasatoncemostcharmedbyhispersonandIfoundremarkablethestudiesontimewhichhehadhadthekindnesstoofferme.ThatiswhyIimmediatelythoughtofhimwhenFrédéricLefevrechargedmewithpreparationofthepagesonBergsonforLesNouvellesLittéraires."(HerenoteshouldbemadethatintheeditorialchronologycontainedinthesupplementaryvolumeofKSZindicationisgiventhatKukimayhavemetGouhieratBergson'shomeandthateitherGouhierorLefevreaskedthecontributionofKuki.Gouhier'stestimonynowgivesusabetterpictureofthissequence.)Asconclusiontohisletter,Gouhierwritesthatheverymuchregretted"nothavingundertakenacorrespondencewiththisremarkableman[ofwhom]Ihadnews...throughhispupilsand[whose]deathpainedme."ThatGouhiercontinuedtoreceivewordofKukithroughhis,Kuki'sstudents(ProfessorHisayuki

Omodaka,forone,traveledtoEuropeinthe1930s)isintriguing.ButwehavenotyetbeenabletomakeprecisethenatureofKuki'stieswithEuropeafterhisreturntoJapan.(Inalettertothepresentauthor,ProfessorOmodakaindicatesthathe,Omodaka,didnotmeetGouhierwhileinParis.)

OfKuki'spieceonBergson,Gouhier,inthepreviouslymentionedletter,writes:"Hehad,ofcourse,himselfchosenhissubject,butIwasmyselfeagertohavearticlesontheinterestawakenedinvariouscountriesforBergsonism.'BergsonauJapon'particularlyinterestedmebecauseinthecourseofourdiscussionsKukihadtoldmethattheJapanesespiritcouldmore

easilyenterintoBergsonismthancouldtheWesternspirit.Hesoughthere,Ibelieve,tomakeallusiontoacertainsenseoffluidity,ofbecoming,morefamiliartoJapanesethantoCartesianthought."Onceagain,IwishtoexpressmygratitudetoProfessorGouhierforhavingkindlyprovidedmerecollectionofKuki.

42.SeeY.Nitta,H.Tatematsu,andE.Shimomisse

*,"PhenomenologyandPhilosophyinJapan";theeditorialchronologyinKSZ,supplementaryvolume;andToshihitoNaito*,"KukitoSarutoru."

43.InhiswillKukibequeathedhislibrarytohisfriend,thephilosopherTeiyu*Amano,thenaprofessoratKyotoUniversity.ShortlyafterKuki'sdeath,AmanobecametheprincipalatKonan*HigherSchool(nowKonanUniversity)inKobe*,takingKuki'slibrarywithhim.However,twoyearslaterAmanowasappointedprincipalatDaiichiKotogakko*,andforavarietyofreasons,includingthewar,Kuki'slibrarywasleftatKonan.ThusthelibrarywasleftuntoucheduntiltheorganizationoftheShuzo*KukiArchivein1976.(SeeAkioSato*,"KukiShuzoBunkoniTsuite"[OntheShuzoKukiArchive],andAkioSato,"KukiShuzoBunkonoKoto"[OntheShuzoKukiArchive],Shiso*628[October1976]:121-26.)

44.Thenotebookcontainslinedpages,thefirsttwoofwhichareblankonbothsides.Entriesweremadeinpencilandthebacksidesofeachofthepageswereleftblankwiththeexceptionof(1)fourpagescarryingthesectionheadingsBrunschvicg,Alain,Blondel,andValéry;(2)severalpagesinthemiddleoftheentriescontaininglistingsofreadingsonDescartes,Pascal,MainedeBiran,Comte,etc.;and(3)thepage,whichunlikealltheotherpagesisinblackink,inSartre'shand.Followingupontheentriestheremainingpagesinthe

notebookareblank.Iamindebted,onceagain,toprofessorAkioSatoforhavingsoverykindlyallowedmetoexaminethisnotebook.

45.ThereferencetoFriedmannandMorhangeislistedunderreferencetothegroup'sjournalEsprit(nottobeconfusedwiththeCatholicreviewofthesamename),bythistimedefunctbutsoontofindasuccessorinthefamousLaRevueMarxiste.PaulNizan,friendofbothSartreandFriedmann,wouldgiveaportraitofthisgroup(andtime)inhisnovelLaConspiration.

Friedmann,bornin1902,wasseveralyearsaheadofSartreandNizanattheEcoleNormale.Hepassedtheagrégationin1925andwentontoauthoranumberofphilosophico-sociologicalstudiesofthemodernlaborprocessandofitsrelationtocontemporarycivilization.Hedidnot,however,abandonphilosophy,authoring,forinstance,thesagaciousstudyLeibnizetSpinoza(Paris:Gallimard,1946).

46.AphotographofthespeakersatthisdécadeshowsParodiandJankélévitchstandingtotheleftandrightrespectivelyofAron,Namer,Koyré,andKuki,allgatheredonapicturesquespotonthegroundsofPontignyandseatedinascendingorderonashortseriesofstonesteps.

SartrewashimselfnotastrangertothedécadesatPontigny,havingbeencontributor,alongwithLouis-MartinChauffier,RenéPoirier,JeanBaruzi,M.Gatteau,andCharlesduBos,tothe2ddécadeof1926(August15-25),thedécadecarryingasitstitle,ofallthings,"TheChristianImprint.Bywhatrecognition?Coulditdisappear?"

47.Thus,ofparticularnote:onthe11thpageofnotebookentriesKukihasjotteddownacardinalmottooftheever-CartesianrationalismandintellectualismofAlain,"TherealHegelisthetrueHegel."Andthenimmediatelyfollowing,KukiquotesfromAlain'sSouvenirsconcernantJulesLagneau(Alain'svolumeinhomageto

themanhehonoredaboveallothers,hisownteacherJulesLagneau[1851-1894])anothermaximfromtherationalistpedagogyofLagneau-Alain:"NeitherAthenian,noraccidental,normomentaryPlato,butthetruePlato."InKuki'slectureonAlaininhislecturesonFrenchphilosophywefindonceagaintheHegelmaximandonceagain(withthesamereferencetop.87ofSouvenirsconcernantJulesLagneau)the"truePlato"(KSZ,vol.8,p.244).

Thelecturesdevotedto"ModernFrenchPhilosophy,"asnotedearlier,werefirstpublishedin1957.Kuki'slecturesonthe"HistoryofModernPhilosophy"firstappearedintwovolumes

(1944and1948)andnowmakeupvol.6and7ofKSZ(bothTokyo,1981).Thelectureson"ModernFrenchPhilosophy"makeupvol.8.Vol.9(Tokyo,1981)iscomposedoflectureson"TrendsinModernPhilosophy,"andvol.10,asalreadynoted,containslecturesonHeidegger,aswellasKuki'sownreadingnotesonHusserl,Bergson,Descartes,Leibniz,andBoutroux.

Thelectureson"ModernFrenchPhilosophy"wereeditedwiththegreatcareandattentionofKuki'sformerstudent,ProfessorHisayukiOmodaka,towhomreadersofthatvolumearemuchindebted,thevolumehavingbeen4yearsinpreparation.Thevolumeisbasedontranscribedlecturenotes.HereandthereProfessorOmodakamaderevisionsand,wherenecessary,additions.InanafterwordProfessorOmodakanotesthatKuki'slectures,composedinacarefulandclearlanguage,wouldnothavebeenpublishedbyKukihimself,whowouldhaveconsideredthemtooreflectiveoftheconstrictiveformatofthelecture.ThelecturesthemselvesessentiallycoverFrenchphilosophyfromDescartestotheimmediatepost-WorldWarIperiod(withabriefsurveyofthemedievalperiod),butthegreaterpartofthevolumeisgivenovertotheperiodfromComtetoBergson.InregardtoKuki'sroleinthetransmissionofFrenchphilosophytoJapan,itisnoteworthythatattheconclusionofaseriesoflecturesgivinganoverviewofthesubjectasawhole,KukiquotesalongpassagefromAlexanderGunn's1922EnglishvolumeModernFrenchPhilosophythatconcludes:"ThehistoryofthoughtinFrance,especiallyintheperiodbetweenComteandBergsonhasremainedinsadneglect.Thiscanandshouldbespeedilyremedied"(KSZ,vol.8,p.35).InJapan,thankstoKuki,whoasTeiyu

*Amanonoted,waswithFrenchphilosophy"trulyinhiselement,"itwas.

48.BrunschvicgandAlainpupilsrespectivelyofthoseexemplaryteachersofphilosophy,AlphonseDarluandJulesLagneau(BrunschvicgatthelycéeCondorcetwhereMarcelProustwastwoyearsbehindhim)esteemedandadmiredoneanother,butasthewriterPierreBostnoted,"didnotparticularlylikeoneanother."

49.Nizanwouldhavedeniedthisdistinction;indeed,suchdistinctionwastheobjectofhisbook'scriticism.

50.JeanHyppolite,IntroductiontoMarcelDeschoux,LaPhilosophiedeLéonBrunschvicg(Paris:PUF1949),p.vii.

51.Sartre,ofcourse,hadnotbeenoneofAlain'spupils.Interestinglyenough,oneofAlain'spupils,thewriterPierreBost,elderbrotherofSartre'sownlycéepupil-to-be,Jacques-LaurentBost,recountsinamemoirofAlain,thathebelieves("Jecroissavoir[Jedis:jecrois]")thatSartrehadspecificallychosennottobecomeoneofAlain'spupils,choosingtocarryoutthekhâgneatthelycéeLouis-le-GrandratherthanatthelycéeHenri-IV.Sartre,theelderBostnotes,wasthusoneofthefirstnon-pupilsofAlaintorecognizeandhonorinAlaintheteacher,even,orjustby,feelingthenecessityof"refusinghim"(Bost'smemoirinthespecialissueHommageàAlainofLaNouvelleRevueFrançaise[Sept.1952],p.39).InSartre'srecentlypublishedletters,aletterof1926toSimoneJollivetquoteswithenthusiasmapassagefromAlain'sPropossurlebonheur.(SeeLettresauCastoretàquelquesautres,1926-1939[Paris:Gallimard,1981],p.13.)

52.OctaveHamelin(1856-1907),DominiqueParodi(1870-1955),andRenéLeSenne(1882-1954)alldescendedfromtheneocriticismofCharlesRenouvier.Kukiinhislecturesgroupedthemundertheheading"Idéalismedialectique,"itselfasectionwithinthelargergrouping"LaPhilosophierationaliste."AlainandBrunschvicgwerealsodiscussedwithinthelattergrouping,undertheheadings"Rationalismeéthique"and"Rationalismecritique"respectively.

Hamelin'smajorwork,Essaisurlesélémentsprincipauxdelareprésentation,discussedatgreatlengthbyKukiinhislectures,waswrittenunderthedirectinfluenceofRenouvierandHegel.InParodiandLeSenneonefindsarationalistethics,LeSenne'sdecidedlythemoreinterestingofthetwo.ThusseeParodi'sLeProblèmemoraletlapenséecontemporaine(Paris:Alcan,1909)andLeSenne'sLeDevoir(Paris:Alcan,1930),LeMensongeetlecaractère(Paris:Alcan,1930),andObstacleetvaleur(Paris:Aubier,1934).

53.ParodiquotedinLéonBrunschvicg,"L'Orientationdurationalisme,"inBrunschvicgEcritsphilosophiquesII(Paris:PUF,1954),p.2.

54.WithCharlesRenouvier(1815-1903)itwasaquestionoftheFrench"returntoKant."Thus,underinspirationofKantandComte(withwhomhehadstudied)hisneocriticismwasexpoundedinthefour-volumeEssaisdecritiquegénérale(Paris,1854-1864;rpt.,3vols.,Paris:A.Colin,1912).

55.MarcesdiscussionappearsinLéonBrunschvicg,"L'Intelligenceest-ellecapabledecomprendre,"inBrunschvicg,EcritsphilosophiquesII,pp.292,306.

56.InhisrecentlypublishedjournalswrittenduringhismobilizationatthebeginningofWorldWarII,Sartreinapassageofself-analysismakesreferenceto"thereviewsEspritandPhilosophie(ofFriedmannandMorhange)"(LesCarnetsdeladrôledeguerre,Novembre1939-Mars1940[Paris:Gallimard1983],p.108).Doubtlessthistellsuslittle,butitisinterestingthatamongtheseveralmembersoftheFriedmann-Morhange(Nizan,Politizer,Guterman)groupitisthenamesofFriedmannandMorhangethatappearbothinKuki'snotebookandinSartre'sjournal.

57.PaulNizan,Aden-Arabie(Paris:Maspéro,1971),p.59.

58.SartrewouldagaintakeupareadingofMarsoulaguerrejugéeduringhismobilizationinAlsacein1939.Thus,inaletterof20October1939hewritestoSimonedeBeauvoir:"Don'tforgettosendMarsinthenextbatchofbooks...."On26October1939heagainwrites:"Don'tforgettobuyacopyofMarsoulaguerrejugéeforme..."(LettresauCastor,1926-1939,pp.365,378).Andinajournalentryof29November1939,anentrylistingbookshehasreadsince2September,wefindMarsoulaguerrejugée(LesCarnetsdeladrôle

deguerre,p.83).

59.HereIcandonomorethanalludetothisinfluence.Thus,withreferencetoBrunschvicgandAlainIusethewordinfluenceingeneralfashion.Influenceis,afterall,nothingotherthanarelation,thecontentofwhichdoesnotexistoutsideitsintellectualconstruction.HerbertSpiegelberg's"TowardsaPhenomenologyofInfluence:ItsNatureandItsVarieties"providesanexcellentandincisivediscussionofthisquestion.(SeePhenomenologyinPsychologyandPsychiatry[Evanston:NorthwesternUniv.Press,1972],pp.xxxviii-xli.)

60.Kuki'slecturesonFrenchphilosophyconcludewithasectiononreligiousphilosophyinwhichbriefdiscussionofL'Actionisfound.

61.LouisLavelle,LaPhilosophiefrançaiseentrelesdeuxguerres(Paris:Aubier,1942),p.130;MauriceBlondel,Action:Essaid'unecritiquedelavieetd'unesciencedelapratique(Paris,1893;rpt.Paris:PUF,1950),p.vii.

62.Ibid.,pp.12,30

63.Bergson,L'EvolutioncréatriceinOeuvres,ed.AndréRobinet(Paris:PUF,1959)pp.725-47.

64.SeeNaito

*,"KukitoSarutoru."

65.IntheirTheWritingsofJean-PaulSartre(Evanston:NorthwesternUniv.Press,1974),vol.1,MichelContatandMichelRybalkarefertothisfact.AndnowwiththepublicationofSartre'sletterswecanfindinaletterof9October1931toSimonedeBeauvoir:"Ilunchedatarestaurant...oneacrossfromthestationinthisquarterofLeHavrethatIlovesomuchandwhichIhavedecidedtoincludeinthefactumsurleContingence"(LettresauCastor,1926-1939,p.45).Naitoalso

referstotheFactum.

66.DeBeauvoir,ThePrimeofLife,p.112.

67.QuotedindeBeauvoir,LaCeremoniedesadieux,suivedeEntretiensavecJean-PaulSartre(Paris:Gallimard,1981),pp.181-82.Contat'sandRybalka'sTheWritingsofJean-Paul

Sartreincludesreferencetoa1926lettermentioningcontingency.Again,publicationofSartre'slettersgivesusthefollowing(inalettertoSimoneJollivet):"Heretheweatheryouloveso:rainandwind.ExcellentforwritingonContingency"(LettresauCastor,1926-1939,p.28).

68.ProfessorHisayukiOmodakainhis1979tributetoKuki,"KukiSenseioKeiboshite"(InAdmirationofProfessorKuki),placedthephilosophyofcontingency(Guzensei

*notetsugaku)attheheartofKuki'sphilosophicalenterprise.(SeeOmodaka,WagaShi,WagaTomo,pp.28-29.)

69.Thesetwoworks,aswellasotherwritingsoncontingency,suchas"Guzenka*noRonri"(TheLogicofContingency)and"GuzenseinoKisotekiSeikakunoIchiKosatsu"(ReflectionsontheBasicCharacterofContingency),areincludedinKSZ,vol.2.

70.Kuki'soriginalstatements(inFrench)canbefoundinKSZ,vol.1,pp.62-63.

71.KSZ,vol.2,pp.207-8,259-60.

72.Ibid.,p.220.

73.Inaletterof25January1940toSimonedeBeauvoirSartrewrites:"KnowthataJapanesereviewhaswrittenmerequesting8typedpagesforwhichtheywillpayaccordingly,giventhatmy'worksaremuchadmiredinJapan.'Iwillnotwritethe8pages,butasyoucanimagine,Iwasstirredtoreadthis."Andthefollowingday,a26January1940lettertodeBeauvoircontains:"ThereisaJapanesereviewwhichrequestsmycollaboration,butIhavecourteouslydeclined..."LettresauCastoretàquelquesautres,1940-1963[Paris:Gallimard,1981],pp.58,60).Ofwhatjournalandofwhich

workscoulditherehavebeenaquestion?"Kabe,"theJapanesetranslation(byYuIchikawa)ofSartre'sshortstory"LeMur,"hadappearedintheJanuary1938issueofthejournalJiyu*.''LeMur"wouldalsoappear(inthetranslationofDaigakuHoriguchi)intheJanuary1940issueofChuoKoron*.Inaddition,theDecember1938issueofthejournalSerupanhadcontainedanarticlebyRyuSekimizu(pseudonymofSakuSato*),"Hakike:J.P.Sarutoru,"summarizingLaNausée.AndtheApril1939issueofthejournalBuntaihadcontainedSakuSato'sarticle"GendaiFransuShosetsuOboegaki"(NotesontheContemporaryFrenchNovel)inwhichasummaryanddiscussionofLaNauséecouldalsobefound.ThiswastheextentofSartre'spublicreceptioninJapanatthetimeofSartre'sJanuary1940letterstodeBeauvoir,althoughtheJune1940issueofthejournalBunka-hyoronwouldcontainSakuSato'sarticle"SarutoruniTsuite"(OnSartre).ItseemslikelytosurmisethatSartre'sJapanesecorrespondenthadbeenSakuSato,butgivenSato'scollaborationwithanumberofjournals,onewouldsimplyhavetochoose,mostlikelyamongJiyu,Serupan,andBuntaiastothejournalinquestion.Theimportantquestionis,ofcourse:MightKukihaveseenthesereviewsand,mostparticularly,Sato'ssummaryofLaNausée?

74.ProfessorTetsuoKogawahasinaletterprovidedmethisinformation.

75.InSartre'sjournalsofthedrôledeguerrewecanfinddescriptionofhisintellectual-philosophicalstanceduringhisyearsattheEcoleNormale.Inapassageinwhichhereferstoan"existential"shadinggivenphilosophicalproblemsbyotherstudents,Sartrewrites:"Againstthem...we[Nizan,Aron,andI]placedourselvesunderthesignofDescartesbecauseDescarteswasanexplosivethinker.Nothingcoulddispleaseusmorethanthisgreythought,thesetransmutations,theseevolutionsandmetamorphoses,theselanguidshivers.Phrasessuchas'becomewhatyouare'setourteethtognashing.Wepassedthetime,onthecontrary,isolatingconceptsin

ordertorenderthemincommunicable,closedtightlyinonthemselves,asDescarteshaddone,separatingsoulandbodysosuccessfullythatnoonecouldsubsequentlysucceedinrejoiningthem"(LesCarnetsdeladrôledeguerre,p.111).ThispassageisofinterestbecauseinhislecturesonFrenchphilosophyKukiwouldinasectiondevotedtoAlainspeakofarenewalofinterestinDescartesonthepartofanumberofstudentsattheEcoleNormaleduringthe1920s(SeeKSZ,vol.8,p.243).Sartre'spassageallowsustosurmisethatKukireceivedthisinformationfromSartre.ItalsoallowsustosituateSartrephilosophicallyatthetime(orclosetothetime)ofhismeetingswithKuki.

76.ExcludingevenourpresentknowledgeofKuki'srole,wecanfindinSartre'sjournalsofthedrôledeguerre,inapassagereferringtoHenriCorbin's1938translationofWasistMetaphysik?,thefollowingstatement:"Infact[Corbin'stranslation]wasnotmyfirstmeetingwithHeidegger.IhadheardhimspokenoflongbeforeleavingforBerlin";towhichstatementSartrehimselfaddsthenote:"IhadreadQu'est-cequelamétaphysiquewithoutunderstandingitin1930inthereviewBifur"(LesCarnetsdeladrôledeguerre,p.225).(ActuallytheissueofBifurtowhichSartrerefersappearedin1931).

77.Sartre,LesCarnetsdeladrôledeguerre,p.224.

78.Sartreaddsinthisjournalentrythatthequestionofvocabularywas,however,insignificant.WithouthisGermanhavingimproved,henotes,hewaslater,in1939,abletoreadSeinundZeit.

79.Sartre,LesCarnetsdeladrôledeguerre,pp.226-27.

80.Ibid.,p.227.

81.Sartre,LesCarnetsdeladrôledeguerre,p.227.Sartre'sreadingofCorbin'stranslationofWasistMetaphysik?andhissubsequentreadinginthespringof1939ofSeinundZeitprovidedhimfinalimpetusforthecompositionofEtreetlenéant.ThusEtreetlenéantappearsinSartre'sdrôledeguerrejournalsinstatunascendi.Anabundanceofentriescanbefoundthereonnothingness,ontheconsciousnessoftheother,ontemporality,onanguish,onfreedom;entriesthatalreadyrevealthevocabulary,indeed,theveryontologythatwillbefoundinEtreetlenéant.

Andjustthisconceptofnothingness,atbottomofthetheoryofconsciousness,atbottomofthedualisticontologyofbeing-in-itselfandbeing-for-itselftobefoundinEtreetlenéant,isherefoundfashionedindirectrelation,indeed,oppositiontoHeidegger'stheoryofthenothing.Thus,inalettertoSimonedeBeauvoirof15

January1940Sartrewrites:"ThismorningIre-readHeidegger'sQu'est-cequelamétaphysiqueandIhavebeenoccupiedthroughouttheday'takingupaposition'inrelationtohimonthequestionofnothingness.Ihaveatheoryofnothingnessalthoughitisasyetnotwelldeveloped...."Inaletterofthefollowingday,againtodeBeauvoir,justthoseproblemspivotalinSartre'sdissatisfactionwithHusserlappeartohavebeensolved:preciselythroughthistheoryofnothingness:"Atfirsttoelaboratethistheoryofnothingnessthatyouwillsurelyadmire,since1)itsuppressesHussersrecoursetothehylé2)itexplainstheunicityoftheworldforapluralityofconsciousnessesand3)itpermitsonetotranscendonceandforallrealismandidealism."Aletterof22February1940(todeBeauvoir)showsus(asdohisdrôledeguerrejournalsofthesametime)thathenowfeltquitehappywithelaborationofhisnotion:"Thistheoryofnothingnessbearsfruit,Iamquitecertain.''Andhebrieflyelaboratedatheoryofconsciousnessasfoundedonlack,asitselfanothing.Then,on5June1940,SartrewrotetodeBeauvoirthatthelossofsomeofhisnotebooksmustbeofnogreatmatter,thetheoryofnothingnessremainsinhisheadand"willbetheobjectofabook."On22July1940,Sartre,nowaprisoner-of-war,concludesalettertodeBeauvoirwiththeline:"Ihavebegunwritingametaphysicaltreatise:Etreetlenéant"(LettresauCastor,1940-1963,)39,40-41,87,268,285.

82.Sartre,LesCarnetsdeladrôledeguerre,p.227.

83.Ibid.,pp.228,229.

84.Ibid.,p.228.

PARTTWOCONSIDERATIONSONTIMETWOESSAYSDELIVEREDATPONTIGNYDURINGTHEDÉCADEOF8-18AUGUST1928ByShuzo*Kuki

TheNotionOfTimeAndRepetitionInOrientalTimeThusspokeYajnavalkya:"GivemeyourhandArtabhaga,friend,thisknowledgeisgivenonlytothetwoofus.Notaworddownthereamongthepeople."Brihad-aranyaka

*Upanishad

IFonehastherighttospeakof"Orientaltime,"itseemsitcanbeaquestionofnothingotherthanthetimeoftransmigration.Thistimeisatimethatrepeatsitself,periodictime.However,beforeconsideringthisconceptionoftime,itisfirstnecessarytocharacterizetimeingeneral.Whatistime?Timeisofthewill.Isaythattimeisofthewillbecausetimedoesnotexistsolongasthereisnowill.Foratable,forachair,thereisnotime.Iftimeexistsforthem,itisbecauseconsciousness,aswill,hasgiventhematime.Timeexistsforthemonlyinrelationtothewill,toconsciousness.

Wecan,forexample,findsuchaconceptionoftimeinGuyau.Timeforhimisthedisparitybetweenthewillanditsgoal,"thedistinctionbetweenwantingandpossessing,""aninteriorperspectivethatgoesforwardtowardthefuture."Thus,themostimportantcharacteristicoftimeliesinits"anticipation."1Similarly,HermannCohenconceivesoftimeasaboveallanticipationorVorwegnahme.Hesaysthattheideaoftheseriessupposesorderingactivity.Thisactivityinturnposestheseriesasitsgoal.Hence,theseriescreatessuccessionassomething"whichmustfollow,''Folgensollendes.Whatfollowsisanticipated.Thus,"anticipationisthefundamentalcharacteristicoftime."2AndjustrecentlyM.MartinHeideggerhassaidthat"theprimordialphenomenon"oftimeisthefuture,thatfuturecorrespondingtotheSich-vorweg-sein(Being-ahead-of-itself)of

"care."3Alltheseconceptionsareinaccordinenvisioningtimeasconstitutedbythewill.ThepureduréeofM.Bergsonwouldnotbeanexception.ThedevelopmentofhisideasfromhisEssayontheImmediateGivensofConsciousnesstoCreativeEvolutiontestifiestothis.

IntheOrient,timeisalsoconsideredasbeing,atbottom,ofthewill.Severalancientmetaphysicalconceptionsoftimealreadyprovethis.Thus,wecanreadintheSvetasvatara*Upanishad:"Severalmastersspeaktousofnature,othersspeaktousoftime.Buttheyaredeluded.Itisbythe

omnipotenceofGodthatthewheelofBrahmanrevolvesintheuniverse."

4TimeisbornfromtheomnipotenceofGod,fromhiswill.AndintheBhagavadGita*Krishnadeclares:"Iamlimitlesstime."Andfromyetanotherpointofview,theMilanda-panhasays:"Ofpast,present,andfuturedurationtherootisignorance;fromignorancecomethedispositionsofthewill."Thus,fromignorancecomesthewillandfromthewilltime.Laterweread:''Whathasprecededignorancehasnotexistedatall;suchananteriorlimitcannotbediscovered.""Withoutbeginning,withoutend,thecircleisclosed."Whatisthisclosedcircle?WhatisthewheelofBrahman?Bothdesignatenothinglessthantransmigration.

Letus,then,deepenthisconceptionofthetimeoftransmigration.Transmigrationisindefiniterebirth,theperpetualrepetitionofthewill,theendlessreturnoftime.Nowthemostremarkableandstrikingcaseoftransmigrationconceivableistheoneinwhichamanbecomesagain,inperpetualrepetition,thesameman.Thecaterpillarpassingfromoneleaftoanotherfindsalwaysthesameleaf.Theembroideresscreatinganewpatternfindsthatthenewoneisbuttheold.Inthefinalanalysis,however,suchcaseisnotanexceptionalone.Transmigrationingeneralissubmittedtothelawofcausality,tothesequenceofcausesandeffects.Manpassesfromoneexistencetoanother,butthelatterisdeterminedbytheformer.Adeceasedisrebornasamanonaccountofagoodact,anotherisrebornasawomanonaccountofabadact.Othersbecomeworms,locust,mosquitos.Inappearancethereischangehere,but,atbottom,thereisnoneatall."Ashewashere,sowillhebethere;asheactssowillhebecome;doinggood,hebecomesgood,doingbad,hebecomesbad";thussaystheUpanishad.AndBuddhismteaches:"Theseinnerdispositionshehasnourished

andencouragedleadhimtobereborninjustsuchanexistence.Suchis,0disciples,access;suchisthepathwhichleadstorebirthinsuchanexistence."Awomanrebornasamanalreadypossessedthevirtueofaman,shewasawomanonlyinappearance;atbottomshewasaman.Amanrebornasawomanwasalreadyawomanintheweaknessofhismorals.Peoplewhobecomewormsalreadyledthelifeofworms.Inthenotionofkarma,thatistosay,worksandmoralretribution,theconceptionofidentityisnecessarilyincluded.Whatreignshereisinexorablefatality.Ingeneral,causalityaimsatandresultsinidentity.Andthedoctrineoftransmigrationissubjecttotheprincipleofidentity:AisA.Thus,thecaseoftransmigration,whereinmanbecomesthesameman,isnottheexceptionalbutratherthetypicalcase.Everythingparticularhereisonlypartofamoreconsequentiallogic,amoreprofoundabstraction.Hence,byenlargingthehorizonand,atthesametime,byfollowingthislogicouttoitsconclusion,weendupwiththeconceptionthatallmen,intheirconcreterelationswithoneanother,inthe

ensembleoftheirconcretecircumstances,periodicallyreturn.Inaword,theworldinitsstateofidentityperiodicallyreturns."Whatitproduced,itreabsorbed...inordertobeginitscreationanew,"saystheSvetasvatara

*Upanishad.AndintheBhagavadGita*weread:"Allbeings,OsonofKunti,attheendofthekalpare-entermycreativepower;atthebeginningofthekalpaIonceagainemitthem."Thekalpaispreciselythecosmicperiodaboutwhichitissaidelsewhere:"Theworldperishes,butitsforcesremain,andtheyaretherootsfromwhichitisrebornanew;ifnotwewouldhaveaneffectwithoutacause.Now,productiveforces,oldandnew,cannotbeanydifferent.Thus,despiteeverrecurringcosmicinterruptions,thereremainsfortheorderoftheuniverse,forthevariousordersoflivingbeings(gods,animals,andmen),andforthedifferentstatesofcastes,acrama*,duties,andrecompenses...arigorousdetermination."5

Nowitisherethatwefindthenotionofanidenticaltimerepeatingitselfinperpetuity.Alongsidelivedtimeandmeasurabletimeperhaps,athirdconceptionoftimecanbedistinguished.ThisconceptiontheconceptionoftheGreatYearhadbeenadoptedinGreecebythePythagoreansandaboveallinthestoiceschatology.Itwassaidthattheworldwouldreproduceitselfinexactlythesamedetails.SocrateswouldbeborninAthens,wouldmarryXanthippe,woulddiebydrinkinghemlock,andallthiswouldberepeatedindefinitely.AGreatYear,periodicallyrepeatingitself,canthusbeconsidered,ifImaybepermittedtoemploytheterminologyofM.Husserl,therealizationofaneidetischeSingularität,an"eideticsingularity,"an"idealsingularity."AlltheGreatYearsareidentical,absolutelyidenticalamongthemselves.Theircharactersconsistonlyinbeingexemplarsofaneidos;nomatterhowmanytimestheseGreat

Yearsrecur,theyallremainperfectlyidenticalamongthemselves.TheGreatYearsdonothave,strictlyspeaking,thecharactersofindividualities.Thus,theyremainoutsidethedomainwheretheLeibnizianprincipiumidentitatisindiscernibiliumreigns.Thisiswhytheirabsoluteidentityisinnowayopposedtotheirnumericalmultiplicity.Consequently,eachinstant,eachpresentisanidenticalmomentofdifferenttimes.Timeisconceivedasacircleinsteadofasastraightline.Insteadofhavingtheformofanarrow,ithastheformofa"wheelturningonitself."6Whatisofthepastcanbeofthefuture,whatisofthefuturecanbeofthepast.Timeinthisconceptioncontainssomethingofreversibility.Perhapsthisconceptionoftimeisimaginary;ifyouwant,thecounterpartoftheKlein-Cliffordnotionofspace.Inanycaseitisthetimeofthepoet-philosopherNietzsche.Zarathustra,whilehearingadoghowl,remembersatimefarofflong,longagoatimewhenheheardthesamehowlofthesamedog.Itwaslongago,whenhewasnotyetborn.7

Thisnotionofanidentical,ofaneverrenewedtime,whatrelationdoesit

havewithnormaltime?Theword"ecstasis"hasrecentlybeenemployedtocharacterizetheonto-phenomenologicalstructureoftime.Timehasthreemodesof"ecstasis,"ofbeing''outsideitself":thefuture,thepresent,thepast.Thecharacteroftimeconsistspreciselyintheintegralunityofits"ecstases,"inits"ecstaticunity."

8Ecstasisinthissenseis,asitwere,horizontal.Now,itcouldbesaidaproposofthetimeoftransmigrationthatthereisyetanotherecstasis,onewhichisvertical.Eachpresenthasidenticalmoments,inthefutureaswellasinthepast.Eachisaninstantwhosethicknessisofinfinitedepth.However,thisecstasisisnolongerphenomenological,ratheritismystical.Thewordecstasisreassumesheresomethingofitsformersignification.Now,thedifferencebetweenaphenomenologicalandamysticalecstasisoftimeconsistsprincipallyintwopoints.Whereasintheformerthecontinuityofconstitutiveelementsisessential,inthelatter,onthecontrary,thereisadiscontinuityofelementsconnectedonlybyakindofattractionatadistance.Intheformer,then,theelementsmanifestapureheterogeneityand,consequently,timeisirreversible.Inthelattertheelementsofecstasisareofanidenticalhomogeneity,arethusinterchangeable;timeisinthissensereversible.Byadmittingtheseessentialdifferenceswecouldsay:thehorizontalplanerepresentstheontologico-phenomenologicalecstasis,theverticalplanethemetaphysicomysticalecstasis.Thecrossingofthetwoplanesis,then,nothingotherthanthespecialstructureoftimewithitstwofaces,theonerealandtheotherimaginary.

Itcould,perhaps,beobjectedthatthereisnothingextraordinaryinthisconceptionofperiodictime.ThefactthattheGreatYearsarenumberedfirstyear,secondyear,thirdyear,etc.,testifiesthattheGreatYearssucceedoneanother.Theybearorderednumbers;theyare

notreversiblesinceitisnecessarytoadmitaspectatorwhocountsthem.Itseemstome,however,thatassoonasoneinsistsonthispoint,oneinvoluntarilyabandonstheinitialhypothesis.TheGreatYearsnolongerremainidenticalamongthemselves.SocratesmarriedtoXanthippeisnolongerthesameSocrates,norisXanthippethesameXanthippe.BothwouldagewitheachsuccessiveGreatYear.Intheirfacesalittlemoremelancholywouldeachtimebediscerned.Nowthenotionof"GreatYears,"consistentlythought,implies,rather,anindependentbeginningandanabsoluterenewalofeveryoneoftheyears.Wecould,perhaps,sayagainthattheidentitythatissupposedisonlytheidentityofthecontentofdifferentGreatYears.TheGreatYearsthemselvesarenotandcannotbeidenticalamongthemselves.Butcanoneimagineatimehavingnocontent?Cananotionoftimebemaintainedinabstractionfromallofitscontent?Doesnottimeretainallthecharacteristicsofitscontent?Whenitissaidthattimeisnotreversible,isitnotbecause

itscontentisnotreversible?Nowitistruethatwecannotseparatetimefromitscontent,andifwearenothesitantinsubmittingtoalltheexigenciesofthedialectic,thenotionofGreatYearscomestoimplypreciselytheparadoxicalcharacteroftheabsoluteidentityofonetimewithanothertime.Thetimeoftransmigration,moreexactlythetimeoftheGreatYears,hasthis"something"ofreversibility;itisatimewhichisnotentirelytime.

Tobemoreprecise,theproblemisfound,aboveall,inthepassagefromoneGreatYeartoanother,inthelinkbindingthedifferentGreatYears."Asamanswayingaboveapitonacordsuspendedtoatree,"sooneGreatYearembarksonanotherGreatYear.Isthismanafoolpassivelyswayedbytime?Isheaninfantinneedofsomeonetowatchoverhim?Orishenot,rather,aclevermagicianhimselfcreatingtimeeveranew?Weestablishedattheoutsetthattimeisofthewillandthatitdoesnotexisttherewherethereisnowill.Therefore,thismagicianinabsolutesolitudeisatruedemon,onecapableofatruefeatofstrength,orrather,afeatofthewill,thepowertoterminatehisexistenceandtoberebornanew.Doubtless,betweenhisdeathandhisrebirthhiswilldoesnotexistvirtually,butitdoesnotexistanythelesspotentially.Theproblemisconcentratedinthisnotionofthe"willtopower."TheentireparadoxinthenotionoftheGreatYearwasborn,perhaps,fromtheambiguityofthoughtconcerningthisactualityandpotentialityofthewill,butitwasafecundandhappyambiguity,onethatpermittedthebirthofagrandiosemetaphysicalspeculation.

9

Anotherpossibleobjectioncouldberaisedbya"positivist"mind.ItconsidersthetimeoftheGreatYearsasakindof"agrariantime"or"canonicaltime."Itsaysthatinnoncivilizedpeoplesthenotionof

timeisaboveallperiodic:thetimebetweentheepochsofsowingandreaping,thetimebetweenspringandautumnfestivals.Thistimerepeatsitselfperiodicallyeachyear.ItisinthiswaythatthepositivistmindthinksitselfabletoexplainthenotionofGreatYears.ButbetweenagrarianorcanonicaltimeandthetimeoftheGreatYearsthereareessentialdifferences.WhereastheGreatYearssupposeanabsoluteidentityinalltheirdetails,agrarianorcanonicaltimerequiresnoabsolutehomogeneityoftimesamongthefixedperiods.Certainlythedifferencesbetweenthesetwonotionsoftimecanbereducedinthisregardtoaminimum,buttheirrelationresemblesthatbetweenzeroandnumber.Aninsurperableabysswillalwaysexistbetweenthetwo.Whenthisabyssiscrossedthepositivistisnolongertruetohisownprinciple.

Andthen,agrarianorcanonicaltimeleavesintactorevensupposesaconsciouscontinuityoftheagingself.Itisalwaystheagingselfwhichcountsonthereturnoftheagrarianorcanonicalcycle.Inthetimeoftransmigration,onthecontrary,theselfissubmittedtothelawofrebirthandre-death;

italwaysrecommencesitslifeanewinordertofinishanew.Acontinuityoftheselfexistshereonlyinanimaginarywayitisacontinuitywhichrevealsitselfonlyinmysticalmoments,theprofoundmomentsofa"profoundenlightenment,"momentsinwhichtheselftakesrecognitionofitselfwithanastonishingshudder."Theselfexists"atthesametimethatthe"selfdoesnotexist."WearealwaysobligedtorewriteourselvesthedialogueofSaintNagasena

*withKingMilinda:"Ogreatking,ifamanlightsaflame,woulditnotburntheentirenight?Yes,Master,itwouldburntheentirenight.Nowthen,Ogreatking,istheflameduringthefirstpartofnightidenticaltotheflameduringthemiddlepartofnight?No,Master.Andtheflameduringthemiddlepartofnight,isitidenticaltotheflameduringthelastpartofnight?No,Master.Wellthen,Ogreatking,istheflameduringthefirstpartofnightoneflame,theflameduringthemiddlepartofnightanother,andtheflameduringthelastpartofnightanotheronestill?No,Master,theflameburnedtheentirenightbyattachingitselftothesamewick.''Thus,themetaphysicalnotionofthetimeoftheGreatYearscannotbereducedtotheagrarianorcanonicaltimeofcomparativesociology.Inanycaseageneticandempiricalexplanationdoesnottouchupontheessenceofthenotionofmetaphysicaltime.

IhavealreadyexplainedthenotionoftimeoriginatingintheOrient.How,then,istheproblemoftheemancipationfromtimetobeposedandhowisitberesolved?Thetimeinquestionisthetimeoftransmigration,atimeonaccountofwhich"moretearshavebeenshedthanthereiswaterinthefourgreatoceans."Itisnecessarytoliberateoneselffromthistime.NowBuddhisticpessimismseesinthewillthecauseofallevil,allgrief.Tobe"delivered,"itisnecessary,quitesimply,todenythewill."Annihilationisbeatitude."This

annihilationiswhatiscallednirvana*"extinction,""thesuppressionoftheworld,"thenegationofthatwillconceivingthisworld.Perhapssomeonewouldobjecttotheuseofthewordwill.Theemploymentoftheworddesireinplaceofthewordwillmightbeproposed.Inthisregardallowmetomakeappealtoasuggestiveexample.InJapaneseBuddhismwesometimesfindtendencieswhichconsiderthesatisfactionofdesire,evenwhencarriedtoexcess,permissible.Desireisnothingwhenonelearnstoenvisageitasaphantom.Assoonasthewillisconqueredandattachmenttotheillusionoftheegovanquishedbytheintellect,byknowledge,thedesirewhichhasbeensatisfiedbecomessomethingunreal.Nirvanaconsistsindenyingthewillingeneralwhichisignorance;particulardesirecanexistforthe"onewhoknows,"for"theenlightenedone,"merelyasakindofphantomorshadow.Butwhatisthissubjectwhichdeniesthewill?AsIjustsaid,itistheintellect.Itwillbeobjectedthattheintellect,attheverymomentthatitdeniesthewill,isthewillitself.Wewouldhavehereavicious

circle.Butitcouldalsobesaidthattheintellectpossessessomethingactive,aminimumactivity,andthatiswhyIsaythatnirvana

*isthenegationofthewill.10Andsincetimeisofthewillonecaninthiswayliberateoneselffromtime."Thetorrentofbeingisstopped."11

InJapanduringthefeudalperiodanothermoralideal,Bushido*"thewayofthebushi"wasdevelopedalongsideBuddhism.Rectitude,Valiance,Honor,Charity:thesearethecardinalvirtuesofBushido.Bushidoistheaffirmationofthewill,thenegationofthenegation,inasensetheabolitionofnirvana.12Thewillconcernsitselfonlywithitsownperfection.Thus,theperpetualrepetitionofthewill,thesupremeevilforBuddhism,nowbecomesthesupremegood."Ofallthatitispossibletoconceiveintheworld,andingeneralevenoutsidetheworld,thereisnothingthatcouldwithoutrestrictionbeheldforgood,nothingthatisexceptagoodwill,"Kantsaid.13ItisthisveryideathatBushidoaffirms.Theinfinitegoodwill,whichcanneverbeentirelyfulfilled,andwhichisdestinedalwaystobedeceived,musteverandalwaysrenewitsefforts.ForBushidoitisthegoodwillin-itselfwhichhasanabsolutevalue.Anditdoesnotmatterifitisanunsatisfiedwill,anunrealizableidealthelifeofmisfortuneandsadness,"thedisconsolateempireofthirstandgrief,"insum,that"timelost"perpetuallyrepeatingitself.Confronttransmigrationwithoutfear,valiantly.Pursueperfectionwhilemaintainingaclearconsciousnessastoits"deception.''Liveinperpetualtime,inEndlosigkeit,touseHegesterms.FindUnendlichkeitinEndlosigkeit,infinityintheindefinite,eternityinsuccessionwithoutend.

ThattheGreekssawdamnationinthemythofSisyphushasalwaysappearedsuperficialtome.Sisyphusrollsarockalmosttothesummitofahill,onlytoseeittumblebackdownagain.Andheis,thus,setto

perpetuallybeginninganew.Istheremisfortune,istherepunitioninthisfact?Idonotunderstand.Idonotthinkso.EverythingdependsonthesubjectiveattitudeofSisyphus.Hisgoodwill,awillfirmandsureineverbeginninganew,ineverrollingtherock,findsinthisveryrepetitionanentiresystemofmoralsand,consequently,allitshappiness.Capableofarepetitionperpetuallyunsatisfied,Sisyphuswouldbecompelledtohappiness.Heisamanimpassionedbymoralsentiment.Heisnotinhell,heisinheaven.EverythingdependsonthesubjectiveattitudeofSisyphus.Letmegiveanexample.WecommencedconstructionoftheTokyosubwayjustafterthegreatearthquakewhichfiveyearsagodestroyedalmosthalfofTokyo.14AtthattimeIwasinEurope.Peopleaskedme:"Whydoyoubuildasubwaydestinedtobedestroyedbyoneoftheseearthquakesyouperpetuallyhaveeveryhundredyears?"Ianswered:"Itistheenterpriseitselfwhichinterestsus,notthegoal.Wearegoingtoconstructitanew.Anewearthquakewill

destroyitonceagain.Ahwell,wewillalwaysrecommence.Itisthewillitselfweesteem,willtoitsownperfection."

Tosumup:thetimewhichcouldbecalledorientalisthetimeoftransmigration,thatistosay,thattimewhichrepeatsitself,periodicandidenticaltime.Therearetwomethods,twomeansofliberatingoneselffromthistime:(1)transcendent,intellectualistliberationand(2)immanent,voluntaristliberation.Transcendent,intellectualistliberationisthenirvana

*ofthereligionofIndianinspiration.Immanent,voluntaristliberationisBushido*,thewayofthebushi,themoralidealofJapan.Thefirstconsistsindenyingtimebymeansoftheintellectinordertolive,orrathertodie,innontemporal"deliverance,"in"eternalrepose."Thesecondconsistsinanunconcernwithtime,inordertolive,trulylive,intheindefiniterepetitionofthearduoussearchforthetrue,thegood,andthebeautiful.Oneistheconsequenceofthathedonismwhichseekstoescapefrommisfortune;theotheristheexpressionofmoralidealism,alwaysvaliantlydeterminedtoputitselfintheserviceoftheGodwithinus,strugglingwithoutrespiteand,thus,transformingmisfortuneintohappiness.15

TheExpressionOfTheInfiniteInJapaneseArtTheheightofvirtueappearsasavalley.LaoTzuTaoTeChing

OKAKURAsaidveryjustlythat"thehistoryofJapaneseartbecomesthehistoryofAsiaticideals.

1Japaneseartreflectsorientalthoughtinagoodmanyways.NowifintheWestitwasGreekphilosophyandtheJewishreligionwhich,whilebeingeitherinharmonyorinopposition,fixedthecourseofEuropeancivilization,intheOrientitwasIndianreligionandChinesephilosophywhichconditionedtherouteofourAsiaticcivilization.IndianphilosophyfindsitshighestexpressionintheBuddhistmystic,ChinesephilosophyinthepantheismoftheschoolofLaoTzu.Mysticismandpantheism,aretheynot,perhaps,onlytheexpressionofthesamespiritualexperience,ontheonehandinreligion,ontheotherinphilosophy:theexpressionoftheliberationfromtimeandspace.

TheidealofBuddhismisnirvana*.Bodhidharma,thefounderoftheDhyana*orZensect,remainedseatedfornineyears,legscrossed,facetothewall,plungedinmeditation.Itissaidthatbecauseofthishelosthislegs,butthatinhisecstaticmeditationhearrivedattheabsoluteintelligencewhichembracesnirvana,atthatsupremebeatitudewhereintheworldisabolishedinemptiness.WhentheChineseemperorofSouthWuaskedhim:"Inwhatliesthemeaningofthesacredtruth?"Bodhidharmaresponded:"Intheindefinitegivenessofprofanethings."Thentheemperorasked:"Whospeakswithme?Idonotknow,"repliedthegreatmasterandleftthecountry.

Fortheonewhohaselevatedhimselftothesesupremeheights,thedistinctionbetweensacredandprofane,betweenBodhidharmaandtheemperorWu,vanishes.TruthisnirvanaandnirvanaisBuddha.OnedaySakyamouniBuddhapickedaflowerandthenfellsilent.HisdiscipleKasyapa*smiled.Hehadunderstoodnirvana,Buddha.TodiscoverinoneselfnirvanaistobecomeBuddha;forthiswordsarenotneeded.SeizingBuddhaintheabsolutevoidofnothingness,seizingBuddhaasbyaleap,hereistheZenmystic.ForLaoTzu,theTaoistheessenceofthings.The

Taohasnobeginning.Itpenetrateseverything;allthingsdependonit.TheTaoprecedesthebirthofheavenandearth.TheTaois"themotheroftheworld."

2But"theTaothatcanbedefinedisnottheeternalTao"(TTC,1).TheeternalTao"hasnoname"(TTC,32).Itisa''formwithoutform"(TTC,14).Itisasbigasitissmall.ItisbothBeingandnon-Being,essenceandvoid."Agreatsquarewithnoangles,agreatvoicehavingbutanimperceptiblesound"(TTC,41).ChuangTzu,thegreatdialectician,dreamedoncethathewasabutterfly,aflutteringbutterfly.Whenheawokehewondered:wasitChuangTzuwhodreamedhewasabutterfly,orwasitabutterflywhodreamedhewasChuangTzu?ChuangTzuandthebutterfly,perhaps,atbottom,theyareoneandthesame;thereisnothingelseintheworldexcepttheoneTao.

JapaneseartdevelopedundertheinfluenceofthisIndianmysticismandthisChinesepantheism.AndBushido*,"thewayofthebushi,"wasnotanobstacleinitsdevelopment.Onthecontrary,Bushidodeepenedtheconceptionofart.Bushido,ethicofJapan,isthecultoftheabsolutespirit,contemptforwhatismaterial.Itsidealconsistsonlyinlivinganddyingasthe"cherryblossom,exhalingitsperfumeinthemorninglight."Itisfromthistriplesourcethatthe"inwardart"ofYamatoisborn.Itisinthisspiritualatmospherethatitattainsitsfullflowering.Consequently,withoutknowingsomethingoftheseconceptionsoflifeandworlditbecomesalmostimpossibletounderstandJapaneseart.Itsmeaning,theidealistexpressionoftheinfiniteinthefinite,willgounexplained.Therefore,thereareinEuropeveryfewpeoplewhotrulyunderstandJapaneseart.DoesnotJapaneseartformostEuropeansconsistinwoodblockprintsofwomenandlandscapes,orintheteaceremonywithitsmulticolored

porcelain.Yetforthemostpartthesethingsareratherinsignificant.Thetrulygreatworksofarthabituallyremainunknown.

Iwillspeakatfirstofpainting.InordertostudytheexpressionoftheinfiniteinJapanesepaintingIwillnot,however,describethesubjectsofseveralmasterpiecesofart,Buddhistforexample.Doubtlessthiswouldbeveryinteresting,butitwouldnotleadusveryfar.Iwouldlike,rather,tospeakofsomethingwhichfromtheaestheticpointofviewismoreimportant,thatistosay,ofthepaintingtechniquesthemselves,foritisinthetechniquesthemselvesthatthedominanttendencyofJapanesearttogetherwithitsessentialpreoccupationsmanifestsitself:toaidthefiniteintheexpressionoftheinfinite.Paintingisanartexpressingitselfinspace.Metaphysicalandmoralidealism,searchingforabsoluteinfinity,canfinditsartisticexpressioninpaintingonlybydestroyingthebanalconceptionofspace.WithwhatconcretemethodsisthisdestructiveaswellasconstructiveidearealizedinJapaneseart?

PerspectiveplayedaveryimportantroleinWesternart,atleastupuntilrecently.Orientalart,onthecontrary,andIunderstandhereitsidealistschool,wantsabovealltodestroythegeometricstructureofspace.Whatitsearchesforistheessence,theinfinityunderlyingthewhole.Whatisthemeaningof"near?"Whatisthemeaningof"far?"Godisoftennearerusthanisourownself.Thedistantmountainisoftennearertousthanthetreesbesideus.Often"wearestandinginwateryetsearchingforwater."

3AndeveryoneknowstheanecdoteinwhichitisrecountedhowthesixthZenpatriarch,Hui-neng,resolvedthequarreloftwomonksregardingthesubjectofaflagwavinginthewind.Oneinsisted,"Itistheflagthatmoves";theotherinsisted,"Itisthewindthatsetstheflaginmotion.''Hui-nengsaid:"Neitherwindnorflagmoves,itisyourspiritthatmoves."Theworldofmathematicsandphysicsisrelative.Thespiritaloneisabsolute.Inanycase,theartistisalwaysatlibertytoreconstructageometricperspectiveifandinsofarashedesires,butheis,doubtless,moreanartistifhereplacesmathematicalperspectivewithmetaphysicalperspective.4

Furthermore,theformswhichvisiblethingspossessareformsrelativetoaction;theyarenotabsoluteforms.Artmustforceitselftoseizetheabsolute.Thus,itisnecessaryforittodestroyandbreakthenaturalforms,decoratedwithnames,inordertocreateaestheticandabsoluteforms.Therebyarisesthearbitrarycomposition.Insteadofanentiretree,apaintingwilloftenrepresentonlyatreetrunkwithouttoporbottom-andinthebackground,forexample,atemplewillberepresented.Anotherpaintingwillshowoneortwobranches,ablackbirdabovethem.Abridgewillberepresentedonlybyitspillars,boatsflowingbetweenthem.Ofahouseonlyaroofwillappear;inthedistanceonewillseemountains.5What,then,istheaestheticfunction

ofthearbitrarycomposition?"Thatwhichisincompletewillbeentire,thatwhichisemptywillbefilled"(TTC,22),saidLaoTzu.Absoluteandaestheticformsaremostoftenincompleteandemptyforms,formswithoutform.Thespectatoris,thus,placedinasituationinwhichhemustexercisethespontaneityofhisspirit,inorderthathemayhimselfreproducethenaturalformsofthings.Itisinthisinvoluntaryactivitythatthespectatorfindshishappiness.Herecouldbeplacedapsychologicalanalysisoftheenjoymentofart.Wewouldfind,itseemstome,thataestheticvaluemostoftenconsistsinthevalueofsuggestion.6

Wehave,then,afurtherpoint:thehabitualrepresentationofthingsintheirstaticstates.Thus,anarrowportrayednolongerflies;ahorsenolongergallops.However,theinfinite,theTao,is"thedoorofallspiritualthings,"is"themysteriousfemale,"isalways"influx"(TTC1,6,25).TherebyarisestheimportanceJapaneseartgivestotheline.Thelineisdynamic.Itcanholdthefuturewithinthepresent;itcanholdonespace

withinanother;itcanmove.Itcan,therefore,beemployedtoexpressthepoweroftheabsoluteandtheelanoftheinfinite.Thelifeoftheinfiniteandoftheabsolutemustberenderedvisiblebytherhythmandexpressionoftheline.Thatiswhythetalentofapainterisoftenjudgedbyhisabilityorinabilitytosketchapowerfulandaudaciousline.Itissaidthatthehorsedepictedbyagreatartisttakesflight.Iamsurethatitisahorsecreatedwithboldandrigorouslines.

7

Finally,severalwordsoncolors.Red,blue,green,yellow,violetthesearecolorsforchildren,forpeople."Colorsrendertheeyesofmenblind,"saystheTaoTeChing(TTC,12).Trueartistsliveintheinfinite.Theyliveonlyinthesimplecolorsofblackandwhite,colorsatonceopposedandinharmony,aslightanddarkness.Inthesecolors,which,strictlyspeaking,arenotcolors,artistsfindnothinglessthanthemeansof"coloring":bygraduatingtheintensitiesoftheblackinkonthewhitepaper,theycreatewithseveralpleasingbrushstrokesaworldofnuancesandtonalities."Allbeingsmovefromyintoyang,theyareharmonizedbythebreathofthevoid"(TTC,42).Yinisdarkness,black;yangislight,white.Thebreathofthevoid,itisthebrushstroke.Herewreathedinhazeamountainbringsitselftolife;therearivergleams;hereisadreamingmoon;thereacloudhidingall.Thetasteforsimplicityandforfluidityarisesfromnostalgiafortheinfiniteandfromtheefforttoeffacedifferencesinspace.8

IhaveenumeratedfourcharacteristicsofJapanesepainting:theabsenceofexactperspective,thearbitrarycomposition,theimportanceoftheline,andthepreferenceforinkpainting.Allareexpressionsofapantheistidealism.Allaremethodsforgainingliberationfromspace.EvenapainterasEuropeanizedasFujitaretains,inmyopinion,atleasttwoofthesetechnicalcharacteristics:

thedominatinglineandthetasteforblackandwhite.

Iwouldliketoaddonemorewordonthissubject.Theinfiniteiseverywhere;therewhereitisnot,thereisnothing.ChuangTzuonceexclaimed:"TheTaoisinthisexcrement!"Iftheinfiniteisinallthings,allthings,withoutexception,mustbebeautiful.Everythingdependsonknowinghowtolookatthem.Andthetaskoftheartistjustlyconsistsinsearchingforandfindingbeauty,eveninthingsphysicallyandmorallyugly.Weareallnaivechildren,weallfleethedarknight.Itistheartistwhorevealstousthelightintheveryheartofnight.Ateverystepherevealstoustherealmofbeauty.Hetellsus:hereisthebeautifulmonster!hereisthebeautifuldemon!Oneoftheancientmakimono(scrolls)oftheKamakuraperiod(1200-1400A.D.)depictsallspeciesofphysicalillness,unpleasantanddisgusting.Anastonishingloveoftruthandbeauty!Shamefulandrepugnantthingsfromthemoralpointofviewweresometimesthesubjectofprintsduringthe

Tokugawaperiod(1600-1850).

9Withwhatpureandsereneardorweretheytreated!Thus,forseveralcenturiesweseepracticedatheoryofartforart'ssake,atheoryofabsoluteidealisminart.

Japanesesculptureandarchitecturearealsocharacterizedbythissameeffortofliberationfromspaceexpressedinthepredominanceofthelineandinthetasteforsimplicityandthevoid.Thesecharacteristicsarefoundmostremarkablyinwoodsculptures.SeveralBuddhiststatuesofUnkei(circa1150-1220),aswellasthemasksofNo*drama,manifestinthemostingeniouswaythisaspirationfortheinfinite.Inarchitecture,thelinesofroofs,straightordelicatelycurved,arealmostalwaysloyalinterpretersofthissamethought.Thespecialcultgiventothe"pillarofthetokonoma,"10honoredplaceinthehouse,isonlythecultoftheline.Theemploymentofbambooasconstructionmaterialalsotestifiestothis.Asforsimplicity,thelargesttemple,asthesmallesttearoom,bothpresentintheirinteriors,theoneaswellastheother,thesameexpressionoftheideaofthevoid.

TurningnowtoJapanesepoetry,wemaybeginwiththis:iftheinfiniteiseverywhere,thenaverysmallthingcontainstheinfinitejustasmuchasdoesathingofgreatdimensions."Thesmallestisequaltothelargest,"saystheScentofFaithofthethirdZenpatriarch,Seng-ts'an*.IntheSongoftheExperienceofTruth,anothermasterofthesamesectsays,"Onecannot,whilelookingattheblueskythroughtheendofaflute,callitsmall."Thisshowswhywithusthemostcultivatedtypeofpoetryisaveryshortpoem,atanka,forinstance,havingthirty-onesyllables,orthehaiku,havingseventeensyllables.Wecouldsaythatitistheinfinitewhichhereliberatesitselffromtime:ashorttimecomestobeseenascontainingmuchmorethancontainsalongtime.TheManyoshu*,datingfromtheeighthcentury,

oneoftheoldestanthologiesofJapanesepoetry,collectspoemsfromaperiodbetweenthesecondhalfoftheseventhcenturyandthefirsthalfoftheeighthcentury.Initonefindsthreetypesofpoetry:thechoka*,or"longpoem'';thesedoka*,or"head-repeatedpoem";andthetanka,or"shortpoem."Thetankawasatfirstonlythehanka,asortof"envoi"ofthechoka.Inthebeginningoftheninthcenturytheimayo-uta*wasdeveloped,"poeminthefashionoftheday."Ofrelativelyrecentoriginisthehaiku,createdinthesixteenthcentury.Itisalsocalledhokku,"initialverse,"indicatingthatthehaikuwastheinitialtercetofthetanka.Thedevelopmentofthetankaasanindependentformhavingoncebeenapartofthechokaandofthehaiku,oncepartofthetanka,testifiestotheaestheticexigencyofcreatingbriefforms.Thus,thetankaandhaikurepresentthemostrefinedphasesofourpoetry,whichotherwisestillcultivatesthe"longpoem"andmodernformsbesidethatofthe"shortpoem"andthe"initialverse."

Secondly:thesymmetricformhassomethingoftherigidandfiniteabout

it.Theexpressionoftheinfinite,"thesupremelife"and"theformlessform,"onlyrealizesitselfinanasymmetricandfluidform.

11Thus,therhythmicunityofJapanesepoetryisformedoriginallyfromtheunionofapentasyllableandaheptasyllable,orvice-versa.12Thechoka*andimayo-uta*arecomposedaccordingtothismetricsystem.Thetankaandhaiku,thetwokindsofshortpoetry,have,asitwere,relaxedthelinksinthelegitimateunionofpentasyllableandheptasyllable.Thesetwoforms,havingacquiredgreaterindependenceandfreedom,donotfailtomakeuseofit.Atankaisdividedexactlyintofivelinesoffive,seven,five,seven,andsevensyllables.Forexample:

Shi-ra-tsu-yumoShi-gu-re-moi-ta-kuMo-ruya-mawaShi-ta-bano-ko-ra-zuI-ro-zu-kinike-ri

Ahaikuisdividedintothreelinesoffive,seven,andfivesyllables.Forexample:

Ho-ro-ho-ro-toYa-ma-bu-kichi-rukaTa-kinoo-to

Thisseriesoffive,seven,andfivesyllablesinahaiku,aswellasintheinitialtercetofthetanka,revealsitsoriginalbeautyinthepossibilityofdifferentsubjectivecombinations,bothinfive-sevenandinseven-five.Theoverlyharmoniousunionoffive-sevenisdisturbedbythepresenceofathirdterm.Theheptasyllableofthemiddleline,whilepreservingitsfunctionoffollowingthepentasyllableofthefirstline,acquiresatthesametimethefunctionofprecedingtheconcludingpentasyllable.Thus,thismedianpart

proceedswithslowstepsfromtheprecedingpentasyllable,yetinthetransitionhastenswithboundingsteptowardstheversewhichfollows.Theirresistablebeautyoftherhythmicmelodyofthehaikuconsistspreciselyinthischangingfluidity,inthisenchantingcoquetry.13Andinthisasymmetricalandfluidform,theideaofliberationfrommeasurabletimeisrealized.

Thirdly:theelanandthedynamicnatureoftheinfinitecanbeexpressedinpoetrynotonlybyanasymmetricandfluidform,butalsobytheemploymentofsuggestiveexpressionwhichoutstripstimeinakindofanticipation.Itisnotnecessarytoexpressanddiscloseeverything;itisonlynecessarytoindicatewithseveralessentiallinesandleavetheresttotheactiveplayofthe

imagination.Thepoetisthemanwhoknowshowtoremainsilent;silencecanbemoreeloquentthaneloquenceitself.Hetakesupinhishandseveralgreenleavesandinasubduedvoicesays:Inhaleallthefragranceofthisforest."Agrandeloquenceisasifsilent"(TTC,45),saysLaoTzu.Inaword,thepoetryoftheinfinitemusttrulybe"poetry,"andnot"literature."ThepresenceofthisquintessentialcharacteristicofpoetryisthefundamentaltraitofthehaikuofBasho

*(1643-1694),oneofourgreatestpoets.Hereisanexample:14

Naraofsevenhedges,Templeofsevenchapels,Cherryblossomsofeightfolds.15

InsteadofdescribingthesplendorofNara,theancientcapital,thepoetindicateswiththewords"templeofsevenchapels"thegrandeuroftheBuddhistreligion,andthenbytheseotherwords,"cherryblossomsofeightfolds,"thedazzlingbeautyandthelicentiousdelightsofthecourt.Nothingbutsubstantivesandadjectives,noverbs.Alliterationandtheconcordanceofgraphicsignscontributeingivingthisverseasumptuousluxury.Anotherexample:

Andthedriedsalmon,AndthegauntmonkKuya*,Bothincoldwinter.

ThisversecomparesdriedsalmonwiththegauntnessofthemonksoftheKuyasect.Driedsalmoniseateninwinter;theKuyaleadthelivesofbeggars,aboveallinwinter.Thetwosymbolsemployedarebothexpressionsofanasceticethicofwhichthepoetwashimselfapartisan.Onceagain,notasingleverb.Theemploymentofalliterationgivesgreatfirmnesstothewriting.Drawnwithseveralbrushstrokescarryingalltherichnessofink-tones,itisapictureofincommensurablebearing.

Passingnowtothesubjectsofpoetry,afewremarks.Itgoeswithoutsayingthatasinthepoetryofothercountries,thereisinJapanesepoetryjustasmuchoftheexpressionofprofoundreligiousandmoralsentimentasthereistheeternalvoiceof"Psycheinlove."ItissufficienttomentionthetitlesunderwhichthepoemsareclassedintheKokinshu*(circa905A.D.)andShin-Kokinshu(1205A.D.)anthologies:Spring,Summer,Autumn,Winter,Separation,Travels,Love,ShintoPoems,BuddhistPoems,etc.Althoughitwouldbeuselesstogiveexamples,Iwouldlike,however,topresentseveralotherexpressions,habituallyignored,oftheinfiniteinourpoetry.

Thus,fourthly:pantheisticthought,theideaoftheessentialidentityofthewhole,underliesthehaikuofBasho

*.

Ooctopusjar,Ephemeraldream,Thesummermoon.

Anoctopusiscaughtinajar;theoctopusdreamsalwaysofthejoyoflife,oftheheavenabove,oftheclearmoon.Thefishermanwhohascaughttheoctopus,theoctopussleepinginignoranceofthefateawaitinghim,themoonsurveyingthembothwithnonchalantomnisciencealltheseareincosmicsympathy.

Opaulownialeaf,Won'tyoucomevisitMysolitude?

Paulowniaisthenameofatree.Thepoetaddressesafallingleafandpraystoittoconsolehiminhissolitude.Tranquilsilenceofautumn.Wehearthevoicesofleaves.Wehearaheartbeating.

Now,afifthpoint.Thetasteforwhiteandforsubduedcolors,inaword,thetasteforsimplicity,thisisalsofoundmanifestinthecontentofthepoems.Theinfiniteissomethingsimple,containingandsurpassingmultiplicity.

O,dawn,Whiteshirauo,Atouchofwhite.

Theshirauoisaverysmallwhitefish.Thesentimentofdawn,thelimpidityofaskygrowingwhite,thesearerenderedbythisverse.

Yellowchrysanthemums,whitechrysanthemums:

O,howIwishthattherecouldbeNoothernamesthanthese!

Thishaiku,carryingthetitle"OnaHundredGatheredChrysanthemums,"wascomposedbyRansetsu,pupilofBasho.Wefindhereamanoftaste,butalsoamandrunkwiththeinfinite,amanwhosesoledesireisthatofsimplification.

Sixthly:asinpainting,soinidealist-pantheistpoetry,thenegativeaspect

ofthingsfindspositiveplace.Thepoetappreciateslife'sdissonances,employstheminordertocreateaharmoniousmelody.

There'sthenightingale,ItsdroppingsonricecakesOntheveranda.

Acountrylifeinthebrightafternoonofaspringsunisevokedbyamagician'swand.Exquisitelittlepicture.

AswayingwillowGentlytouchedMyabscess!

Amansufferingfromanabscessexperiencesattheverymomentwhenawillowbranchtoucheshimsomethingwhichisatoncejoyandappeasement.Anextremelyrefinedsentiment,amixofthedetachmentoflifeandofaloveofnature.

Finally:Iwouldliketoaddthattheideaofrepetitivetimeisfoundinourpoetry.

O,tachibanablossoms!When?Itwasinthefields.Listen,thecuckoo!

Basho

*inhalesthefragranceofthetachibanablossoms.Heremembersthatlongagohehadinhaledthesamefragrancefromthesameblossomswhilehearingacuckoointhefields.Allowmetopresentacommentaryonthis:"Butletasoundalreadyheardoranodorcaughtinbygoneyearsbesensedanew,simultaneouslyinthepresentandinthepast,realwithoutbeingofthepresentmoment,idealbutnotabstract,andimmediatelythepermanentessenceofthings,usuallyconcealed,issetfreeandourtrueself,whichhadlongseemeddead

butwasnotdeadinotherways,awakes,takesonfreshlifeasitreceivesthecelestialnourishmentbroughttoit.Asingleminutereleasedfromthechronologicalorderoftimehasre-createdinusthehumanbeingsimilarlyreleasedfromtheorderoftime...."16

O,hereisOsakaGate,WherethosegoingeastAndthosereturningpart,WherethosewhoknowandThosewhodonotknowoneanothermeet.17

Thisisatankabythecelebratedpoet-musicianoftheninthcentury,theblindSemimaru.Again,anexampleof"timelost"andof"timeremembered."OsakaGate,"porticowithtwofaces,"whose''name,foundinscribedonthepediment,istheinstant."Itistheinstantinwhichtworoadsmeet:

18thepastandthefuture.Itisthemomentofapresentofinfiniteplenitude,theeternalmomentinwhichZarathustraspeakswiththedwarf,"withloweredvoice,becausehefearshisownthoughtsandhishiddenmotives";itisthesacredmomentwhenYajnavalkyasaystoArtabhaga:"Givemeyourhand,friend,thisknowledgeisgivenonlytothetwoofus."Anditistheblessedmomentwhenonesoulinterrogatesanothersoul:"Theginkoleaf,wasitoneandthentwo?Orwasittwoandthenone?"ItisalsothismomentwepasshereinthissaloninPontigny,whereIspeaktoyouofaverseofSemimaruandwherewewonderifwemightnothavelivedthismomentbefore,ifwemightnotliveitagain,ifwemightnothavealreadybecomeacquaintedanindefinitenumberoftimes,ifwemightnotbecomeacquaintedanew.LetusleaveittoourvenerableblindSemimarutomeditateontheproblemofchanceandcirculartime.LetuspraythathenowtakesuphisbiwaandplaysusanancientYamatoair.

AsforJapanesemusic,Iwillnotspeakofitatanygreatlength.Iwillassumethatyouknowalmostnothingaboutit.Itisdifficulttospeakofmusicinanabstractmanner.IwilllimitmyselftoindicatingseveralEuropeanmelodieswhichcomeclosesttoapproximatingourmusic.OneofthebestexamplesistheChildren'sCornerofDebussy,andaboveall"Golliwogg'sCakeWalk,"athoroughlyJapanesemelody.Wecanfeelthecordsoftheshamisenvibrating.Ioncerememberhavingseenthismusicsettodance.ItwasinParis-Plage,insummer.ThedancerwasclothedasintheJapaneseShishi-mai

(danceofthelion),andthiscostumeharmonizedperfectlywiththedanceandmusic."TheGirlwithFlaxenHair"alsohassomethingoftheJapaneseaboutit,inthefreesuccessionofitsmelodiesandintheperfectionoftheimperfect.Theprelude,played"verycalmandsoftlyexpressive,"andthen"murmuredandrestrainedlittlebylittle,"hasalwaysmademethinkofourutazawa,19intimateandfullysuggestivemusic.And,infact,DebussywasagreatdevoteeofJapaneseart.Iwilltakethelibertyofcitingfromthememoirsofoneofhisfriends:"ThelargetableatwhichDebussycomposedhismasterpieceswascoveredwithJapaneseobjectsinthebeststyle,amongthemaporcelaintoadwhichhecalledhisfetishandwhichhecarriedwithhimduringhistravels,claimingnottobeabletoworkwithoutitunderhiseyes....InthisroomIalsorememberaHokusaiprint,depictingagiganticwavebreaking.Debussyhadaparticulardilectionforthiswork;hewasinspiredbyitwhilehecomposedLaMer;heaskedusto

haveitreproducedonthecoveroftheprintedcopyofthiswork."

20AsidefromtheseworksofDebussytheJeuxd'eauofRavelcanalsobecited.Wecouldsaythatheretheplayingofthekotocanbeheard.

NowinwhatdoesthefundamentalcharacteristicofDebussyandhisschoolconsist?Doubtless,ontheonehand,intheefforttobeliberatedfromstereotypictime,liberatedinafluidityinwhich"themusiccompletelyfillseverymoment,"andinwhich"allpartsareunited,runsoftlyintooneanother";21ontheotherhand,inthatsimplificationinwhichalltheorgiesofsoundareabolished,bringingabout,thus,a"delicatesobriety...envelopingeverythinginsilence."22AndthisisjustlythecharacteristicofJapanesemusic,aswellasofJapaneseartingeneral.AmongseveralEuropeantestimoniesIcancite,forexample,AlbertMaybon,whosays:"Themusicoftheshamisenhassomethingofthenebulous,oftheindefinite,oftheunequal,"and,then,doubtlesswithsomeexaggeration,adds:"nolight,onlyflashes!"23InmemoirsofajourneytoJapan,CharlesVildractellsus:"Isawtwopilgrimswearingwrinkledclothing,theirfaceshidunderlargeconicalhats.Theycouldguidethemselvesonlybylookingattheirfeet.Theystoppedinfrontofthethresholdofeveryshopandoneofthepilgrimswouldholdoutalittlebowlforalmswhiletheotherwouldalwaysplaythesametuneonasmallwoodenflute,atunewhichwas,Oprodigal!exactlytheoneofGolaudin'PelléasetMélisande.'"24Aboutshamisenmusichesays:"ThesamenostalgicanddelicatephraseservesasthebasisofalltheairsoftheshamisenandissufficienttoevokeformeallofJapan.Accordingtothevariationsonedrawsandtherhythmonegivesit,itisnowmeditation,nowromance,nowdance."25AnotherWesterntraveler,havinghadthe

occasiontosingaEuropeantunebeforeaJapaneselistener,stated:"AsIsang,suddenlytheairandthemelodyappearedtomebarbarousincomparisonwiththerefinementoftheparticularcharacterofaJapanesesong,andforthefirsttimeIsensedsomethingofthebeautyandartofJapanesemusicandoftheJapaneseair."26Thesewordsareallofthemoresignificantinthatthis"stroller"comesfromthesamecountryasWagner,antipodeofDebussy.

Thus,thereishardlytheneedtosaythatamusicwhosedualcharacterconsistsintheliberationfrommeasurabletimeandinthissimplicitywhereinallmultiplicityisfounded,canbeconsideredasthatartmodemostexpressiveofpantheisticmysticism.Furthermore,thewordimpressionismhastoooftenbeenthoughtlesslyemployed.Manisnotamechanismpassivelyreceivingimpressions;hisspontaneityneverslumbers.Thus,thewaveofHokusaiisasmuchanexampleofexpressionismasitisofimpressionism,itisjustasmuchmundiintelligibilisformaasmundisensibilisforma.Inthesameway,whathasinmusicbeencalled,sometimesabusively,impression-

ist,whathasbeenthoughttobeonlyafleeting,"momentaryimpression,"isveryoftentheexpressionofaneternalandmysticvoicecomingfromthedepthsofthesoul.

Andhissong,andhisdanceArethevoicesoftruth

saysthehymnofHakuin,JapaneseZenmonk.

27

ThemosteminentcharacteristicofJapaneseartingeneralis,thus,fromtheobjectivepointofview,theexpressionoftheinfinite.Thischaracteristicismanifest,aswehaveseen,aboveallintheliberationfromspacefoundintheplasticartsandintheliberationfromtimefoundinpoetryandmusic.And,then,whatisthesubjectivefunctionofart?WhatrelationdoesJapaneseart,asanelementofspirituallife,havewiththeinfinite?Spirituallife'splaneofactionistime.Man,enclosedintime,aspirestoliberatehimselffromtime.Hence,hesearchesforthosethingseternal:truth,morality,beauty.Andthefunctionofartdoesnot,therefore,consistsomuchintheimmortalizationofafleetingmomentoftime,asinthecreationofeternity.Atrueartisttakesholdofeternalinfinity;beauty,itisofthatwhichhetakespossession.Inthis,andinthisalone,heistheeducatorofhumanity.Heteachesmantoliberatehimselffromtime,toliveinthatwhichiseternal,beauty.Buthedoesnotmodelhimselfontheunpracticededucatorwhotakespleasureinshowingoffhisideas,thebettertotyranicallyrequiretheirpassiveacceptance.HeacquaintshimselfwiththetruthoftheTaoTeChing:

Thegreatestperfectionmustappearimperfect,Thebettertobeinfiniteinitseffect.Thegreatestabundancemustappearempty,Thebettertobeinexhaustibleinitseffect.

(TTC,45)

Hence,hebelievesinthevalueofsuggestion,inthepoweroftheimagination.Heknowshowtobringaboutanactivespontaneityonthepartofspectators.Thusitisthathegivesindicationonlyofthosepointsofviewinwhichthelattermayplacethemselves;heonlytraceslinesandonlypointsoutdirectionsinorderthatthespectatorsmaythemselvesfollowthese.Doubtlessitishisdivinehandwhichunveilseternalbeautyand,thereby,givesthespectatorsvertigo,butthetaskofthespectatorsremainsintact:itisincumbentuponthemtomakethegreatleap,toenterintodepthlessmetaphysicalabyssesandtobeoverwhelmedthere.Thus,twiceisartliberatedfromtime:onceintheartistwhocreatesinfinity,onceinthe

spectatorswhoparticipate,asitwere,inthiscreationbytheircontemplationofworksofart.

AndréSuarès,intheprefacetohissmallcollectionWesternHaiku,eulogizesthegreataestheticvalueofthebriefformoftheJapanesehaikuandtanka.Butinregardtothedepthofsuchpoetry,inregardtothequestionof"allJapaneseart,"heaffirmsthattheJapaneseonlypayattentiontotheobject,tothefugutiveinstant,affirmsthattheyignoretheaspirationtotheinfinite,toeternity.Hesays:"Hereweliveonlysoastolivealways.Seemingly,oursoledesireistoendurealways.Thisdesiretobeeternalformsonebodywithourperishablecondition....Overthere,onthecontrary,intheEmpireoftheRisingSun,suchappetiteisunknown...Thespiritofmanisthelocusofallspaceandtime.Ononecondition,however:thatithascreatedametaphysicsfromwhichamathematicshasbeenabletofollow.TheFarEastremainstotallyforeigntothis.Theirartandpoetryis,therefore,foundedonprinciplesopposedtoours.Allisspatialinthesespirits....Theirartneverturnsinward,evendisdainsthis.Thegeometricpointmustbetransformedintoaninstanceofthoughtandmustknowitselfassuch:thatisthegoalofconsciousnessintheWest.AllthishasnomeaningforOrientals(leshommesjaunes)."IbelieveIhaveshowntowhatextentsuchconsiderationsarewrongandtowhatextentAndréSuarèsismistakeninthisregard.AlreadythefamousprefacetotheKokinshu

*,writtenbyKi-no-Tsurayuki(883-946),saidthat"thehumanheartistheseedofthepoetryofYamatofromwhichsprouts,likeleaves,amyriadofwords.Inthislifemenareoccupiedwithmanythings:theyexpressthethoughtsoftheirheartbymeansoftheobjectswhichtheyseeorhear.''Infinityandeternityonlyexistintheheart,inthought."Inwardart"objectivatesthem,nomatterwhetheritbeplastic,poetic,ormusicalart.Allourartisimpregnatedwithimmateriality.Itisinno

wayanexternalart,indeed,itisthisitdisdains;everyobjectofourartistestamenttothis.AndhewhohasnotseizeduponthischaracterwillhaveunderstoodnothingofJapaneseart.Thus,wecanconcludethatalmosteverythingbelongingtotheobjectorthinginJapaneseartmustbeconsideredasfugitiveandfinitesymboloftheinfiniteandoftheeternal.

Notes

TheNotionofTimeandRepetitioninOrientalTime

1.Jean-MarieGuyau,LaGenèsedel'idéedetemps(Paris,1923),pp.33-39.

2.HermannCohen,LogikderreinenErkenntnis(Berlin,1922),p.154.

3.MartinHeideger,SeinandZeit(Halle,1927),pp.327-29.

4.ExistingEnglishtranslationsdiffer,attimessignificantly,fromKuki'sowntranslationsfromSanskritandChinesetextssuchasTheUpanishadsandtheTaoChing.Thus,IhaveeverywheretranslatedintoEnglishKuki'sownversion.

5.Theproblemoftherelationbetweentransmigrationandcosmicperiod,betweensamsaraandkalpa,doesnotespeciallyinterestushere.Thekalpais,perhaps,onlycosmictransmigration.Inanycase,thenotionofperiodictimeweareanalyzinghereiscommontobothsamsaraandkalpa.

6."Assomeonetravelingquicklyinavehicleandcontemplatingthewheelsfromabove,thusdidhecontemplatedayandnightfromabove"(Kaushutaki

*Upanishad)."Thetheratracedacircleonthegroundandsaidtotheking:'Doesthecirclehaveanend?"'(Milanda-panha).''Thiswheelreddenedbyfire,inflamed,theflameofmylife"(Avadanasataku*).

7."Yes,whenIwasachild,inthemostdistantchildhood"(Nietzsche,ThusSpokeZarathustra).Oneseesclearlyfromthecontextthatthissignifiesanteriorlife.SimilarlytheMilanda-panha,posingthequestion"Theonereborn,ishethesameoranother?"responds,albeitinaratherlame"comparison":"Iwasaninfantandamnowaman."[IhaveusedWalterKaufmann'stranslationofThusSpokeZarathustra(NewYork,1966,p.159)torenderKuki'squotationfromNietzsche.Trans.]

8.MartinHeidegger,SeinundZeit,p.329.

9.ItiscertainthatthestoicswereawareofthiscapitaldifficultyinthenotionoftheGreatYear.TheproofisthatinsteadofhavingSocratesreborninperson,theywerecontentwith"someonenotdifferentfromSocrates":asubtleconception,butdisastrousforthetheory([Hans

FriedrichvonArnim],Stoicorumveterumfragmenta[Leipzig,1903-1924],vol.2,no.626).

10.Fromthispointofviewonecan,perhaps,alsojustifytheemploymentofthewordwillinSchopenhauer.

11.Thereis,doubtless,acontradictionbetweenthenotionofkarmaandtheideaofnirvana*,atleasttherewhereonecarriestheseconceptionsouttotheirlogicalconsequences.Oneimpliespredeterminedidentity,theother,onthecontrary,intellectualliberty.Butthisdifficulty,assuredlyverygreat,isonlythedifficultycommontoalmostanykindofdeterminism.Itistrue,ontheotherhand,thatinordernottofallintothiscontradiction,onemustoftenevadepursuinginthenotionofkarmaaconceptionofidentity.However,fromthelogicalpointofview,oncethenotionofkarmaisadmitted,therefusaltoacceptidenticaltransmigrationcannotescapethereproachofdialecticalinconsequence.

12.InplacingBuddhismandBushido*inoppositionItakeintoaccountonlytheirbasictendencies.ThedevelopmentofpositiveelementsinthethoughtofMahayana*Buddhism,ontheonehand,andtheinfluenceofBuddhismoncertainparticularaspectsofBushido,ontheotherhand,areincontestable.TherecannotbetheleastquestionofdenyingthegreatvalueofBuddhism.WeoweaneminentpartofourOrientalcivilizationtoBuddhism.

13.ThisquotationcanbefoundinImmanuelKant,FoundationsoftheMetaphysicsofMorals,tr.LewisWhiteBeck(NewYork,1959),p.9.TranslationemendedinaccordancewithKuki'sversion.Trans.

14.Kukireferstotheearthquakeof1923.Trans.

15.Iwouldlike,inordertobeclear,tosaythat,personally,IdonotbelieveinBuddhisttransmigration,nomorethaninlifeafterdeathintheChristiansense.Ihavesoughtonlytoestablishthepossibilityofimaginingtransmigration.Thereisneithermorenorlessofthe

imaginaryintheconceptionoftransmigrationthanintheconceptionofthefuturelifeinChristianity.Ihave,thus,indicatedanddevelopedaproblem,oneofOrientalorigin,the

problemofperiodicandidenticaltime.AndwhatIhavesaidaboutBushido

*concerningtransmigrationisonlytheeventualapplicationoftheethicofthe"bushi"tothisimaginarydomain.

TheExpressionoftheInfiniteinJapaneseArt

1.K.Okakura,Lesidéauxdel'Orient,tr.Serruys,(Paris,1917),p.36.

2.TaoTeChing,paragraph25.Aspreviouslynoted,IhavetranslatedKuki'sowntranslationsfromtheChinese.Hereafter,allreferencestothisworkwillbegiveninthetextitselfasTTC.Trans.

3.Hakuin,ZazenWasan(HymnsofMeditation).

4.Soami*(circa1450-1530),landscapepainter,wasoneofthegreatestmastersof"metaphysicalperspective."Ontheotherhand,Korin*(1661-1716)knewhowtoresolve,inmagnificentfashion,another,moreparticularproblem:thetransitionfrommetaphysicaltodecorativeperspective.Regardingthisidealofbeauty,"atoncedecorativeandexpressive,"MauriceDeniswrites:"Ithasbeenhabitualforquitesometimetoconsiderthetruthofartsolelyfromthepointofviewofimitation.Thereis,onthecontrary,noparadoxinholdingthattrompel'oeilisasynonymforlyingwiththeintentiontodeceive.Apaintingconformstoitstruth,tothetruth,whenitsayswellwhatitmustsayandwhenitfulfillsitsornamentalrole"(Nouvellesthéories,p.182).

5.ThereissomethingveryJapanesetobefoundintheroomofClaudeMonetattheMuséedeOrangerie.Thecanvasesportrayatrightandatleftthegreattrunksofwillowswithneithersummitnorbase,andinthemiddleapoolwithnymphscanbefound.OnecouldverywellbeinaJapaneseroomsurroundedbybyobu*(folding

screens).KanoEitoku(1543-1570)orOkyo*(1733-1795)couldsurelyfurnishexamples.

6.AsBergsonwrote:"Theobjectofartis...toleadustoastate...inwhichwegrasptheideathathasbeensuggestedtous"(Essaisurlesdonnésimmédiatesdelaconscience,p.11).

7.Hokusai(1760-1849)said:"Iwouldlikemypersonagesandanimalstoappearasifleapingoutfromthepaper,Iwouldlikethateverythingbealiveinmyart,beitaline,beitapoint."VanGogh,initiateinJapaneseart,energeticallypracticedthecultoftheline.Withoutdoubt,heoftenpracticeditwithpathologicalexaggeration,butheoftensucceeded,andmarvelously,ingivingexpressiontothepowerofthesoulandtothemovementofnature.

8.ItshouldbeclearthatinregardtocolorIthinkhere,aboveall,oftheschoolofSesshu*.YetthetechniqueofthegradationofinkhasalwaysheldimportantplaceinalmostallJapanesepainters.Brush"painting"anddrawingdonotsignifythesamething.Theinkmonochromepossessesinadditiontoagraphicmanner,apictorialmanner,inadditiontoline,tonality.Andifitistruethatindrawing,"itisthejudgmentwhichspeakstothejudgment"(Alain,Systèmedesbeaux-arts[Paris,5thed.],p.278),ininkpaintingitisecstasiswhichspeakstoecstasis.Itwouldbedifficulttofindanartisticmeansmoreefficaciousforexpressingthesignificationofthecoincidentiaoppositorum.

9.Kukihasheregivenonlyapproximatedates.Theactualdates:Kamakuraperiod(1192-1331)andTokugawa(Edo)period(1603-1868).Trans.

10.Thetokonomaisanalcoveinthezashiki(drawingroom)ofaJapanesehouse.Thetokonomahasawoodenbaseaboutsixincheshigh,andwithinthetokonomaonegenerallyplacesahangingscroll,anokimono(decorativeobject),andaflowerarrangement.Trans.

11.TheabsenceofsymmetryisnotacharacteristicofJapanesepoetryalone;toacertaindegreeitcouldbesaidtocharacterizeJapaneseartingeneral.

12.Sincethisunityiscomposedoftwelvesyllables,itcouldbecomparedtoanalexandrine.

Buttheessentialdifferenceconsistsinthis,thatacaesurabreaksanalexandrineintotwohemistiches,equalandsymmetrical,while,onthecontrary,thetypicalunityofthepoetryofYamatoisdividedintotwounequalandasymmetricalparts,five-sevenandseven-five.Itistruethatthe"Invitationauvoyage"ofBaudelaireisacompositionofpentasyllablesandheptasyllables.Nevertheless,twopentasyllablesfollowingeachotherhavethemetricvalueofonlyonedecasyllabledividedintotwosymmetricalhemistichesandcarryinganinternalrhyme.

Monenfant,masoeur,SongeàladouceurD'allerlà-basvivreensemble!Aimeràloisir,AimeretmourirAupaysquiteressemble!

13.Thisfluidityisproducedinapurelyrhythmicwaywithoutanyrelationtothemeaningoftheverse.Thisshouldnotbeconfoundedwithanenjambement,whichconsistsinthenoncoincidenceofametricalarticulationwithalogicalarticulation.TherhythmofthehaikuissometimesimitatedbyFrenchpoets.

J'aifaitunbeaurêve.Cematinj'aisurmeslevrèsUngoutdebaiser.(RenéMaublanc)

[Abeautifuldream.ThismorningmylipsglazedwithThetasteofakiss.]

Itisdifficultformetojudgewhetheritispossibletoreproduceperfectlythemelodyofthehaikubymechanicalimitationinaforeignlanguage.

14.TheformulaofMallarmé,"Tosuggestinsteadoftosay,"andinseveralrespectsthe"Artpoétique"ofVerlaine,canbefoundperfectlyaccomplishedinthehaikuofBasho

*,asalreadyinthetankaofHitomaro*(endoftheseventhcentury).Butinthecaseofshortpoemssuchasthehaikuandtanka,translationdestroysalmostalloftheirbeauty,abeautyconsisting,aboveall,inthecolor,sonority,andodorofwords,intheirsymphonicharmony,intheircadencedrhythm,alltheartisticeffectswhich,asistheirnature,cannotberenderedintranslation.

15.InordertopreservetheunityofKuki'stranslationsandcommentaryIhaveeverywheregivenliteraltranslationsofKuki'sownFrenchversionsofvarioushaikuwithoutattemptingtosupplyfinishedEnglishpoems.Trans.

16.ThisquotationcanbefoundinMarcelProust,RemembranceofThingsPast,tr.F.Blossom,vol.2(NewYork,1932),p.996Trans.

17.Heretooitisaquestionofaliteraltranslation.Trans.

18.Ousaka-no-seki*,heretranslatedas"OsakaGate,"wasaplacename,literally"Customs(Gate)ofOsaka."ThetwocharacterscomprisingOusaka,OuandSaka,mean"tomeet"and"hill"respectively.AllthosetravelingeastfromKyotoorreturningtoKyotofromtheeasthadtostophere.Ousaka-no-seki,placeofparting,placeofmeeting,was,therefore,oftenusedinsongs.Wemaynote,also,thatonefactorintherichnessofChineseandJapanesepoetryisthereadinesswithwhichsomecharacterslendthemselvestodualandmanifoldmeanings.Thisisafactor,evidently,inthedifficultyoftranslatingChineseandJapanesepoetry.Toooften,asthepoetandtranslatorKennethRexrothoncenoted,translatorsintheWesthavespelledoutallthemeaningscontainedinacharacterand,consequently,thetranslatedpoemhascarriedallthelessthe

resonancesoftheoriginal.Trans.

19.Atypeofsongfallingunderthemoregeneralnamekouta,thekoutabeingpopularsongsofthelateEdoperiodsungwiththeaccompanimentoftheshamisen.Thekoutawerederivedfromthehauta,atypeofpopularsongalsoaccompaniedbytheshamisenandfavoredbythechonin

*(town-dwellers)oftheEdoperiod.Trans.

20.JacquesDurand,Quelquessouvenirsd'unéditeurdemusique(Paris,1925),pp.92-93.RomainRollandalsomadereferencetotherapprochementobtainingbetweenthemusicofDebussyandtheartofJapanesepainting(cf.Musiciensd'aujourd'hui[Paris,12thed.],p.205).WeknowalsothatthePrints("Pagodas,"etc.)andtheImages("GoldenFish,"etc.)exhibitanOriental,ifnotspecificallyJapaneseinspiration.Andwiththesebegins,tofollowAlfredCortot,themostcharacteristicperiodofDebussy'spianomusic(cf.AlfredCortot,"LaMusiquepourpianodeClaudeDebussy,"inRevueMusique,1December1920,pp.134,136).LaMerwasalsocomposedinthisperiod,1903-1905.PelléasetMélisandewascompletedin1902.DanielChennevièrestatesonthissubject:"DebussyintroducedtheOrientintomusic.""Heregeneratedmusic;heimpregnateditwithOrientalyouthfulness;hegaveitair,light,life''(ClaudeDebussyetsonoeuvre,pp.15,45).

21.JacquesRivière,Etudes(Paris,10thed.),p.156.

22.RomainRolland,Musiciensd'aujourd'hui,pp.204,206.

23.AlbertMaybon,LeThéâtrejaponais(Paris,1925),p.89.

24.CharlesVildrac,D'unvoyageauJapon(Paris,1927),p.36.

25.Ibid.,p.63.

26.BernhardKellermann,EinSpazierganginJapan(Berlin,1922),p.

152.

27.Thus,inDebussy'sPreludetotheAfternoonofaFaunwefindasmuchtheexpressionofnaturalisticdesireandpantheisticdreamastheimpressionofasuffocatingandwearyafternoon.Itwould,certainly,beveryinterestingtoestablishaparallelinalldomainsofartbetweenthetechniqueofthe"inwardart"ofJapanandFrenchsymbolism.

PARTTHREEPROPOSONJAPANByShuzo*Kuki

BergsonInJapanJAPAN,completelyisolatedinthemiddleofthePacificOcean,wasconstrainedtoopenitsportssixtyyearsagobythearrivalofAmericangunboats.TheWesterncivilizationintroducedinthiswaywasonlyAnglo-Americancivilization.Atthattime"Westernphilosophy"signifiedforus"philosophyintheEnglishlanguage."TheutilitarianismofStuartMillandSpencerwasthefirstWesternphilosophyweknew.Fortunately,theJapanesespiritwasnotsuchastofullyacceptthisgenreofthought.Weturnedawayfromitwithouthavingfoundanysatisfaction.Thus,whenmuchlaterthissameutilitarianism,nowdisguisedunderthenameofpragmatism,triedtointroduceitselftous,weknewhowtopolitelycloseourports.

GermanphilosophyenteredJapanaround1885.ThefirstamongWesternphilosophers,Kant,inspiredinusprofoundrespect.Hisprincipalworksweretranslatedanddiscussed.Hisdoctrinewasmadetheobjectofnumerouswritings."Kantianevenings"wereevencreatedinordertodiscussfromtimetotimethetranscendentalphilosophy.FichteandHegelwereequallyesteemed.Wealsoknewanextremelydistinctneo-Kantianmovement.TheMarburgSchoolaswellastheHeidelbergSchoolwasardentlystudied.Hence,HermannCohenandHeinrichRickertpossessedamongusaveryeminentprestige.

Itwasatthismoment,whencriticismandlogicalmostexclusivelyrepresentedWesternphilosophyinJapan,itwasatthisverymomentthatthenameofM.HenriBergsonsuddenlyappeared.Itwasaround1910.AtfirstCreativeEvolutionwastranslated,thenMatterandMemory,andthentheIntroductiontoMetaphysics.OfhisEssayontheImmediateGivensofConsciousnesswepossessedonlyanabridgedtranslation.Hisprincipalrolewasthatofgivingusatastefor

metaphysics.Ourspirit,dessicatedbythecriticalformalismofGermanneo-Kantianism,received"celestialnourish-

ment"fromtheBergsonianmetaphysicalintuition.(M.BergsonsawasthefundamentalerrorofKantianismitstoosharplydrawndistinctionbetweenthecontentandtheformofknowledge.Therebyarosetheideaofthe"thing-in-itself,"therebyarosetheplacingindoubtoftheabsolutevalueofourknowledge.M.Bergsonadvisedusnottoremaincontentwith"themanufacturedclothingofready-madeconcepts."Heshowedusthe"necessityofworkingtomeasure."Hekeptusfromremainingsatisfiedwith''translation";heencouragedustogodirectlytothe"original."Hisphilosophyproposed"totakeholdasmuchasitispossibleoftheoriginalitself,todeepenlife,andbyakindofintellectualauscultationtofeelthesoulpalpitate."Tophilosophizeconsistedinplacingoneself,byaneffortofintuition,intheinteriorofconcretereality.TothesamedegreethatM.BergsoncombatedKantianism,philosophicalthoughtinJapanremoveditselffromtheneo-Kantiantheoryofknowledge.M.Bergsonmadeus"revivetheabsolute.")AndthephilosophyofNishida,perhapsthemostprofoundthinkerinJapantoday,presentsitselfasanefforttosynthesizethetranscendentalphilosophyandBergsonism.Itisthissynthesiswhichisalreadyindicatedbythetitlesofhisprincipalworks:DiscursiveThoughtandVitalExperience,IntuitionandReflectioninSelfConsciousness.Wecouldsaythatingeneralhismeditations,whileacceptingtheintuitionofthepuredurée,haveasagoalthesafeguardingoftheapriorivalues.

ItisnecessarytoalsopointouttwosecondaryeffectsproducedbyBergsonism,whichcharacterizeinaprecisewaythepresentstateofthestudyofWesternphilosophyinJapan.InthefirstplaceanditisquiteacuriousphenomenonitwasthroughtheintermediaryofBergsonianphilosophythatwelearnedtoappreciateGermanphenomenology.ItwasHusserlatfirst,althoughnotsomuchtheHusserlofthefirstpart,ratherofthesecondpartofLogicalInvestigations,notsomuch,then,the"purelogician"as,rather,the

"phenomenologist."AndthenitwasMaxScheler,philosopheroflife,andveryrecentlyMartinHeidegger,authorofBeingandTime.AmongthepointsincommonbetweenBergsonianphilosophyandGermanphenomenology,whatseemsmostcharacteristictousisjustthatwhichdistinguishesthembothfromtheneo-Kantianphilosophy:ontheonehandtheBergsonianrequirementofabolishingatooclearcutdistinctionbetweenthecontentofknowledgeanditsform,ontheotherhandtheideaof"intentionality"inHusserlandthenotionof"Being-in-the-world"inHeidegger.Thispointincommonis,perhaps,onlyacommonresultofthemethodofintuition.Inanycase,wehaveinJapanbeenledfromneo-Kantianismto"phenomenology"bymeansofBergsonianphilosophy.

ThesecondeffectofBergsonismwasamuchmorenaturalone:weweretaughttoappreciateFrenchphilosophyingeneral.ThelittleFrenchphi-

losophythatwehadpreviouslyknownconsistedonlyintheMontesquieuofTheSpiritofLaws,theJean-JacquesRousseauofTheSocialContract,andtheComteansociology.NowwebegantoexamineBoutroux,Ravaisson,MainedeBiran.Wesoughttofindinthephilosophyof"contingency,"inthenotionof"habit,"andinthemethodof"immediateapperception''theprincipalcurrentofFrenchphilosophy.Inaddition,wewonderedwhatrelationthebrilliantphilosophyofM.Bergsonsustained,ontheonehandwithDescartes,andontheotherhandwithPascal.Theonehaddeepenedthemeaningof"meditation,"theotherhadappreciatedthe"espritdefinesse."Welearnedtorecognizethefruitfromthetree.(AndIamsurethatthestudyofFrenchphilosophywillbecultivatedbyusinthenearfuturewithanintensitymuchgreaterthantoday.)

Nowwhyisitthatwehavehadaninstinctiveaversiontoutilitarianism?WhyhasKantexercisedsuchagreatinfluenceonus?WhyisM.BergsonsohighlyesteemedinJapan?Sometimesthepuerilereproachhasbeenmadeagainstusthatweareclever"imitators."Whenonecivilizationisconfrontedwithanothercivilizationareciprocityofinfluenceisnothingoutoftheordinary.Buttheacceptanceofanideadoesnotsignifyimitation.Whatisproducedisanassimilationaccordingtochoice.Andthemodeofchoiceitselfalwaysrevealsthespontaneityandactivitycharacteristicofthesubjectwhochooses.Now,inustherearetwopredominantcurrentsofthought:ShintoistthoughtintheformofBushido

*,andBuddhistthoughtintheformofZen.Bushido,"thewayofthebushi,"isthecultoftheabsolutespirit,contemptforwhatismaterial.Itisanidealistethicofthe"goodwill."Therefore,ithadtobethesinequanonoftheacceptanceofKantianisminJapan.Kantianism,if,perhaps,notsomuchasatheoryofknowlege,atleastasa"foundationofthemetaphysicofmorals,"could,onceimported,never

dieinthecountryofBushido.Ontheotherhand,Zen,orDhyana*,or"meditation,"consistsinanefforttoseizetheabsolutebyintuition.AnditispreciselythiswhichhasinJapanesethoughtopenedthewaytothephilosophyofM.Bergson.

TheBergsonianmethodis"simpleandindivisibleintuitionofthespirit,""takingdirectpossession"ofthedurée.Bergsonsays:"Theduréecannotberejoinedbymeansofadetour;itisnecessarytoinstalloneselfinitstraightaway."AZenmonkwouldsaythesamething.M.Bergsonwrites:"Wearegoingtodemandofconsciousnessthatitisolateitselffromtheexternalworldand,byavigorouseffortofabstraction,becomeitselfonceagain."ThisisalsothemethodofZenmeditation.Speakingofthedurée,M.Bergsonsays:Its"representation...althoughclearforthatthoughthavingreturnedintoitself,cannotbetranslatedintothelanguageofcommonsense."Forthesamereason,Zenscornsthewordandlanguage.Certainly

thereligionofZenandBergsonianphilosophyarenotthesamething.Yetthereisaspiritsoevidentlycommontoboththatwecannotfailtorecognizetheiressentialaffinity.(AllJapanesewithoutexceptioncanfeelakindof"intellectualsympathy"forthisFrenchphilosophy.)

Notjustinmethod,butincontentaswell,BergsonianphilosophydisplaysgreatresemblancetoBuddhistthought.Wewillmentionbuttwoprincipalpoints:(1)theBergsonianideaofthedurée,expressingitselfintheimageof"flowingwater,"ispreciselythefundamentalideaofBuddhism:theceaselessflightofthings,awateryflux;(2)whenBergsonismadmitsthepossibilityofatthesametime,andonthesameterrain,"acceptingthethesisandantithesisofantinomies,"itisveryneartheparadoxicaltruthenunciatedbyZen:Nirvana

*isBuddha,NothingisBeing.ThisresemblanceisresultofthefactthatBergsonismandZenarebothservedbyanalogous,albeitindependent,methodsofintuition.AndthefascinatingattractionthatBergsonismexercisesconsistspreciselyinthefactthatitshowsusthisaffinityinallitsoriginalspontaneity.Bycontrast,thereareinSchopenhauerandinNietzsche,nomattertheadmirationtheyinspireinus,toomanyorientalreminiscencesforusintheOrienttoregardthemastrulyWesternphilosophers.M.Bergsonremainsinthelimitsofoccidentalgeniusand,therefore,appearsallthemoreattractivetous.

Nowprogress,inwhateversenseoneunderstandsit,isinnowayconceivableifitisnotsolidlyunitedwithtradition.Whoeversaysprogress,says,thereby,tradition.Ourorientalthought,althoughwillingtostudyWesternthought,willneverachievetrueprogresswithoutabundantnourishmentfromitsowntradition.Itis,therefore,necessarythatwefollowourowntraditioninordertotranscendit.Itisnecessarytopursueitinordertosurpassit."Progress,carryingon

thepast,nibblingawayatthefuture,swellsup,yetallthewhileadvances."Hereinisprogressdefined,hereintheBergsonianduréeisdefined.

JapaneseTheater...TOSAYTHATAMUSIC,WHOSEFORMconsistsinfluidity,canbeconsideredasanexpressionofpantheistmysticism.

AndhissongandhisdanceArethevoicesoftruth

saysthehymnofHakuin,JapaneseZenmonk.

ThechoreographicandscenicartofJapandisplaythesamecharacteristicsastheotherkindsofJapaneseart,aboveallthetasteforsimplicityandthepredominanceofsuggestion,bothbeingbutexpressionsoftheinfinite.Indanceeachgestureofthehand,eachcadenceofstep,hasasymbolicsense,reflectingtheprofoundlifeofthesoulandtherhythmofsentiments.AFrenchobserversays:"Aslowandtremblingdroppingofthehandsignifiesautumnleavesimperceptiblycollectingontheground.Handsshadingtheeyeswillmakeonethinkofamountainlandscape.Aswingingofthearmsgivestheimageoftheseaorofariver.Itsufficesforayounggirltonibbletheedgeofherkimono,toraisetoherlipsthelengthysleeve,inordertoexpresssentimentslikeshame,timidity,modesty,ortoexpress,asifinawhisper,anacknowledgment.Asfarastheinterpretationofthoughtsandsentimentsbymime,theknowledgeoftheJapaneseschoolisinexhaustible."

1Inaword,artisticexpression,alwaysloyaltotheprincipleofsuggestionandsimplicity,isreducedtoitsessentialcontours,everythingsuperfluousbeingcategoricallyforbidden.

Intheater,suggestionoftheinfinitefindsexpressionnotonlyintheingenioussimplicityofthe"muteart,"butalsointheoriginal

techniqueofthehanamichi,"flowerpaths."Hanamichiareextensionsofthestageoutintotheauditorium,twowalkwaysatstagelevelcrossingthetheaterpit

atrightangles.

2Theyare,asitwere,dynamiclinesgivingindicationofeternity.Theyenablethespectatorstobefreed,firstfromthetheatricallimitsofspaceandtime,andthenfromcosmiclimits.Actiononaplatform,facingthespectators,canonlybeplayedintwodimensions.Inspiteofalltheactivity,itremainsforthestatichanamichitoinstilladynamicsense.Atfirsttheygivetotheactionathirddimension,andthenafourth,time,andfinallyaninfinitedimension,themetaphysical.Whensomesuperhumanadvancesfromthestageononeofthehanamichi,whenhepassesbehindandthenagainbeforeus,weoftenfeelashudder.Hehascomefromafarawayandunknownworld.Hereindicated,heresuggested,istheinfinite.Whenanoldanddevotedvassal,fallenintodisgracethroughtoomuchrectitudeandsincerity,leavinghisyoungandlicentiouslordamongtheladiesofthegayquarters,goesalongthehanamichiwithheavystep,tearsinhiseyes,oursoulsareledalongthesamepathandwiththesameheavysteps,stepswerepeatsoofteninlifeateveryoccasionofseparation,aseparationatonceandalwaystemporalandeternal.Andsometimes,whentwodespairingloversaregoingtodietogether,whoisthespectatorwhodoesnotwanttostrewtheirpathwithflowers,hopingwithallhisheartthatthis"flowerpath"willbecomeapathleadingtheloverstothehappylandofthelotusofAmitabha?Thankstothesehanamichi,indicatorsoftheinfinite,thespectatorplungesintothesweetplenitudeofeternityandaspirestothespirituallightthatcomesfrombeyond.

APeasantHeIsWEhaveinJapantheproverb:itisthepeasantwhoboastsofhiscountry.Hewhounderstandsthisproverbwillfindspeakingofhiscountryadifficulttask.Therewhereonesimplyrendersjusticetoone'scountry,oneisexposedtoamaliciousinterpretationwherebyoneisdepictedinthecolorsofvanity.Whythenspeakofmycountry?BecausewhileIhavebeenlivinginEuropeIhaveeverywhereexperiencedalackofunderstandinginregardtoit.Ihavenotbeenastonishedbythis;itissofaraway,beyondPersia,beyondIndia,beyondChina.There,amongtheeternalwavesofthePacific,reststheislandoftheRisingSun.Thedifferencebetweenthecustomsofthisisland'sinhabitantsandthecustomsofthoseinEuropeisasgreatasthedistanceisfar.

Certainly,thereareEuropeanswhohavetraveledtoJapan.Buthow,livinginaEuropeanstylehotel,canoneunderstandthiscountry?EventhosewhoremaininJapanseveralyears,leadingthelifeoftheJapanesethemselvesandspeakingpassablygoodJapanese,donotgenerallyknowhowtoreadthelanguage.Theexceptionsareveryrare.Thecharactersatoncesymbolicandphoneticareanenigmasealedwithsevenseals.Howcanthesoulofacountrybepenetratedifonedoesnothaveaccesstoitsliterature,aboveallwhenthecountryhassuchasingularandcomplicatedcivilization?Yetsomehavetheadmirableaudacitytotranscribetheirimpressionsandobservations.Mistakenthemselves,theymisleadothers,allthewhilepassinginEuropeasconnoisseursofJapan.AtravelerarrivinginJapanstatesfrankly:"Aboardthetrans-SiberianexpressIhadleisureenoughtopreparemyself,andyeteachandeveryparticularitysurprisedmetothehighestdegree.Itwasanotherworldentirely,absolutelyforeign."Andheconfessesattheendofhisbook,whilerecountinghis

departureaboardship,theislandhavingpassedfromview:"WhileIwastakenwithnostalgiaforthisstrangecountry,IperceivedmoreandmoreclearlythatI

hadunderstoodnothingatall."Hehadreasonenoughtosayso.NoneedthentorepeatwhyIamnotastonishedthatinEuropemycountryislittleunderstood.

Yetthiscountryismynativeland.Iloveitandamdeeplyattachedtoit.Notonlydoesmyentirebeingbelongtoit,butIoweitalltheaspectsofmysoul,allthenuancesofmyheart.Iwouldhardlypayheedtomycountrybeingignored.ButIamsaddenedeachtimethatIrunacrossfalseideasinregardtoit.Ahwell!Iwillspeakofmycountry,Iwillevenriskbeingapeasant.Butitwillnotbeaquestionofpolitics,norofcommerce,norofthearmyandnavy.Letusleavetothesidesuperficialthings.Iwillspeakofthatwhichliesinthedepthsofusall.IwillspeakoftheJapanesesoulandofitsmoralcivilization.

TheJapaneseSoulWHATISTHEJAPANESESOUL?LISTENtothefamousverseofMotoori,scholaroftheseventeenthcentury:

IfoneasksWhatistheJapanesesoul?ItisthemountaincherryblossomExhalingitsperfumeinthemorninglight.

DoyouknowthecherryblossomsofJapan?Theyarethecolorofdew.Sosoonhavetheyblossomed,thesoftbreezemakesthemfall.Theyremainonthetreesbutseveraldays.Themeaningofthisverse,comparingtheJapanesesoultotheseblossoms,isitnottheexpressionofthemelancholyoflife,nolessoftheworld?Itsignifiesthatthesoulisalwaysreadytoofferitselfup,andtodieforitsideal.Themorninglight,itisthemoralideal,thatsamelightaboutwhichPlatospeaksinhisallegoryofthecave.Thisverseexpressesanabsolutecontemptforallthatismaterial.Inshort,wehavehereidealism.

TravelingbyseaMybodyunderwater,TravelingmountainsMybodyundergrass,Ah,letmediebythesideofmyemperor!

Inthisverseoftheeighteenth-centurypoetOotomo

*noYakamochi,thesamesentimentisfound.Theemperorisonlyaconcreteexampleoftheideal.Inthisepochtheemperoristheincarnationoftheideal.

IssuchmoralsentimentextinctinmodernJapan?Thenameof

GeneralNogiisnotunknowninEurope.Hewasthecommander-in-chiefofthearmyduringtheRusso-JapaneseWarof1904-5.Afterthewarhebecamethe

presidentofaschoolforyoungnoblesandshowedhimselfasupremeexampleofthesousnobility.OnthedayoftheMeijiemperor'sfuneralhecommitted"seppuku,"formerlyameansofdeathreservedforsamuraiandconsistingintheopeningupofthestomachwithasword.MostEuropeanswillnotunderstandthisevent.

1Theywillsayitisthebarbarichabitofsacrificingoneselffortheemperor.Thisattachmenttotheemperorwillbeseenasadmirable,butaslackinginanyrealedification.Somethingignorantandnaivewillbeseenthere.Yet,inmyopinion,justthisnegativeappreciationisconfessionofignoranceandnaïveté.DuringthesiegeofPortArthurhundredsofmenperisheddayandnight.Buttheforthadtobetakenbyanymeans.Thefateofthecountrydependedonit.TwoofNogi'ssons,officers,alsofell.Receivingsuchunhappynews,thegeneralwaseachtimeconsoledbythethoughtthathehadofferedtohiscountryhisdearestrelations.OnthedayofthefallofPortArthur,theverydaywhenthecountrysanghymnsinhispraise,Nogidecidedtokillhimself.Hehadsentsomanysoldierstotheirdeaths.Hewasresponsibleforsomanysacrifices.Hefeltthenecessityofalsorenouncinghisownlife.Buttwofeelingsofdutywereatoddswithinhim.Theemperorstilllived.Thus,thegeneraldecidedtopostponehisowndeathtillthedayoftheemperor'sdeath.

ThecondemnationofsuicideisaprejudiceofChristianity.TheancientGreeksdidnotholdsuchaview.Suicidewasforthemoftenarationalexit.ChristiandogmahaspenetratedsomanyEuropeansoulsthattheyfindthemselvesatpresentunconsciouslyundertheyokeofthisprejudice.Istherenotsomethingignorantandnaivehere?Schopenhauerinthisrespectisarareexample.Heviewedsuicidedirectlyandwithoutveil,inspiteofwhateverotherbiashemighthavepossessed.InthecaseofGeneralNogiitisoftensaid:Ifhehad

continuedtoconsecratetherestofhislifetotheeducationofyouth,withtheabsolutedisinterestednessofhischaracter,surelyhewouldhavedonemoreforhiscountry.Hisconceptionofdutywasentirelywrong.Thosewhosaythisignorethemoralforceofthetragicheroismwhichsurpassesmediocrereasoning.Thefeebleclarityofreasonvanishesbeforethegreatlightbornfromdarkness.WhataprofoundimpressionNogi'ssuicidelefttoyouthfulsouls!WearehappytohaveoneNogiinsteadofthousandsofmoralistsandpriests.Thuswesay:

ItisthemountaincherryblossomExhalingitsperfumeinthemorninglight.

AndifEuropeancivilizationcondemnsthismoralidea,weforourpartwillcondemnthiscivilization,solongasitremainsblindtothenobilityandheroismofthehumansoul.

TimeIsMoneyUPuntil1868,theyearoftheMeijiRestoration,weinJapanhadfourcastes:bushi,

1farmers,artisans,andmerchants.Ourmoralidealwas"thewayofthebushi,"constitutingitself,aboveall,invaliance,inthenobilityofthesoul,andingenerosity.Themerchants,lastintherankofcastes,metwithgreatcontempt.Togiveanexamplefromliterature,Turayuki,tenth-centurypoetandcritic,inspeakingofversescomposedofwordsatoncepretty,butwithoutcorrespondencetotheirsubject,comparedthemtomerchantsdressedinfineclothing.Doubtlessthiscontemptformerchantsandforcommercewasfromallpointsofviewunjust.YetonthewholeIdarecongratulatethiscasteorderoncepossessedbyus,sinceitclearlyservedintheformationofourcountry'sideal.Andifthiscasteordernolongerexists,themoralidealsurvivesit.Thus,wehavebeennourishedandhavegrowninanatmosphereremovedfromthatofbanksandshops.

IrememberasummereveningseveralyearsagointheloungeofoneofthemostluxurioushotelsinDeauville.ThemusicianshadjustfinishedplayingthemeditationofThais,whosemelodystillresoundeddelightfullyinmyear,whenaladyinagoldeveninggownaddressedmewithamarvelouslyharmonizedcharmanddistinction.Shespoketome,amongotherthings,ofherbrotherinChicago,whonumberedamonghisfriendsseveralJapanesediplomats.Heisanengineer,shesaid,andadded:"Youknow,thatvocationisveryprosperous."IalsorememberawintersojourninNice.OnahotelbusslowlydescendingtheBoulevarddeCimiez,Iwascontemplatingthesweetnessofthemimosas,whenmydreamwasbrusquelyinterrupted

byanaccentuatedvoice:"Veryexpensive,isn'tit?"Alady,sittingfacingme,wearingagreenoutfitandgreenhat,abraceletencrustedwithemeraldsonherwrist,wasspeakingwithherneighboronIdonotknowwhatsubjectandrepeatedonceagain:"Veryexpensive!"

Evenwithallgoodwillitisdifficultforustoimaginethiskindofmentalitywhichactsandspeaksalwaysaccordingtothelawtothedollar'sweight,thisnecessityofthemindtobringeverythingdowntothelevelofmoney.Forourtastetheugliestproverbimaginablewouldbe:Timeismoney.Nevertheless,itisthisproverbwhichisadoptedandworshippedinallpartsoftheworld.Borninthenewworld,itvictoriouslyinvadestheold.Now,thisbeingthecase,willwetoosay:Well!Shallwenotalsoplay?Oursisadifferentlogic.Wewouldsay:Weatleastshalltakeacontrarypath!

InTheMannerOfHerodotusIWILL,now,inthemannerofHerodotus,relatesometrivialthings.Butwhoknowsiftheremightnotbesomethingimportantintriviality?Justastheirskyisdifferent,andjustastheirriversareofanaturedifferentfromothercountries,theJapaneseintheirmoresandcustomsareentirelycontrarytoEuropeans.Forexample:inthestreetwomenwalkbehind,menahead.

Etc.,etc....LetterLeftright

1

Updown

BookLeftright RightleftAddressHowtogetridofsomeoneWomanahead,manbehind Womanbehind,manaheadShakingofhands Placingofthehandsinone's

lap(andabowingofthehead)Decolleté AbundanceofclothingTohide

thebodyBread RiceForkSilvernickel ChopsticksIvory,woodTodecoratewithallthatonehas TodecoratebutalittleToeat,standing Toeat,notstandingToenterahomewithshoes Totakeoffone'sshoesWomenItisthemenwhoaremorefeminineandpolite.Womenarerepresentedasarmycommanders.

WomenMorefeminineandpolitethanmen

Thepouringofbird'seggs,milk,andbutteroverfish(toeatwithamayonnaisenotmixedwithmilkand

rawfishsashimifragranceofseaweedfragranceofthesea

mayonnaisenotmixedwithmilkandbutter)Women'sclothingLeftfront Women'sclothingRightfrontActorAwomanoftenplaysaman Inthetraditionaltheateraman

alwaysplaysawomanContinuedonnextpage

ContinuedfrompreviouspageTokissinthestreetsoastoshowothers

Tokissathomeinsecretsoastotasteagoodthingintimately

Blondeisthepreferredcolor BlackaslacquerMenClothingwithbuttons,toguardagainsttheattackofwomen

WomenSash,toguardagainsttheattackofmen

Toshrugtheshoulders(shrugtheshoulders,Epicurus181)

Tobendtheneck

Tepidbath HotbathWhatdegree?Toputsugarintea,hotwaterblacktea

Nottoputsugarintea,tepidwatergreentea

Artichoke Sansholeaves(bambooshoots)Tomakeasaucewithlittlepeas(miso)

Onlywomenusefans MenusefansName,surname(VictorHugo) Surname,name(HugoVictor)Wine(grapes) Sake(rice)Areyounotingoodhealth?Yes.

2

Areyounotingoodhealth?No.

SubjectAndGraftWHENin1549St.FrancisXavierfirstbroughttheevangelofChristtothisfarawayisland,Catholicismwasgreetedwithanincomparableardor.Notonlywerepeopleamongthemassesbaptized,butsotooseveraldaimyo

*.1Ashorttimelaterchurcheswereerected.Latinhymnssung.TheprohibitionoftheChristianreligionresultedafterSpanishmissionarieshadinasurreptitiousbutbanalwaymixedthemselvesupinpoliticsand,thus,menacedthepeaceofthecountry.Inordertopursuebelieversandinordertodistinguishthemfromothers,thegovernmentproducedwoodenandmetalplaquesbearingimagesinreliefofChristandtheVirgin.Theaccusedwereorderedtostepontheseplaques.Thosewhorefusedwereputtothecrossorburnedalive.HowmanyJapaneseSt.SebastiansandSt.Ceciliasdiedforthisfaith!IftherewereaChristianheaven,wouldtheseunknownmartyrsbeanythelesscelebratedandadoredtherethanthosecanonizedonearthbythepapacy?Withaseveritywithoutequalaprohibitionagainstthereligionenduredfortwoandone-halfcenturies.Itwastherevolutionof1868thatprovidedtoleranceandlibertyforallreligions.Christianity,thoughttohavebeencompletelyuprooted,suddenlyreappeared.InKyushu*,thesouthernislandofJapan,severalthousandinhabitantsproclaimedthemselvesCatholics.Holyimageshiddeninwallswereputup,prayerbooksconcealedunderfloorboardsweretakenout.

TodayonesometimesfindsschoolchildrenwithanImitationofJesusChristintheirpockets.TheautobiographyofSt.Theresaisfavoritereadingincertaincirclesofyounggirlsfrombetterfamilies.Oneof

myschoolcompanions,2aCatholic,choseforhisthesistopicatTokyoUniversity,thephilosophyofSt.Augustine.Afterhavingpassedhisexambrilliantly,hewenttoEuropetocontinuehisstudies.NeithertheSorbonnenortheUniversityofLouvaincouldsatisfythedesireinhisheart.HewenttoRome

andbecameapriest.ChristianityinJapanisnotasnegligibleasitmightseem.

Howcanthisrathersingularfactbeexplained?TosaythatitisthegraceofGodwouldsignifyarefusalofexplanation.Anexplanationinthepropersenseofthetermcanonlybegivenbysomeoneoutsidereligion,someoneabletojudgebymeansofreasonalone.Nowinthefirstplacewhatstrikesusaboutthisreligionisnotitsdogma,butitsethic.Dogmawiththemysteriousforcebelongingtoeveryreligiononlycomeslater.AtfirstitisJesus,dyingforhisideal,whocompelsoursincereadmiration.ThentheSermonontheMountawakensinusamelodiousecho.''Yearethesaltoftheearth:butifthesalthavelosthissavour,wherewithshallitbesalted?ForIsayuntoyou,'ExceptyourrighteousnessshallexceedtherighteousnessofthescribesandPharisees,yeshallinnocaseenterintothekingdomofheaven.'"Wehearavoicecondemningcategoricallythepoliticsofacertaincountry,apoliticswhichlovestospeakofjusticeandpeacebutwhichinrealitypracticessomethingresemblingitnotintheslightest."Butwhenthoudoestalms,letnotthylefthandknowwhattheyrighthanddoeth:thatthinealmsmaybeinsecret."

Hewhoexpresseshimselfinthiswayhasatastequitedifferentfromthosewhomakeashowoftheirso-calleddonations."Enteryeinatthestraitgate:forwideisthegate,andbroadistheway,thatleadethtodestruction,andmanytherebewhichgointhereat:becausestraitisthegate,andnarrowistheway,whichleadethuntolife,andfewtherebethatfindit!"WeseebeforeusamanwhourgesustofollowuponapathnotsoverydifferentfromourBushido

*,"thewayofthebushi."AndwhenwereadinTheLittleFlowersofSt.FrancisAssisithathegavetoabeggarallthathepossessed,theHolyBibleitself,thisstorystrikesusbyrevealingtoustheabsolutepurityofthesoul.Wefindheresomethingtrueandvaliant.Tomany

ofourcompatriots,Christianityappearswithfascinatingattraction.

AnatoleFrancewrote:"Abeautifulverseislikeabowdrawnacrossthestringsofoursenses.Itisnothisownthoughts,itisourstowhichthepoetgivesvoice."Itisthesameinthedomainofmorals.Whatsoundsinourheartfacedwithanewideaisnotalwaysitsnovelty,butpreciselythatpartoftheideawhichwealreadyhavewithinusandwhichwerecognizewithdelightasourown.Ahorticulturistknowswellthatinordertomakeagoodgraftitisfirstnecessarytochooseasuitablesubject.

GeishaINEuropethedemi-mondainesarethe"half-dead."Theyareexiledfromtheworld,hors-mondaines.Peopleare,thus,astonishedtolearnthatinJapanthegeishaplayacertainroleinsociety.Theyoccupyarankalmostlikethatofthehataerae,courtesansofAncientGreece.ItissaidthattherewerehataeraewhofrequentedthegardenofEpicurus.Oneofthem,Leontio,wroteasubtlepieceagainstTheophrastus,peripateticphilosopher.Then,thereisthisfamousdictum:"IcannotatallrememberyoubecauseIhaveneverforgottenyou."Thispsychologicaltruth,expressedinanexquisiteform,andaddressingthemetaphysicalproblemoftruth,weowetoaloveletterwrittenbyaneruditedemi-mondaineofeighteenth-centuryEdo(Tokyo).PoetessessimilartoBilitisarenotlackinginJapan.Itisimportanttoknowthatinordertobecomeageisha,arigorousexaminationinmusicanddancemustbeundergone.Theidealofthegeisha,atoncemoralandaesthetic,thatwhichiscallediki,isaharmoniousunionofvoluptuousnessandnobility.

Christianitycondemnstheflesh.OneofthemostunfortunateconsequencesofthishasbeenthepitiableandperversestateintowhichcertainwomeninEuropehavefallen.Abandoned,theyareleftwithouthope.Absolutedegradationistheresult.AndwithfewexceptionsmostEuropeanshavelost,itseems,thecapacitytojudgethesethingswithoutprejudice.ForChristianityandforthoseunconsciouslyundergoingitsinfluence,thereisinthisregardonlytheonealternativebetweenheavenandhell.Itisfromthispointofviewthatonejudgesoneselfandothers.Butdoesnottrueidealismconsistinsupressinghellinordertoreplaceitwithpurgatory?TosellthefleshinsinisanavariceundignifiedofGod,astransformingwineintopoisonanabsurdityundignifiedofmen.Toprohibitoftenmeans

takingthepathofabandonment.Toabolishiseasy,toaccomplishisdifficult.Anidealismexcludingrealismisapseudo-idealism.Itcontentsitselfwith

astonishingfacilitywithdualism.Ontheotherhand,sensualpleasureanimatedbyanoblespiritistestamenttoagreatidealistcivilization.ItisthereasonwhyBaudelaire,forexample,hassomanyadmirersinJapan.Theprincipleofcontradictioncanclaimrightonlyinthedomainofformallogic.Insteadofthenegativejudgment,toappreciateinlifethepositivemeaninginthelimitativejudgmentisthekeytoatrueidealism."Becausethedepthmustactinorderthatlovemaybe."Hewhounderstandsthemeaningofthesewordsunderstandstheraisond'êtreofthegeishaandtheirsocialsituation.Besides,itisaprofoundmanwhoisabletosaytoMephisto:Ah,you,sensualandsupersensualgalant!

TwoScenesFamiliarToChildrenINordertocultivateouraesthetictaste,itisnecessaryfromtimetotimetocontemplatethemasterpiecesofartwehaveknownsincechildhood.Theylivewithinus,theygrowwithinus.Eachtimewereturntothem,wefindtheyhaveacquirednewaspects,wefindthatanunknowndepthhasallthewhilebeenestablishingitselfthere.Thus,wecometoadmirethesepieceswithnewastonishment.Masterpieces,however,mustneednotexistsolelyinthedomainofart.Theycanalsobeofamoralnature,thosethehumanhearthaspaintedonthecanvasofhistory.Here,then,aretwopiecesfamiliartoallJapanesechildren.

Itwasinthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury,thetimeofJapanesefeudalism.KenshinUesugiandShingenTakeda,mortalenemies,struggledagainstoneanotherwithoutcease.ThefirstpossessedEtigo,landextendingtothesea,whereasthelatterpossessedKai,aprovincesurroundedbymountains.AttheverymomentinwhichUesugiattackedKaifromallsides,Takedaandhissubjectsweresufferingfromalackofsalt,saltinJapanbeingobtainableonlyfromthesea.Knowinghisenemytobeingreatmisery,Uesugisenthimagreatquantityofsalt.Theenemymustbedefeatedbyforceofarms,notbyothermeans.

Duringthe"NineYearsWar"oftheeleventhcentury,Yoshiie,leaderoftheemperor'spartypursuedSadato

*Abe,enemyleader.Bothrodeonhorseback.Sadato,losinggroundtohispursuer,improvisedatanka,wroteitonapieceofpaperandattachedittoanarrowheletflyatYoshiie.Thearrowlodgedinthearmorofthepursuer,Yoshiie,whowasabletoreadtheselines:

ForyearsSufferingwear

TheentangledthreadsAlas,Koromonotate,Comeundone:

1

Hisheartmovedtopity,Yoshiiegaveuphispursuit.

Thatthingssuchasthiscouldhappentodayinthesamewaycannotbebelieved,unlessoneisaDonQuixote.Yetthematerialisalwaysthere,impatientlywaitingtobefashionedbywayofthecreativeform.Thechangeintimeswouldonlyrequireafewmodifications.CanwenothopetofindthespiritofKenshinUesugiinthemilieuoftheofficercorpsofamodernarmy?Canwenothopetofindthisnoblespirit,opposedasitistothedictumoftheJesuits,dictuminwhichtheendjustifiesthemeans?AndmightitnotbedesiredthatapeacetreatypiouslyinvokethesoulofYoshiie?Canwenothopetofindthissensitivesoul,knowingasitdoeshowtopardonanenemyindesperatestraits?Thehistoryofhumanityisahistoryalwaysthirstingforloveandlight.Whosaysthatidealismisachimera.Idealismbecomesachimeraonlyatthatmomentinwhichweallowourselvestoloseholdofourfaithinitsrealization.

GeneralCharacteristicsOfFrenchPhilosophyMESDAMES,MESSIEURS,Permitme,now,torepeatinFrenchinasomewhatabridgedform,whatIhavejustpronouncedinJapaneseregardingthegeneralcharacteristicsofFrenchphilosophy.

Philosophyisaformofknowledgewhosegoalconsistsinseizingthetruthoftheuniverse.Nowifthetruthwereoneandabsolute,philosophicalknowledgewouldhaveuniversalvalidity,and,consequently,philosophywouldbethesameforall.However,thesubjectcreatingphilosophyisanindividual.Oneofcoursemaysupposethattruthisoneandunique;nonetheless,themannerinwhichitisseizedrevealsacharacterspecifictotheindividual.Nowtheassemblageofindividuals,geographicallyandhistoricallyconditioned,constitutestheraceandnation.Anationhasitsowncivilization,andthephilosophyofanationhasitsowncharacter.Thus,IndianandChinesephilosophydifferbynationaltraits.Thus,GermanphilosophyisdistinguishedfromFrenchphilosophy.

Thisrelationbetweentheuniversalityandparticularityofknowledgemaybeobservedinphilosophyaswellasinpositivescience.TheGreekspossessedanespecialfeelingfortheplasticform;theylovedtogeometricizetheirmathematicalproblems,providing,thus,strikingcontrastwiththeentirelyabstractmathematicsofIndia.Wefindthesamethinginphysics.Thelawofenergywasdiscoveredontheoccasionofastudyofheat.ThedifferingwaysinwhichCarnot,RobertMayer,andJoulecarriedouttheirstudiespermitsustodiscernclearlythedifferentnationalitiesofthesescientists.InpsychophysicsFechner'smethodofminimalmodificationandPlateauandDelboeufsmethodofaveragegradationsrevealtousthenationalitiesofthesemen.

Theidealofknowledgeseeks,doubtless,universality.Pasteursaid:"Sciencehasnocountry."YetIhavejustpresentedseveralexamples

showingthatintheresearchmethodsofknowledgesomethinglikeanationaldivisionoflaborobtains.Andinphilosophy,aboveall,differencesinmethodoftendonotabstainfromimposingthemselvesonideas.

What,then,aretheessentialcharacteristicsofFrenchphilosophy?Atfirstitisinnerobservationwhichplaysaverygreatrole.AlreadyitistobefoundinDescartes,thetitleofhisfirstbook,Meditations,servingasindication.Thefirsttruth,"Cogito,ergosum,""Ithink,therefore,Iam,"isnotanargument.Ifitwereanargument,themajorpremise,"Allofthatwhichthinksis,orexists,"wouldhavepreviouslybeenknownandthefirsttruthwould,therefore,havelostitsprimacy.Descartes'spointofdeparturewasnotabstractlogic;thatwhichhewantedtosaywassimply"Sumcogitans,''"Iamthinking."Descarteshimselfexplained,itis"athingknownbyitself,""athingseenbyasimpleinspectionofthemind";itisanintuition.Descartes,atoneandthesametimetheinitiatorofmodernphilosophyandtheinitiatorofFrenchphilosophy,showedthepossibilityoffoundingphilosophyoninnerobservation.Pascalwantedtounderstandthatinnerlifefilledwithanguish.Malebranche,asidefromhisefforttofashionasystem,exhibitedasplendidtalentforpsychologicalobservation.Rousseaualsoexcelledinanalyzingtheinnerlife.TheideologiststakingleavefromCondillacalsotestifiedtothesametendency.Andthen,aboveall,MainedeBiran,whosaidofhimself,"Iam,bymynature,devotedtoinnerapperception,andIhave,forthatwhichtakesplaceinsideme,thekindofcertaintactwhichothermenhaveforexternalobjects."Accordingtohimitisnecessarytoturnawayfromlogicalabstractioninordertoseizetheconcretetruthbymeansofan"immediateapperception."Hecomparedthemethodofintrospectiontotheworkofaminerfollowingamultitudeofsubterraneandetours,andhehopedthatonedayanewinnerworldwouldbediscoveredbysomeColumbusofmetaphysics.The

"primitivefact"ofhisphilosophywas"Iwill,Iact,therefore,Iexist."Ravaissonalsothoughtitpossibletoerect"theintimateintuitionofourselvesbyourselves"intoknowledgeofabsolutereality.LachelierwroteabookentitledPsychologyandMetaphysics,andheaffirmedthat"thehigheststageinpsychologyisbutonewithmetaphysics."AsforM.Bergson,thetitleofhisfirstbookcharacterizeshismethodverywell:EssayontheImmediateGivensofConsciousness.AndhisworkCreativeEvolutionbeginswiththesewords:"Theexistenceofwhichwearemostassuredandofwhichweknowbestisincontestablyourown,becauseifwehavenotionswhichcouldbejudgedexternalandsuperficialofeveryotherobject,ofourselvesourperceptionisinternal,profound.Whatthendowefind?Whatis,inthisprivilegedcase,theprecisemeaningofthewordexist?"HismannerofposingtheproblemisentirelyCartesian.Whatismore,Bergsonconsciouslyavoidsallabstract

andgeneralizingconstructions;hetriestoseizerealityinternallybyintuition.

Thissamepenchantforinnerobservationcanalsobefoundinoneparticulardisciplineofphilosophy:inpsychology.InGermanythemethodinfavoristhatofexperimentalpsychologyinthelaboratory.InFranceitis,aboveall,pathologicalpsychologywhichinternallyobservesmorbidphenomena.Thegiftofinnerobservationmanifestsitselfhereinallitsforce.

ThesecondessentialtraitofFrenchphilosophycanbefoundinitsalliancewithpositivescience.Descartesis,ofcourse,testamenttothis.Heisnotonlythecreatorofanalyticgeometry,heis,infact,founderofmodernmechanicalphysics.ItisDescarteswhoinitiatedtheapplicationofmathematicalmethodtonatureinitsentirety.Omnia,apudme,mathematicefiunt,hesaid.Toreducemattertoextension,physicstogeometry,suchwashisideal.Einstein,itissaid,realizedthisCartesianidealinhistheoryofgeneralrelativity.Pascaldistinguishedhimselfatthesametimeasmathematicianandphysicist.Intheeighteenthcentury,Frenchmaterialismwasnothinglessthantheconsequenceoftheexcessiveapplicationofthemathematicalmethod,andnumerousphilosopherswereatthistimemathematicians,naturalists,anddoctors:D'Alembert,Bonnet,LaMettrie,Cabanis,etc.Inthenineteenthcentury,Ampère,whoattachedhimselftoMainedeBiran,wasknownasoneofthegreatphysicists.AugusteComte,Cournot,Renouvier,wereatfirstmathematicians.ThepositivephilosophyofComteischaracterizedassystematizationofthepositivesciences.Cournotunveiledtherelationexistingbetweenthecalculationofprobabilitiesandthephilosophyofcontingency.Renouvierfoundedhisphilosophyofdiscontinuityonacritiqueofinfinitesimalmathematics.AndincontemporaryphilosophyHenriPoincaréisamathematicianofgenius.MonsieurLeRoyisalsoamathematician.PierreDuhemisaphysicist,M.Emile

Meyersonachemist.M.Bergsonalreadyinhisyouthdistinguishedhimselfbyhismathematicaltalent,andhisworkDurationandSimultaneity,writteninordertocriticizetheideaoftimeinthetheoryofEinstein,testifiestohiscompetenceinmattersofmathematics.Hisprofoundknowledgeofbiologyandphysiologyismanifested,aboveall,inMatterandMemoryandinCreativeEvolution.Andmanyphysiologistsrecognizeasdefinitivehisstudiesonaphasia.Othercontemporaryphilosophers,suchasHannequin,Couturat,andM.Brunschvicg,areequallyknownfortheirknowledgeofmathematicsandphysics.

InGermanyitisoftentheologianswhobecomephilosophers,Protestantism,inaccordingthemtheoccasiontoformreligiousideasbymeansoffreethought,havinggiventhematasteforphilosophy.InFrance,onthe

contrary,itisscientistswhooftenbecomephilosophers.Inanycase,onaccountofthisliaisonbetweenphilosophyandpositivescience,thereisinFrance,asnowhereelse,aparticulardisciplineknownasthe"philosophyofscience."Thisphilosophyofscienceisareflectionuponscientificmethods,anelucidationoftheirsignification,value,andlimits.InthisregardthenamesofHenriPoincaré,Duhem,andMeyersonareparamount.

Athirdessentialtraitisthatofthedualisttendency.Whereasthefirstandsecondtraitsrelatetophilosophicalmethod,thisthirdtraittouchestheveryfoundationofFrenchphilosophy.ThephilosophyofDescartesisofthedualisttype.Soulandbody,thoughtandextension,natureandlibertysucharetheantitheses.ThusPascalrecognizedtwoorgansofknowledge:espritdegeometrieandespritdefinesse.Totheonebelongsthedomainofabstractlogic,totheotherthedomainofsentimentandwill.MainedeBiranestablishedthatthehumansoultendstoaunionwithGodatthesametimethatittendstoaunionwiththebody,andhesaidthatthereis"adoubletendencywhichpreventsmanfromfindingreposeinpresentlife,insofarasheisthemanthatheis.Themostelevated,thepurestsoulsareoftendominatedbyaterrestrialtendency,andthosewhohavemostcompletelyabandonedthemselvestoanimallifearemostoftentormentedbyneedsofanothernature....Allcreaturesmoan."Hisphilosophyproposestounderstandthismoraldualityand,consequently,placesinoppositionpassiveaffectibilityandvoluntarymotility,sensationandperception,passionandaction,necessityandliberty.ThereisalsoinAugusteComte,asidefromhispositivephilosophy,hisreligionofhumanity;asidefromhisrathernegativeearlyphilosophy,thereishistrulypositivelaterphilosophy.Andlastly,thephilosophyofM.BergsonissometimescharacterizedasamoderntransformationofCartesiandualism.Intuitionandintelligence,arthropodaandvertebrae,duréeandsimultaneity,matter

andmemorywefindhereBergsoniandualism.

Inshort,toexamineFrenchphilosophythroughitsgreatphilosophersisalmostalwaystofinddualism.AmonistsystemsuchastheoneofSpinozaorHegelisunfindableinFrenchphilosophy,andif,perchance,aphilosophersoughtamonistsolution,itismorethancertainthathewouldnotsucceedinFrance.AlfredFouillée,forexample,triedtoreconcilenecessityandfreedombymeansoftheconceptionoftheidea-force;needlesstosay,heisnothighlyesteemedinFrance.

Thisdualisttendencyisrooted,itseemstome,inthefactthatFrenchphilosophyfromthetimeofDescarteshasstrivenalwaysandaboveallforclearanddistinctideas.Clearanddistinctknowledgeistypifiedbythecategoricaljudgmentintheprincipleofidentity:AisA.Andtheidealcaseoftheknowledgeofcausalrelationsconsistspreciselyinprovingtheidentity

betweencauseandeffect,inexpressingthisbymeansofanequation.Causaaequateffectum.Consequently,toexplaintheeventsoftheuniversebymeansofcausalityisonlytoreduceallapparentnoveltiestoconditionsknownandancient,toreferallheterogeneitytohomogeneousandidenticalelements,asforexampleatoms.Toexplaintheuniverseis,inthissense,tomakeitvanishbymeansofitsexplanation.Theidealpursuitofaclearanddistinctknowledgewould,thus,leadtoanacosmism.Yetaslongaswekeepoureyesopentorealityitisimpossiblefortheuniversetovanishbeforetheadvanceoftheprincipleofidentity.Intheworldthereisalwayssomethingnewandheterogeneouswhichresistsarbitrarysuppression.Whenonepursuestheclarityofideastotheextreme,onenecessarilyfindsaresidueofobscureandincomprehensiblethings;thus,dualism,isjustified:rationalandirrational,scientificknowledgeandsentimentalpostulate.

InFrenchreligiousphilosophyseveralrepresentativesofCatholicmodernismseektofoundtheirtheoryonphilosophicaldualism.Forexample,M.LeRoysupportshisthoughtonBergsoniandualism,whilethedisciplesofM.MauriceBlondelliketoattachthemselvestothedualismofMeyerson.

Asafourthtrait,Frenchphilosophystrivesinseveralwaystobesocial.DescartessaidofhisworktheDiscourseonMethodthathewantedboththat"womenbeabletounderstandsomethingofit,andthatthesubtlestofmindsfindenoughmaterialinittooccupytheirattention."Ineffect,womenthemselvesunderstoodhisphilosophy,andphilosophybecamethecommongoodofall.LesfemmessavantesofMoliereisanechoofthis.

Therapprochementofphilosophyandsociallifeexplains,also,theexistenceofthosewritersknownasthe"greatmoralists"inFrenchliterature:Montaigne,LaRochefoucauld,LaBruyère,Vauvenargues,

and,perhaps,Alainasacontemporarywriter.

Frenchpedagogyhasalsogivengreatimportancetophilosophy.Inthe"philosophyclass"inthelycée,philosophylessonsoccupyeightandone-halfhoursaweek.Pupilsmustbearmedwithaphilosophicaleducationbeforemakingtheirentryintosociety.

Stillanotherimportantpoint.InGermanyphilosophersoftencreatenewwordsinconsequenceofwhichphilosophybecomes,bytheverynatureofitsform,difficulttounderstand.Thus,philosophyremainslimitedtoanarrowcircle.Frenchphilosophers,onthecontrary,takeupasatasktheexplicationoftheirthoughtintermsaccessibletothepublic.Theytrytofindequivalentsfornewideasinacombinationofsubtlebutcommonlyusedterms.

AndthenFrenchphilosophyis,veryoften,socialinitsverydepths.Inthisregard,wecancompareNietzscheandGuyau,twoeminentphilosophersof

life.Nietzschewasanti-social,"thegreatsolitaire."Guyau,onthecontrary,wassocial;inhisversewecanread:

Thiswordsosweet,sodeartoheart:Freedom,AndyettoitIdopreferanother:Solidarity.Agathering,aconcert,suchislifeforme.

Hismoralidealwas"themostintensiveandmostextensivelifepossible."Extensive,thatistosaysocial.Hesawinreligionnotonlyanthropomorphism,butalsosociomorphism.Inaestheticshemaintainedthataestheticsentimentmustbesocial.Hesaidinhisverse:

Asvirtue,artmustbegenerous:WhenIseethebeautiful,Iwanttobetwo.

HewroteabookentitledArtfromtheSociologicalPointofView.Inaddition,theaestheticworkofM.Bergson,Laughter,isequallyconstructedfromthesociologicalpointofview.

Finally,sociologyasaparticulardisciplinewasfoundedinFrance,andthe"sociological"schoolofDurkheimandhisdiscipleswishestoexplainbysocietyaloneallspiritualproducts.Itgoessofarastoinsistthatevenlogicalcategoriesareconditionedintheirgenesisbysociety.Doubtlessitisaboldaffirmation,butitisonlyoneofthemanifestationsoftheFrenchspirit.

ThusfarIhaveenumeratedfouressentialcharacteristicsofFrenchphilosophy:

(1)innerobservation,

(2)thealliancewithpositivescience,

(3)thedualisttendency,

(4)thetasteforsociallife.

Perhapsthesefourcharacteristicscouldbereducedtoonealone:contactwithreality.Thepenchantforinnerobservation,ontheonehand,andtheintimateliaisonwithpositivescience,ontheother,areonlyreflectionsoftheneedtograspasmuchinternalandexternalrealityaspossible.And,then,thatphilosophytakesadualistformisoftenexplainedbythefactthatthisverydualityisfoundinreality.Finally,thesocialcharacterofphilosophytestifies,aboveall,tothetendencytoesteemconcretereality,placingtheindividualinsocietyandinrelationtosocietyinsteadofmakingoftheindividualanisolatedbeingbymeansofabstraction.

Inclosing,permitmetomakeseveralremarksontherelationofthesegeneralcharacteristicsofFrenchphilosophytoJapanesephilosophy.First

ofall,innerobservationisjustlytheBuddhistmethod,morespecifically,themethodofZen.ZenisDhyana

*,thatistosay,meditation.Now,Buddhismteachestheeternalflowofthings,oftenemployingtheimageofflowingwater.AndBergsonianphilosophyisrecognizedasthephilosophyofthedurée,sometimesexpressedinjustthisimageof"flowingwater."Thiscoincidencedoesnotseemtometobetheresultofchance,ratheritappearstometobethecommonresultofanalogousmethods.Inaddition,M.Nishida,ourcontemporaryphilosopher,accordsaverygreatimportancetointuition.

Secondly,inJapanesephilosophy,atleastupuntilnow,onescarcelyfindsaliaisonbetweenphilosophyandpositivescience.Japanesephilosophyhasalwaysbeeninclinedtowardseitherreligionorethics.Ofcourse,itwillbeinterestingtoobservefuturedevelopments,becauseitisnowpossibletofindthinkerswhoareatthesametimescientists,orwhowereatfirstscientists.

Thirdly,theOrientisattractedbyadualisticformofcomprehension,symbolizedintheleafofourginkgotree.Buddhismisadualismposingatthesametimeflowasformofthedomainofdifference,andnothingnessasprincipleofthedomainofequality.ThedualismofyinandyangintheIChing,aswellasthedualismofliandkiintheSungschool,aredeartous.ThephilosophyofM.Nishidaoftenpresentsitselfasadualismofnoemaandnoesis,ofscientificknowledgeandthepostulateofthewill.

Fourthly,philosophyinJapanisnotsocial,ortobemoreexact,isnotyetsocial.Tomakephilosophysocialremainsacommontaskforourphilosophersandforoursociety.Philosophyisnotdessicatedandabstractknowledge.Toseizethepalpitationoflife,tofeeltheshiver

oflifethatisphilosophy.Wemuststrive,asM.Bergsonsays,"tomakephilosophyexitfromtheschoolsoastouniteitwithlife!"

Notes

JapaneseTheater

1.AlbertMaybon,LeThâtrejaponais(Paris,1925),p.76.

2.Severalyearsago,IwasdelightedtofindthetechniqueofthehanamichiemployedinaParisianmusic-hallontheChampsElysees*.ReturningtherethisyearIfindthe"music-hall"transformedintoa"dance-hall."

TheJapaneseSoul

1.InregardtoGeneralNogi'ssuicide,aswellasthequestionsofloyaltyandseppukuinJapaneseculture,thereadercanprofitfromthehistoricalfictionofOgai*Mori,particularly

fromhis"TheLastTestamentofOkitsuYagoemon"(forthethemeofNogi)andfromhis"TheIncidentatSakai"(bothinTheIncidentatSakaiandOtherStories,ed.andtr.D.DilworthandJ.T.Rimer[Honolulu,1977]).ThethemeofNogi'ssuicidecanalsobefoundinSoseki

*Natsume'snovelKokoro,tr.E.McClellan(SouthBend,1977).Trans.

TimeisMoney

Thephrase"Timeismoney,"bothinthetitleofthisessayandinthetext,aswellasinallquotations,isinEnglishintheoriginaltext.Trans.

1.Samurai.Trans.

IntheMannerofHerodotus

1.KukiusedbothFrenchandJapaneseinthewritingofthispiece.AllitalicizedwordswereoriginallyinJapanese,thenonitalicizedwordsinFrench.Trans.

2.Intheoriginalversion,KukiheregivesareferencetoJapond'aujourd'hui,p.98.Trans.

SubjectandGraft

1.Greatfeudalnobles.Trans.

2.Kuki'sclassmateattheDaiichiKotogakko*,Soichi*Iwashita.Trans.

TwoScenesFamiliartoChildren

1.Koromonotate,placenamesignifying"houseofclothes,"andthus"entangledthreads"and"comeundone."(Evenwiththisexplanatory

notethedeepresonanceoftheoriginaldoesnotcomethrough.There,theplaybetweenKoromonotate,ito-no-midare[entangledthreads],andhokorobi[comeundone,unsewn]producesamarvelouseffect.)Trans.

PARTFOUR"MONSIEURSARTRE"ANOTEBOOKByShuzoKuki

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INDEX

AAbe

,Jiro,5

Abe,Sadato*,89

Action(Blondel),19,37n.60

Aden-Arabie(Nizan),15

Aesthetics:

ofsimplicity,9,54,55,57,58,61;

ofsuggestion,9,12,53,54,56,60,62,66n.14,67n.27

SeealsounderArt,Japanese;Kuki,Shuzo*;Symbolism,French

Alain.SeeChartier,Emile-Auguste

Alembert,JeanLeRondd',93

Amano,Teiyu*,5,28nn.7,9,31n.16,35n.43,36n.47

Ampère,André-Marie,93

Anticipation.SeeunderTime

Architecture,Japanese,55

Aristotle:

Physics,6

Arnim,HansFriedrichvon:

Stoicorumveterumfragmenta,64n.9

Aron,Raymond,38n.75;

andintroductionofSartretophenomenology,3,23-24;

atPontigny,7,35n.46

Art,Japanese:

absenceofsymmetryin,56,65n.11;

absoluteidealismof,8-9,51-54,63;

ofAshikagaperiod,9,33n.30;

expressionofinfinitein,8-9,51-63,65-67;

andFrenchSymbolism,66n.14,67n.27;

generalcharacteristicsof,enumerated,62-63;

asinwardart,8,10-11,52-53,63;

liberationfromtimeandspacein,9,55-56,59-60;

spiritualityof,8-9,51-53;

triplesourceof,8-9,51-52

SeealsoAesthetics;Architecture,Japanese;Dance,Japanese;Music,Japanese;Painting,Japanese;Poetry,Japanese;Theater,Japanese

ArtfromtheSociologicalPointofView(Guyau),96

"ArtPoétique"(Verlaine),66n.14

Avadanasataku,*64n.6

Awano,Yasutaro*,26n.4

BBaruzi,Jean,35n.46

Basho*,57-59,66n.14

Baudelaire,Charles,66n.12,88

Beauvoir,Simonede,27n.6,37n.58,38nn.65,73,39n.81;

accountofSartre'sintroductiontophenomenologyof,3,20;

LaForcedeâge(ThePrimeofLife),3,23,26n.3

Becker,Oskar,6

Being,conceptof:inKuki-Sartrediscussions,16-17

Benda,Julien:LaTrahisondesclercs,13

Berdyaev,Nicolai,7,31n.19

Bergson,Henri,3,6,11,15,34n.34,36n.47,43;

critiqueofKantof,8,72;

duréeof,73-74;

innerobservationin,92;

andKuki,11-12,20,34-35n.41;

philosophicalmottoof,97;

receptioninJapanof,71-74;

relationtopositivescienceof,93;

andZenBuddhism,73-74,97.

Works:

DurationandSimultaneity,93;

EssayontheImmediateGivensofConsciousness,43,65n.6,71,92;

Evolutioncréatrice(CreativeEvolution),20,43,71,92-93;

IntroductiontoMetaphysics,71;

MatterandMemory,71,93

"BergsonauJapon"(Kuki),11-12,33n.32,34n.34,34-35n.41

BhagavadGita

*,44-45

Bifur,39n.76

Blondel,Maurice,15,20,35n.44;

Action,19,37n.60;

critiqueofvolontedenéantof,19;

dualismin,95

Bodhidharma,51

Bonnet,Charles,93

Bost,Jacques-Laurent,36n.51

Bost,Pierre,36n.51

Boutroux,Emile,15,36n.47,73

Bréhier,Emile,3,13,26n.4

Breton,André:Nadja,13,17

Brunschvicg,Léon,14,17,19,35n.44,36n.48,37n.52;

influenceonSartreof,15,18,37n.59;

relationtopositivescienceof,93

Works

LesEtapesdelaphilosophiemathématique,16;

"Orientationdurationalisme,"16;

LeProgrèsdelaconsciencedanslaphilosophieoccidentale,15

Buddha,51

Buddhism,29n.13,44,51;

andBushido*,64n.12,81;

Indian,8,32n.24,51;

Japanese,48-49;

Mahayanan*,64n.12;

similaritieswithBergsonism,73-74;

similaritieswithFrenchphilosophy,97;

Zen,9,51,53,55,73-74,97

Bungeiron(LiteraryStudies)(Kuki),30n.14

Buntai,38n.73

Bushido,29n.133,50,73,81;

andBuddhism,8,64n.12;

andChristianity,86;

assourceofJapaneseart,8-9,52;

andtransmigration,65n.15;

voluntarismin,8,18,21,49,50

CCabanis,Pierre-JeanGeorges,93

"Caractèresgénérauxdelaphilosophiefrançaise"(Kuki),10,33n.32

LesCarnetsdeladrôledeguerre,Novembre1939-Mars1940(Sartre),38n.75,39nn.76,81

Carnot,NicolasLéonard,91

Céline,Louis-Ferdinand:

Voyageauboutdelanuit,17

Chartier,Emile-August[pseud.Alain],13,15,19,35n.44,36n.48,39n.75,95;

asinfluenceonSartre,16-18,36n.51,37n.59;

andKuki,10,13,18,35-36n.47,37n.52;

proposof,10

Works:

Elémentsd'unedoctrineradicale,17-18;

Marsoulaguerrejugée,17-18,37n.58;

Propossurlebonheur,36n.51;

SouvenirsconcernantJulesLagneau,36n.47;

Systèmedesbeauxarts,18,65n.8

Chauffier,Louis-Martin,35n.46

LesChiensdegarde(Nizan),15

Choka*,55-56

ChosesJaponaises(Kuki),33n.32

Christianity,inJapan,85-87

ChuangTzu,52,54

Claudel,Paul,33n.33

Cohen,Hermann,7,43

Composition,arbitrary.SeeunderPainting,Japanese

Comte,Auguste,15,20,35n.44,36n.47,93-94

Condillac,EtienneBonnot,92

Confucianism.SeeNeo-Confucianism

Contingency:

interiorizationof,asethic,21-22;

inphilosophyofKuki,7,21-22,38nn.68,69;

inphilosophyofSartre,20-22,36n.67

Corbin,Henri,25,39nn.76,81

Cournot,AntoineAugustin,93

Couturat,Louis,93

CritiqueofPureReason(Kant),4-6

Curtius,ErnstRobert,6

DDance,Japanese,75,97

Darlu,Alphonse,36n.48

Debussy,Claude,60-61,67nn.20,27

Delboeuf,Joseph,91

Denis,Maurice,65n.4

Descartes,René,3,15,20,27n.6,35n.44,36n.47,73;

alliancewithpositivescienceof,93;

dualismin,94;

innerobservationin,92;

andSartre,38-39n.75

Works:

DiscourseonMethod,95;

MeditationsonFirstPhilosophy,92

Desjardins,Paul,6

Dhyana*.SeeBuddhism:Zen

DiscourseonMethod(Descartes),95

DiscursiveThoughtandVitalExperience(Nishida),72

DuBos,Charles,7,35n.46

Duhem,Pierre,94

DurationandSimultaneity(Bergson),93

Durkheim,Emile,96

EEinstein,Albert,93

Eitoku,Kano,65n.5

Ekstasis.SeeTime:ekstasesof

Elémentsd'unedoctrineradicale(Alain),17-18

Epicurus,25,87

Esprit,35n.45,37n.56

Essaisdecritiquegénérale(Renouvier),37n.54

Essaisurlesélémentsprincipauxdelareprésentation(Hamelin),16,37n.52

EssayontheImmediateGivensofConsciousness(Bergson),43,65n.6,71

LesEtapesdelaphilosophiemathématique(Brunschvicg),16

Ethics,49-50,52,73

andinteriorizationofcontingency,21-22

andtime,7-8

Etreetlenéant(Sartre),18,20,39n.81

Eupalinos(Valéry),20

Evolutioncréatrice(CreativeEvolution(Bergson),20,43,65n.6,71,92-93

Existence,contingent,7,21

Existentialism,French,19

"TheExpressionoftheInfiniteinJapaneseArt"(Kuki),6,8-9,11,31n.20

FFactumsurlacontingence(Sartre),20,38n.65

Fechner,GustavTheodor,91

Fichte,JohannGottlieb,71

LaForcedeâge(ThePrimeofLife)(Beauvoir),3,23,26n.3

Fouillée,Alfred,94

France,Anatole,86

FreiburgPilgrimage,30n.15

Friedmann,Georges,13,17,35n.45,37n.56

Fudo(ClimateandCulture)(Watsuji),30n.15

Fujita,Tsuguharu,54

FuraiberugoMode(FreiburgPilgrimage),30n.15

Furyu

*,11-12

"FuryuniKansuruIchikosatsu"(ThoughtsonFuryu)(Kuki),11-12

"Futsudokutetsugakkai-nogenjo"(ThePresentSituationofFrenchandGermanPhilosphy)(Kuki),33n.33

GGatteau,M.,35n.48

"Geisha"(Kuki),10

GendaiFransuTetsugakuKogi(LecturesonModernFrenchPhilosophy)(Kuki),36n.47,36-37n.52,37n.60

LaGenèsedeidéedetemps(Guyau),63

Gide,André,6

Glockner,Hermann,5,28n.10

Goethe,JohannWolfgangvon,5

Gogh,Vincentvan,67n.7

Gouhier,Henri,34n.40,34-35n.41

GreatYear,conceptionof,45-47,64n.9

Guterman,Norbert,17,37n.56

Guyau,Jean-Marie,7-8,43,95-96;

ArtfromtheSociologicalPointofView,96;

LaGenèsedel'idéedetemps,63

"Guzenka*noRonri"(TheLogicofContingency)(Kuki),38n.69

Guzensei*(Contingency)(Kuki),21,38n.69

"GuzenseinoKisotekiSeikakunoIchiKosatsu"(ReflectionsontheBasicCharacterofContingency)(Kuki),38n.69

GuzenseinoMondai(TheProblemofContingency)(Kuki),21-22,31n.16,34n.35,38n.69

HHaidegga*noTetsugaku(ThePhilosophyofHeidegger)(Kuki),23,30n.16

Haiku,55-56,66nn.13,14

Hakuin,62,75

Hamelin,Octave,36n.52;

Essaisurlesélémentsprincipauxdelareprésentation,16,37n.52

Hanamichi.SeeunderTheater,Japanese

Hani,Goro*,5,28n.9

Hanka,55

Hannequin,Arthur,93

Hatano,Seiichi,28n.9

Hegel,GeorgeWilhelmFriedrich,23,35-36n.47,71,94

Heidegger,Martin,23,25,72;

influenceonJapanesephilosophyof,30n.15;

influenceonKiyoshiMikiof,28n.9;

influenceonSartreof,24-25;

introductiontoKukiof,6;

knowledgeof,ofKuki-Sartreencounter,27-28n.6;

andKuki,3-4,7-8,12,22-23,27-28n.6,29n.13,30nn.15,16,31nn.16,17,36n.47;

notionoftemporalityof,8,22,43,46;

Sartre'sletterofintroductionto,4,27-28n.6;

SeinundZeit,7,12,24,27n.6,30n.155,39nn.78,81,72

Herodotus,83

Herrigel,Eugen,4

Hitomaro

*,66n.14

Hokku,55

Hokusai,65n.7

Horiguchi,Daigaku,38n.73

Hui-Neng,53

Husserl,Edmund,20,23,45;

Japanesereceptionof,26n.2,72;

andKuki,3,6,12,19,29n.13,30n.15,36n.47,39n.81;

LogicalInvestigations,72;

phenomenologyof,9,19;

Sartre'sdissatisfactionwith,24-25,39n.81;

Sartre'sreadingof,24-25

Hyppolite,Jean,15,36n.50

IIbuki,Takehiko,3,27n.5

Ichikawa,Yu,38n.73

Idealism,moral,10,50,52,79-80,87-90.

SeealsoBushido*;Ethics

TheIdealsoftheEast(Okakura),9,33n.27

Iki,6,11,29n.13,32n.24,87

IkiniTsuite(OnIki)(Kuki),29n.13

IkinoHonshitsu(TheEssenceofIki)(Kuki),6,29n.13

IkinoKozo*(TheStructureofIki)(Kuki),6,29n.13,31n.16,34n.38

L'Imagination(Sartre),19

Imayo-uta*,55-56

Impressionism:

andJapanesemusic,60-62

Infinity.SeeunderArt,Japanese

L'IntroductionàlaméthodedeLeonardodiVinci(Valéry),20

IntroductiontoMetaphysics(Bergson),71

IntuitionandReflectioninSelf-Consciousness(Nishida),72

"L'Invitationauvoyage"(Baudelaire),66n.12

Iwashita,Soichi*,98n.2

JJankélévitch,Vladimir,7,14,35n.46

"JapaneseSoul"(Kuki),10

"JapaneseTheater"(Kuki),10

Jaurès,Jean,6

JesusChrist,85-86

LeJeuneParque(Valéry),20

"JikannoMondai:BerukusantoHaidegga*"(TheProblemofTime:BergsonandHeidegger)(Kuki),30n.16

JitsuzonnoTetsugaku(ThePhilosophyofExistence)(Kuki),23

Jiyu*,38n.73

Jodoron*,22

Jollivet,Simone,36n.51,38n.67

Joule,JamesPrescott,91

KKalpa,45,64n.5

Kant,Immanuel,5,49,64n.13,71,73;

CritiqueofPureReason,4-6

Kantianism,5,72-73

SeealsoNeo-Kantianism

Karma,44,64n.11

Ki-noTsurayuki,63

Koeber,Raphaelvon,4

Kogawa,Tetsuo,11,27n.6,38n.74

Kojima,Takehiko,4,27n.6

Kokinshu*,57,63

Korin*,65n.4

Koyré,Alexandre,2,35n.46

Kuki,Madame:

diary-journalof,28n.11,31n.17

Kuki,Ryuichi*,4

Kuki,Shuzo:*

aestheticofcontingencyof,22;

aestheticofikiof,29n.13;

affectivityinphilosophyof,11;

andAlain,10,13,18,35-36,37n.52;

andTeiyu*Amano,28n.7,35n.43;

analysisofikiof,6,11,29n.13,32n.24,87;

analysisofJapaneseartof,

Continuedonnextpage

Kuki,Shuzo

*continuedfrompreviouspage

10-11,32n.26,33n.30;

analysisoftimeof,7-8,21-22;

andOscarBecker,6;

andBergson,11-12,20,34-35n.41;

andClaudel,33n.33;

contingencyinphilosophyof,7,21-22,38nn.68,69;

discussionswithSartreof,3-4,12-20,22-23,39n.75;

educationof,4;

andethicofBushido*,7-8,18,21;

andFrenchculture,7,10,32n.21;

andFrenchphilosophy,5,15,33n.33;

andHenriGouhier,34-35n.41;

andHeidegger,3,4,7,8,12,22,27-28n.6,29n.13,30n.15,30-31n.16,31n.17,36n.47;

andHusserl,3,12,30n.15,36n.47;

influenceof,onSartre,23-26;

"interiorizationofcontingency"asethicof,21-22;

asintroducerofSartretophenomenology,3-4,17,19,20,23-26,27n.6,34n.76;

andKyoto-ha,10,33n.34;

andKarlLöwith,6,31n.18;

and"MatinéePoétique"group,29n.14;

meetingswithSartreof,3-4,12-14,22,23,25,39n.75;

"MonsieurSartre"notebookof,12-22,35nn.44,47,37n.56;

andKitaro*Nishida,10-11,32n.20,34n.34;

andKakuzo*Okakura,9,33nn27,30;

asphilosophicalflâneur,11;

poeticsof,22,29n.14;

atPontigny,6-7,14,35n.46;

positioninJapanesephilosophyof,10-11,34n.38;

andRickert,4-5,28n.10;

andHajimeTanabe,10-11,32n.20;

astransmitterofGermanphilosophytoFrance,7,23,25;

andValéry,20,22

Works:

"BergsonauJapon,"11-12,33n.32,34n.34,34-35n.41;

Bungeiron(LiteraryStudies),30n.14;

"Caractèresgénérauxdelaphilosophiefrançaise,"10,33n.32;

ChosesJaponaises,33n.32;

"TheExpressionoftheInfiniteinJapaneseArt,"6,9,11,31n.20;

"Furyu*niKansuruIchikosatsu"(ThoughtsonFuryu),11-12;

"Futsudokutetsugak-kai-nogenjo*"(ThePresentSituationofFrenchandGermanPhilosophy),33n.33;

"Geisha,"10;

GendaiFransuTetsugakuKogi(LecturesonModernFrenchPhilosophy),36n.47,36-37n.52,37n.60;

"Guzenka*noRonri"(TheLogicofContingency),38n.69;

Guzensei*(Contingency),21,38n.69;

"GusenseinoKisotekiSeikakunoIchiKosatsu"(ReflectionsontheBasicCharacterofContingency),38n.69;

GuzenseinoMondai(TheProblemofContingency),21-22,31n.16,34n.35,38n.69;

Haidegga*noTetsugaku(ThePhilosophyofHeidegger),23,30n.16;

IkiniTsuite(OnIki),29n.13;

IkinoHonshitsu(TheEssenceofIki),6,29n.13;

IkinoKozo*(TheStructureofIki),6,29n.13,31n.16,34n.38;

"JapaneseSoul,"10;

"JapaneseTheater,"10;

"JikannoMondai:BerukusontoHaidegga"(TheProblemofTime:BergsonandHeidegger),30n.16;

JitsuzonnoTetsugaku(ThePhilosophyofExistence),23;

"Kyo*noFuyu"(KyotoWinter),29n.12;

"NihonBunka"(JapaneseCulture),33n.33;

NihonshinoOin*(RhyminginJapanesePoetry),6,29n.14;

NingentoJitsuzon(ManandExistence),23;

"TheNotionofTimeandRepetitioninOrientalTime,"6-7,10-11,21,31n.20;

OinniTsuite(OnRyming),6,22;

"OkakuraKakuzo*ShinoOmoide"(RemembranceofKakuzoOkakura),33n.27;

ParinoMado(WindowonParis),6;

ParinoNegoto*(ParisSleep-Talking),6,28n.12;

PariShinkei(SpiritualViewsofParis),5-6,28-29n.12,29n.13;

ProposonJapan,10,33n.32;

Propossurletemps,6-7,9-10,31-32n.20;

"TwoPicturesFamiliartoChildren,"10

"KyonoFuyu"(KyotoWinter)(Kuki),29n.12

Kyoto-ha*.SeeKyotoSchoolofPhilosophy

KyotoSchoolofPhilosophy,10,33n.34

LLachelier,Jules:

PsychologyandMetaphysics,92

Lagneau,Jules,36nn.47,48

LaoTzu,51,53,57;

TaoTeChing,51-54,57,62

Lavelle,Louis,19

Lefevre,Frédéric,12,34n.41

LaLégendedelavérité(Sartre),17

Leibniz,GottfriedWilhelmvon,6,36n.47

Leontio,87

LeRoy,Edouard,93,95

LeSenne,René,36n.52

LettresauCastoretàquelquesautres,1940-1963(Sartre),38n.73,39n.81

LettresauCastoretàquelquesautres,1926-1939(Sartre),36n.51,38nn.65,67

Levinas,Emmanuel,3,20

LogicalInvestigations(Husserl),72

Löwith,Ada,31n.18

Löwith,Karl,6,31n.18

Lukács,Georg,28n.9

MMainedeBiran,15,20,35n.44,73,92,94

Malebranche,Nicolasde,92

Marcel,Gabriel,16-17

Marsoulaguerrejugée(Alain),17-18,37n.58

MartinduGard,Roger,6

Marxism,21;

Hegelian,28n.9

"MatinéePoétique,"29n.14

MatterandMemory(Bergson),71,93

Maybon,Albert,61,75

Mayer,Robert,91

MeditationsonFirstPhilosophy(Descartes),92

Merleau-Ponty,Maurice,26,26n.4

Meyerson,Emile,93-95

MikiKiyoshi,5,28n.9,34n.34

Milanda-panha,43,64n.6

Mill,JohnStuart,71

Molière,JeanBaptistePoquelin:

LesFemmessavantes,95

Monet,Claude,65n.5

"MonsieurSartre"notebook(Kuki),12-22,35nn.44,47,37n.56

Montaigne,MichelEyquem,95

Montesquieu,Baronde:

TheSpiritofLaws,73

Morhange,Pierre,13,17,35n.45

Mori,Ogai

*,33n.27,98n.1

Motoori,79

"LeMur"(Sartre),38n.73

Music,Japanese,60-62

Myojo*,5,28n.12

Mysticism,Indian,8-9,11,51-52

NNadja(Breton),13,17

Nagasena*,St.,48

Namer,Emile,7,35n.46

Naruse,Mukyoku,5,28n.9

LaNausée(Sartre),20,23,38n.73

Needham,Joseph,32n.24

Neo-Confucianism,32n.24

Neo-Kantianism,5,12,71-72

Nietzsche,Friedrich,45,64n.7,74,95

"NihonBunka"(JapaneseCulture)(Kuki),33n.33

NihonshinoOin*(RhyminginJapanesePoetry)(Kuki),6,29n.14

NingentoJitsuzon(ManandExistence)(Kuki),23

Nirvana*,11,48-51,64n.11,74

Nishida,Kitaro*,26n.2,28n.9,33n.34,72,97;

andKuki,10-11,32n.20,34n.34

Works:

DiscursiveThoughtandVitalExperience,72;

IntuitionandReflectioninSelf-Consciousness,72;

ZennoKenkyu*(AStudyofGood),33-34

Nizan,Paul,13,17,35n.45,36n.49,37n.56,38n.75

Works:

Aden-Arabie,15;

LesChiensdegarde,15;

LaConspiration,35n.45

Nogi,General,79-80,98n.1

"TheNotionofTimeandRepetitioninOrientalTime"(Kuki),6-7,10-11,21,31n.20

LaNouvelleRevueFrançaise,7

LesNouvellesLittéraires,12,33n.32,34n.41

OOinniTsuite(OnRyming)(Kuki),6,22

Okyo*,65n.5

Okakura,Kakuzo*,51;

TheIdealsoftheEast,9,33n.27;

andKuki,9,32n.27,33n.30

Omodaka,Hisayuki,11,31n.16,34n.38,35n.41,36n.47,38n.68

Ootomo*noYakamochi,79

''L'Orientationdurationalisme"(Brunschvicg),16

Oshima

*,Yasumasa,26n.4

Ouchi*,Hyoe*,5,28n.9

PPainting,Japanese:

arbitrarycompositionin,53-54;

colorsin,54,65n.8;

importanceoflinein,53-55;

andinkpainting,9,54,65n.8

Pantheism,Chinese,8-9,11,51-52,54,58

ParinoMado(WindowonParis)(Kuki),6

ParinoNegoto*(ParisSleep-Talking)(Kuki),6,28n.12

PariShinkei(SpiritualViewsofParis)(Kuki),5,6,28-29n.12,29n.13

Parodi,Dominique,7,35n.46,36n.52;

LaPhilosophiecontemporaineenFrance,16

Pasteur,Louis,91

Pascal,Blaise,15,20,28n.9,35n.44,73,92

Perspective:inart,53-54;

metaphysical,53,65n.4

Phenomenology,3-4,24-26,26n.2;

existential,19-20,23;

German,3,7,71;

Hegelian,9;

Heideggerian,23;

Husserlian,7,12,19;

Japanesereceptionof,26n.2,72

Philosophie,37n.56

LaPhilosophiecontemporaineenFrance(Parodi),16

Physics(Aristotle),6

Plateau,Joseph,91

Plato,36n.47

Poetry,Japanese,55-60,65-66n.12;

absenceofsymmetryin,56,65n.11;

aestheticofsuggestionin,56-57;

expressionofinfinitein,9,57,58,60;

liberationfromtimein,9,55,56,59;

pantheismin,58;

repetitivetimein,59;

translationof,66n.18

Poincaré,Henri,93-94

Poirier,René,35n.46

Politzer,Georges,17,37n.56

Pontigny,

décadesat,13,31n.19;

Kukiat,6-7,14,35n.46

LeProgrèsdelaconsciencedanslaphilosophieoccidentale(Brunschvicg),15

Propos,10

ProposonJapan(Kuki),10,33n.32

Propossurlebonheur(Alain),36n.51

Propossurletemps(Kuki),6-7,9-10,31-32n.20

Proust,Marcel,36n.48;

RemembranceofThingsPast,66n.16

LaPsyche(Sartre),24

PsychologyandMetaphysics(Lachelier),92

QQu'est-cequelamétaphysique?(Heidegger),25,39nn.76,81

RRansetsu,58

Ravaisson,Felix,73,92

Ravel,Maurice,61

Renouvier,Charles,16,36n.52;

Essaisdecritiquegénérale,37n.54

LaRevolutionSurréaliste,13

LaRevuedeMétaphysiqueetdeMorale,16

LaRevueMarxiste,35n.45

Rexroth,Kenneth,66n.18

Rickert,Heinrich,28n.9,34n.34;

andKuki,4-5,28n.10

"RickertsBedeutungfürdieJapanischePhilosophie"(Miki),28n.9,34n.34

Rolland,Romain,67nn.20,22

Rousseau,Jean-Jacques,5,92;

TheSocialContract,73

SSamsara,64n.5

Sartre,Jean-Paul,4,7,27-28n.6,35n.45;

contingencyinphilosophyof,20-22,38n.67;

discussionswithKukiof,3-4,12-20,22-23,39n.75;

dissatisfactionwithBrunschvicgof,15,17-18;

dissatisfactionwithHusserlof,24-25,39n.81;

influenceofAlainon,16-18,36n.51,37n.58;

influenceofBrunschvicgon,15,18;

influenceofHeideggeron,24-25;

influenceofKukion,23-26;

interviewwithIbukiof,3,12-13,23;

introductiontoKukiof,3,13,26n.4;

introductiontophenomenologyof,3-4,17,19-20,23-26,27n.6,39n.76;

meetingswithKukiof,

Continuedonnextpage

Sarte,Jean-Paulcontinuedfrompreviouspage

3-4,12-14,22-23,25,39n.75;

notationof,in"MonsieurSartre"notebook,14,19,35n.44;

philosophicalstanceof,atEcoleNormale,38-39n.75;

atPontigny,35n.46;

readingofSeinundZeitof,24,27n.6,39n.78;

receptionof,inJapan,38n.73;

similaritieswithKukiof,23;

Works:

LesCarnetsdeladrôledeguerre,Novembre1939-Mars1940,37n.56,38n.75,39n.76,39n.81;

L'Etreetlenéant,18,20,39n.81;

Factumsurlacontingence,20,38n.65;

L'Imagination,19;

LaLégendedelavérité,17;

LesLettresauCastoretàquelquesautres,1940-1963,38n.73,39n.81;

LesLettresauCastoretàquelquesautres,1926-1939,36n.51,38nn.65,67;

"LeMur,"38n.73;

LaNausée,20,23,38n.73;

LaPsyche,24

Sato

*,Akio,12,26n.4

Sato,Saku[pseud.RyuSekimizu],38n.73

ScentofFaith(Seng-ts'an*),55

Scheler,Max,72

Schelling,FriedrichWilhelm:TreatiseontheEssenceofHumanFreedom,13

Schopenhauer,Arthur,5,64n.10,74,80

Sculpture,Japanese,55

Sedoka*,55

SeinundZeit(Heidegger),7,12,24,27n.6,30n.15,39nn.78,81,74

Sekimizu,Ryu.SeeSato,Saku

Semimaru,7,60

Seng-ts'an:

ScentofFaith,55

Seppuku,80

Serupan,38n.73

Sesshu*,9,65n.8

Shin-Kokinshu*,57

Shuzo*KukiArchive,28n.11,32n.21,35n.43

Sisyphus,Mythof,21,49

Soami*,65n.4

TheSocialContract(Rousseau),73

Socrates,45,46,64n.9

SongoftheExperienceofTruth,55

Soul,Japanese,79-80

SouvenirsconcernantJulesLagneau(Alain),36n.47

Space:

Klein-Cliffordnotionof,45;

liberationfrom,9,51,54-55;

useof,inart,52,53

Spencer,Herbert,71

Spiegelberg,Herbert,27n.6,37n.59

Spinoza,Baruchde,94

TheSpiritofLaws(Montesquieu),73

Stoicism,9,18,45

Stoicorumveterumfragmenta(Arnim),64n.9

Strachey,Lytton,7

Suarès,André,26,63

Surrealism,17

Symbolism,French,9;

andinwardartofJapan,67n.27

Systèmedesbeaux-arts(Alain),18,65n.8

TTakeda,Shingen,89

Tanabe,Hajime,30n.15,33n.34;

andKuki,10-11,32n.20

Tanizaki,Junichiro*,28n.7

Tanka,5,55-56

Tao,32n.24,51-54

Taoism,32n.24,51-54

TaoTeChing(LaoTzu),32n.24,51-54,57,62

Temporality.SeeTime

Tezuka,Tomio,27n.6,30n.15,31n.16

Theater,Japanese,75-76

LeThéâtreJaponais(Maybon),61,75

Theophrastus,87

Theresa,St.,85

ThusSpokeZarathustra(Nietzsche),64n.7

Time:

agrarian,47;

anticipationascharacteristicof,7,43;

canonical,47;

cyclical,32n.24,44;

ekstasesof,8,46;

Heideggeriannotionof,8,22,43,46;

identical,45-47,50,65n.15;

irreversible,46;

inJapaneseart,9,56,59,60;

liberationfrom,8,10,48-51;

linear,21,32n.24;

lived,45;

measurable45;

mystical,46;

objectivenotionof,32n.24;

Oriental,8,21,32n.24,43-45,63;

periodic,8,43-47,50,64n.5,65n.15;

phenomenological,46;

positivistnotionof,47;

repetitive,59;

reversible,45-47;

selfin,47-48;

sub-

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sh«z kuki and jean-paul sartre: influence and counter-influence in the early history of existential...

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