SEASONAL VARIATION IN NUTRITIONAL AND ANTI-NUTRITIONAL COMPONENTS OF NATIVE SHRUBS AND TREES GROWN IN HAZARGANGI CHILTAN NATIONAL PARK, KARKHASA AND ZARGHOON

By

GHAZALA SHAHEEN

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY UNIVERSITY OF BALOCHISTAN QUETTA

DECEMBER 2005

SEASONAL VARIATION IN NUTRITIONAL AND ANTI-NUTRITIONAL COMPONENTS OF NATIVE SHRUBS AND TREES GROWN IN HAZARGANGI CHILTAN NATIONAL PARK, KARKHASA AND ZARGHOON.

Thesis Submitted for the requirement of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Balochistan, Quetta.

BY

GHAZALA SHAHEEN

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY UNIVERSITY OF BALOCHISTAN QUETTA

DECEMBER 2005

IN THE NAME OF ALLAH ALL MIGHTY MOST BENEFICENT, THE MOST MERCIFUL AND HE ALONE

IS THE HELPER.

DEDICATED TO MY PARENTS

LIST OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE NO LIST OF CONTENTS i

LIST OF TABLES iv

LIST OF FIGURES vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS viii

ABSTRACT x

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Description about the plants 5

1.2 General introduction of Pakistan and Balochistan 15

1.3 General introduction of Quetta valley 19

a. Geology 19

b. Climatology 20

c. Hydrology 23

d. Soil 23

e. Biotic Factors 24

1.4 Description of study sites 25

a. Hazargangi Chiltan National Park 25

b. Zarghoon 26

c. Karkhasa 26

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 29

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 43

3.1 Forage sample collection 43

3.2 Moisture and ash content 44

3.3 Sample preparation 44

3.4 Elemental analysis 44

3.5 Anti-nutritional analysis 45

a. Extraction 45

b. Quantitive determination 45

3.6 Nutritional studies 46

a. Carbohydrate 46

b. Protein 46

c. Crude fiber 47

d. Energy level estimation 48

3.7 Feeding Trails 48

3.8 Soil Analysis 49

3.9. Statistical Analysis 50

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 51

4.1 Forage mineral concentration 51

a. Phosphorus 52

b. Calcium 53

c. Sodium 55

d. Potassium 56

e. Iron 58

f. Other elements 59

4.2 Anti- nutritional studies 68

4.3 Nutritional studies 71

a. Ash Content 71

b. Carbohydrates 72

c. Crude Protein and Nitrogen 75

d. Crude Fiber 79

e. Gross energy 81

4.4 Feeding Trails 91

a. Carbohydrate 92

b. Crude Protein 94

c. Crude Fiber 95

d. Total Nitrogen 96

e. Body Weight 97

4.5 Soil 111

a. Physical Characters 111

b. Chemical Characters 112

i. Calcium 112

ii. Sodium 113

iii. Potassium 113

iv. Phosphorus 114

v. Iron 115

4.6 Conclusion 119

REFERENCES 122

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 150

LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO PAGE NO 1. Concentration of Foliage elements of Fraxinus xanthoxyloides 60

2. Concentration of Foliage elements of Pistacia khinjuk 61

3. Concentration of Foliage elements of Amylgdalus brahuica 62

4. Concentration of Foliage elements of Prunus eburnea 63

5. Concentration of Foliage elements of Caragana ambigua 64

6. Concentration of Foliage elements of Sophara mollis 65

7. Concentration of Foliage elementsof Perovskia abrotanoides 66

8. Concentration of Foliage elements of Berberis baluchistanica 67

9. Average leaf nutritional value of Fraxinus xanthoxyloides 83

10. Average leaf nutritional value of Pistacia khinjuk 84

11. Average leaf nutritional value of Amylgdalus brahuica 85

12. Average leaf nutritional value of Prunus eburnean 86

13. Average leaf nutritional value of Caragana ambigua 87

14. Average leaf nutritional value of Sophara mollis 88

15. Average leaf nutritional value of Perovskia abrotanoides 89

16. Average leaf nutritional value of Berberis baluchistanica 90

17. Average value of animal fecal and urine out put of

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides and Pistacia khinjuk 100

18. Average value of animal fecal and urine out put

of Amylgdalus brahuica and Prunus eburnea 102

19. Average value of animal fecal and urine out put of

Caragana ambigua and Sophara mollis 104

20. Average value of animal fecal and urine out put of

Perovskia abrotanoides of Berberis baluchistanica 106

21. Physicochemical characteristic of soil from three localities of

Quetta 117

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE NO PAGE NO 1. Figure showing the Fraxinus xanthoxyloides 6

2. Figure showing the Pistacia khinjuk 8

3. Figure showing the Amylgdalus brahuica 10

4. Figure showing the Prunus eburnean 10

5. Figure showing the Caragana ambigua 12

6. Figure showing the Sophara mollis 12

7. Figure showing the Perovskia abrotanoides 14

8. Figure showing the Berberis baluchistanica. 14

9. Showing the mean temperature during 2003-2004 21

10. Showing monthly rain fall during 2003-2004 21

11. Showing monthly humidity during 2003-2004 22

12. Map of the Quetta district showing sampling sites 28

13. Figure showing animal fecal and urine out put of

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides 101

14. Figure showing animal fecal and urine out put of

Pistacia khinjuk 101

15. Figure showing animal fecal and urine out put of

Amylgdalus brahuica 103

16. Figure showing animal fecal and urine out put of

Prunus eburnea 103

17. Figure showing animal fecal and urine out put of

Caragana ambigua 105

18. Figure showing animal fecal and urine out put of

Perovskia abrotanoides 107

19. Figure showing the snaps of trail sheep 108

20. Figure showing comparison of body weight of sheep after

consuming tree foliage 109

21. Figure showing comparison of body weight of sheep after

consuming shrub foliage 110

22. Figure showing physical characteristic of soil of three localities 118

23. Figure showing chemical characteristic of soil of three localities 118

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praise is to Allah, who is our guide in time of darkness and our aid in

times of distresses. I am deeply and sincerely thankful from the core of my heart to

Almighty Allah, most gracious, most merciful, without his help I would have

never been able to complete this task.

Thanks are for Prof. Dr. Mudassir Asrar, My research Supervisor for her

kind consideration, proper attention and deep interest towards my assignment. I

was able to complete this task I feel her continuous inspiration, guidance and

cooperation filled the gaps in my professional personality. Her Supervision is

highly appreciated, her enthusiastic and continuous support made it possible for

me to complete my Ph.D program.

Special thanks to Dr. S. A. Kayani, Dean Faculty of Biological and

Chemical Science for his continuous cooperation, help and encouragement during

my studies I am extremely thankful to Prof. Dr. Rasool Bukhsh Traeen, Chairman,

Botany department for providing me all facilities, identification of plant specimens

and valuable suggestions, help and cooperation through out this work.

I must acknowledge the help and cooperation extended by my friend Mrs.

Gul Bano during the lab as well as in the field.

Sincere thanks to Mr. Abdul Qadir, Mr. Rehan Rashid and Dr. Shakeel

Babar for providing me sheep and all facilities at Live Stock Department

Balochistan.

Finally I am thankful to my parents, brothers and other family members for

their support and constant prayer. They continuously encouraged me during the

hard time of my studies.

ABSTRACT

Balochistan is the largest province of Pakistan and covers about 44% of the

total country. Majority of people rely on live stock for their living. Since the

natural resources are less, insufficient and of low quality, to meet the nutritional

requirements of livestock population. Therefore, this study was conducted to find

out the best source of fodder among the native, dominant trees and shrubs of

Quetta.

Two trees Fraxinus xanthoxyloides and Pistacia khinjuk and six shrubs

Amylgdalus brahuica, Prunus eburnea, Caragana ambigua, Sophara mollis,

Perovskia abrotanoides and Berberis baluchistanica were analyzed for their

nutritional and antinutritional value seasonally from 3 habitats of Quetta district

for 2 years. Plant foliage samples were evaluated for their ash, carbohydrate, crude

protein, crude fiber and energy levels. Macro and micro elemental composition N,

P, Ca, K, Na, Fe, Al and Mn of foliage were also determined by atomic

absorption, flame photometer and X-rayflorescence spectrophotometer. Soil

samples of 3 habitats were also analyzed for their chemical and physical

properties. These were positively correlated with foliage samples. Feeding trials

were carried out by feeding the foliage to sheep, also their initial and final body

weights were monitored, fecal and urine sample were analyzed for carbohydrate,

crude protein, crude fiber and total nitrogen.

F. xanthoxyloides was found to be the best among two trees evaluated as it

has significantly high carbohydrates, crude protein, and mineral content while

comparatively less crude fiber and phenolics as compare to P. khinjuk were

recorded. The elemental concentrations were high during summer season. Mineral

concentration gradually increased from spring to autumn season and showed

decrease in winter’s season. Phosphorus and calcium concentration were higher

than the recommended amount for small ruminants. These concentrations were

positively correlated with soils physical and chemical characters. Significant

increase (P > 0.05) in body weight of sheep was observed when fed with

F. xanthoxyloides. The trees found at Zarghoon had high nutritional values than

the other two sites. Among six shrubs checked P. eburnea had significantly high

nutritional value. The weight of the animals fed with these two species was also

significantly increased. Therefore these two species may be considered as an

excellent source of fodder and are recommended for animal grazing. Among the

other five shrubs the following three species C. ambigua, A. brahuica and

B. baluchistanica were found to have medium nutritional and mineral contents and

provide an important part of diet but must be supplemented with some other

complete diet. P. abrotanoides has an bad odor with high phenolics which

eventually repels the ruminants and thus not generally preferred for grazing.

S. mollis has cutinized leaves which become the sole reason for not being grazed

even though it has better nutritional value. However no significant differences of

energy level were observed between trees and shrubs.

INTRODUCTION

Chapter I

1. INTRODUCTION

Plants have played essential link between mankind and environment.

Generally the trees and shrubs are the oldest friends of man kind and always have

played a major role in shaping the ecology of planet and determining the present

arrangements of life on earth. Trees and shrubs used as fodders vary from region

to region and from season to season, as they have a wide range of adaptability.

Feeding value of fodder trees and shrubs also varies depending on species or

cultivars, phonological stage, plant part, site and environmental conditions.

Shrubs and trees generally serve not only as fuel but also as shade and

shelter for men, animals and crops, these offer tremendous potentials for men and

animal’s benefit in making the arid and semi-arid lands of the world more

productive and useful. Fodder trees and shrubs provide forage for livestock

through out the world, when the values of grasses are below the minimum

requirements for the maintenance of livestock. In the arid and semi-arid areas of

the mediterranean regions fodder trees and shrubs, as forage plants can fill the gap

of feed for livestock during harsh environmental period.

About 65-70 % of Pakistan is categorized as rangeland. These rangelands

provide about 60 % of the total feed requirement for livestock Suleman et al.,

(1995), Bano (2003). According to daily “DAWN" (2005), Pakistan total forested

area is 2.3 million hectares which is of 3.1 % of the total land area. Ahmed (1951),

classified whole Pakistan into eight major climatic regions, out of these 8, 5 are

arid and semi-arid and these constitute more then 75% of the total area of

Pakistan.

Several researchers have investigated the biology and utilization of wild

land shrubs Chapin (1980) May and Killingbeck (1992). However, little

information is available on the trees and shrubs of the Balochistan, especially,

studies on mineral composition of trees and shrubs as forage.

Balochistan is the largest and driest province of the country making 44% of

the country’s area; its population is 6566000. It is poor in natural resources, with

water being limiting factor in development. Balochistan lands have shortage of

water throughout the year; the nomadic livestock grazing is primarily controlled

by the availability of watering points Mohammad (1989). Although the area is

vast, much of it is desert and low grade rangeland due to its arid climate and over

grazing. The vegetation is generally sparse, and reflects the aridity of climate. In

Balochistan shrublands are still seen as a source of livestock feed and deciduous

shrubs are most common.

According to FAO (1983), plant species of Balochistan are deficient in total

digestible nutrients and in digestible protein and dry matter with respect to animal

requirement. In Balochistan, previously the research has been focused only on

quantifying the crude protein of range forages Wahid (1990), with only limited

research focused on quantifying the seasonal dynamics of the nutrients.

In Quetta city very little work has been done to establish the nutritional and

anti-nutritional value of trees and shrubs as forage. These forage trees and shrubs

provide good browsing for sheep, goats and camels, and are source of feed for

livestock, because of their productivity, palatability and nutritional quality. In

recent years of prolonged drought adversely affected the delicate ecosystem of the

Quetta Sarwat et al., (2002) and Bano (2003).

In general, the quality of a diet for grazing ruminants depends upon the

species present in the range, the amount of forage available, and the nutritional

quality of the plant species. The more arid the site, the more common drought

deciduousness and the less common is ever greenness. During dry period, fodder

trees and shrubs play an important role in meeting part of the nutritional

requirement. Fodder quality, specifically its nutritive chemical constituents, is of

great importance for animal feeding and its impact on performance and

production. This is especially true under arid and desert conditions, where feeding

materials are not abundant to satisfy the demand. It is apparent that the nutritional

value between trees and shrubs species leaves varies, but there is no information

available on the nutritional profile of dominant trees and shrubs species of upland

Balochistan. It is further evident that the nutritional value of different fodder tree

leaves varies in biological composition, but there is no concrete evidence on their

nutritional profile between different seasons in Quetta.

The main objective of the present study is to evaluate the seasonal variation

in nutritional and anti-nutritional content, in terms of chemical composition and

digestibility, of native trees and shrubs of Balochistan, Therefore this study was

initiated to investigate the mineral composition, carbohydrates, crude protein,

crude fiber and anti- nutrition content of two commonly and dominated trees, and

six shrubs.

This research may be valuable to animal scientist and plant breeders in

selecting the suitable variety of trees and shrubs to evaluate their comparative

value with reference to all seasons and their effect on ruminants’ nutritional

patterns and subsequent growth also to evaluate the slight deficiency of micro and

macro elements adversely effects reproduction, lactation, growth and flattening

processes of small ruminants.

1.1 Plant Descriptions

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides (G. Don).

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides is commonly called as wild ash, belongs to family

Oleaceae. It is locally called as Shang or Ziarat ash. This is small deciduous tree 3-

7.5m tall. It is native to the sub-continent, including Pakistan, Afghanistan and

India. In Pakistan it is widely found in Gilgit Agency, Chitral, Dir, Swat, Hazara,

Kurrum, and Balochistan Sheikh (1993). It prefers arid and semi- arid conditions,

cool temperate, mediterranean climate with a temperature range of -20 to 35 Cº,

and elevations between 1000 and 2500m, Sheikh (1993). Ash plant produce

compound leaves with toothed leaflets that turn yellow color in autumn. The dull

green leaves are 8-15 inches long and consist of 5-9 oval or lance-shaped leaflets.

Plant is wind pollinated and characterized by apetalous flowers. It grows from

seed as well as by vegetative means. The growth rate is very slow, but the tree is

considered valuable for forestation projects and water shed management. Wood is

hard; branches are often cut and used for burning. The leaves can be used for

fodder for sheep and goats. Natural stands of Fraxinus xanthoxyloides are lopped

by farmers as a nutritious fodder for the animals.

F. xanthoxyloides shows early initiation of leaves and late shedding (end of

October) of foliage, and remains lush green in colour through out the year.

Fig 1: Fraxinus xanthoxyloides.

Pistacia khinjuk stocks.

This tree is native to the mediterranean rangelands of Balochistan; locally it

is called Shinea or wild Pistachio. It belongs to the family Anacardiaceae, and

grows to elevations of 2500 – 3000m in areas with annual rain fall of 150-300mm.

P. khinjuk is found in dry temperate regions of Pakistan. It occasionally grows on

exposed rocky slopes. It is important soil stabilizer and tannin rich specie. Galls

produced on the stems and leaf petioles yield gums which are locally used as

medicines, seeds of this species are edible in different parts of Balochistan. Over

the past few years, population of this plant is gradually decreasing.

It has the capability to grow in dry and harsh climates and can withstand

temperatures below 0 Cº. The growth rate of this species is very slow; seedling

grows at a rate of 8cm / year. Nursery- grown seedlings planted in Ziarat

(Balochistan) had a 50 % survival rate due to biotic and abiotic stresses, Sheikh

(1993). Their main uses are fruit, fodder, and fuel. In some areas the trees are

lopped to provide fodder for sheep and goats. The Balochistan Forest Department

has made sporadic efforts to establish stands of shinae through nursery- grown

seedlings and direct seeding in national parks.

P. khinjuk shows early initiation of foliage as growing period starts (early

March). In experimental sites P. khinjuk shows very few male plants as compared

to female plants might be the ratio of 1:2 or more, due to this reason at maturity

about 50% seeds were hollow.

Fig 2: Pistacia khinjuk

Amylgdalus brahuica Boiss

It belongs to the family Rosaceae; native people called it gangly badam.

Grows at the elevation of 1200 – 2500m high elevation of Balochistan. It is a

medium size much branched from below shrub, branches are very hard with small

leaves, flowers are small and white in color, seed are nut, flowering period are

from May to August.

Prunus eburnea Aitch

It also belongs to the family Rosaceae, medium size shrub approximately

3-5ft tall, local people called it jungley cherry grows to elevations of 1500 –

2500m, branches are hard with large glabrous leaves, flowering period are from

May to September, Seed are nut, local people cook it.

Fig 3. Amylgdalus brahuica

Fig.4. Prunus eburnea

Caragana ambigua stocks

Belongs to the family Papillionaceae, is slow growing perennial deciduous

shrub found in upper Balochistan. It is found in 1480 – 2047m in waste field near

cultivated fields in sandy clay soil or hills of sandy stone. It is distributed in Ziarat,

Quetta and Zhob. Generally this plant is nursery weed. Plant body is much

branched. Stem is hard, hard spines are present on stem and branches. Branched

pubescent, leaf are small, even pinnately compound, rachis are hard, flowers are

yellow and small, flowering period are April to August seeds are in linear pod. C.

ambigua remains green leaves at majority time of the year.

Sophora mollis (Royle)

Belongs to the family Papillionaceae, it is erect deciduous shrub, 90-

120cm tall, much branched from below, leaves compound 12.5 – 26cm long,

hairy, leaflets are opposite or alternate, 1.2 – 2.5 cm long, ovate and cutinized,

flowers are1.5 – 2.6 cm long, ovary densely hairy, pods are 7. 5 – 13cm long,

flowering periods are from April to September, Flowers are cream to yellow in

colour. Locally this plant is used as fuel and green manure and as pesticide. This is

the reason that the plant quickly disappears around villages.

Fig 5 Caragana ambigua

Fig 6. Sophora mollis

Perovskia abrotanoides karel

It is aromatic sub shrub belongs to the family Labiateae, widely distributed

in Quetta, Ziarat and Walitangi, distributed at 1800 – 2000m. It is deciduous

perennial with upright branches. Plant body is 1 – 1.5 meter height, leaves 5cm

long and 2.5cm wide, with very short bipinnate, with linear to linear oblong. Older

stem is woody at the base, younger stem are herbaceous branched, inflorescence

show large much branched with numerous tubular purple flowered. Flowers are

sessile to short pedicellate, flowering period are from end May to August. It grows

well in full sun light, but is hardy cold and drought tolerant.

Berberis baluchistanica ahrendt

Belongs to the family Berberidaceae, 3 meter tall, erect deciduous glabrous

shrub. Stem red brown to red, spines are present on branches, leaves thick, sub

orbicular to ovate–oblong. Racemes 10 – 25mm long flower, fruit is berries,

flowering periods are April to June. Medicinally this plant is important, local

people used the roots decoction for the cure of internal injuries and for the removal

of kidney stones.

Fig 7. Perovskia abrotanoides

Fig 8. Berberis baluchistanica

1.2  General Introduction of Pakistan and Balochistan 

Pakistan is situated between 24º and 37º N latitude and between 61º and 75º

E longitude. The total area of the country is 796,095 km2 (79.6 million ha). In

Pakistan due to its geographically complex domain and altitudinal variations,

variety of soil types and different climatic conditions are found. It has a vast

coastal belt in the south and south west, and high mountain peeks, such as K2

(8,611m) and Naga Parbat (8,126m) in the north. The country is characterized by a

continental climate, which is arid and semi-arid. Ahmed (1951), classified whole

Pakistan into eight major climatic regions, out of these 8, 5 are arid and semi-arid

and these constitute more then 75% of the total area of Pakistan. The climatic

condition of Pakistan is the “tropical monsoon type” with four seasons; spring,

summer, autumn and winter. The monsoon (July to September) provides the major

portion of the rain in most parts of the country. There is an extreme variation in

temperature, which depends upon topography. It is arid, except for the southern

slopes of the Himalayas and the sub- Mountain tract, where annual rain fall varies

between 760 and 1270 mm. The amount of rainfall varies seasonally as well as

spatially, topographic aspect and wind velocity influence variations in climatic

regimes. The Indus basin river system is the World’s largest contiguous irrigation

system. The soils of the Indus basin are mostly alluvial soils, the pH usually

ranges from 8–9, Sheikh (1993).

Balochistan

Balochistan is the largest and driest province of the country; (about

35,000sq km or making 44% of the country’s area). It lies north to the tropics,

between the latitude 24o and 32 o and between the longitudes of 60 o to 70 o east.

With an area of about 347,000 sq. km (134,000 sq. miles) and a populations of 140

millions (Federal Bureau of Statistics Pakistan, 2005). Balochistan is bordered by

Afghanistan and Iran to the north and west, by the plains of the Indus River to the

east, and by the Arabian Sea to the South. The green plains of Punjab surround

Balochistan on Eastern wings where as the mountainous NWFP looks after the

Northern Boarders. Its diverse climate and physical features include extensions of

Iranian and Afghanistan desert in the west and high mountains with fertile valleys

between them else where. Temperatures vary with elevations from sea level to

over 4,000 meters. The average annual rain fall also varies from less than 25mm (1

inch) in western parts of the province to more than 400 mm (16 inches) in some

areas in the northwest. There are considerable variations in seasonal temperature

and precipitation with in the province as a result of its mountainous character and

the effect of its strong relief on regional air masses, IUCN (1999). It endures

frequent spells of drought, flash floods and earth quakes. It is underdeveloped by

any standard, IUCN (1999).

The mean annual temperature is 27Cº, the mean maximum temperature

31Cº, and the mean minimum temperature is 16Cº. There are winter rains in

November and December, which are limited in quantity but more wide spread than

the summer rains. June and January are the hottest and coldest months of the year

respectively. Elevation exceed 2000 meters in many areas with peaks reaching to

3500m around Quetta, Balochistan parts of the western wing of Himalayas and

consequently the rocks are mostly sedimentary, i.e. limestone, sand stone and

shales. The majority of rocks are calcareous and arenanceous and resulting

residual soils are therefore loamy, sand, sandy loam or loamy sand. Aridity is

prevalent and only 4% (1.42mha) is cultivated for agriculture while rest of the

entire area is classified as rangeland. Range lands constitute 79% of the total area

of Balochistan and provide more than 90% of the total feed requirements of sheep

and goats, 40% for pack animals and 5% for cattle and buffalo requirements, FAO

(1983).

Balochistan is poor in natural resources, with water being limiting factor in

development. Balochistan lands have shortage of water throughout the year; the

nomadic livestock grazing is primarily controlled by the availability of watering

points, Mohammad (1989). Although the area is vast, much of it is desert and low

grade rangeland due to its arid climate and over grazing. The vegetation is

generally sparse, and reflects the aridity of climate. Balochistan is divided into five

different ecological zones based upon climate, soil and topography, Anees (1980).

In Balochistan shrub lands are still seen as a source of livestock feed and

deciduous shrubs are most common in high latitudes and are usually associated

with long, cold winters. There is not any proper classification of the shrub lands of

Balochistan, but according to IUCN (1999), report Balochistan is divided in to 4

major vegetation types: -

1. Coniferous Forest 2. Scrub Forests 3. Sub tropical desert 4.

Riverain Forest.

In Balochistan, the major problem is the exploitation of rangelands for fuel

and uncontrolled grazing, Atiq-ur Rehman (1997).Grazing pressure increases

causing degradation of rangelands. According to Van Gils and Beg (1992), most

of the mountain slopes in Balochistan are already ecologically dead due to

advanced irreversible soil erosion. Due to low and erratic rainfall and extreme

temperature low humidity, and drought the shrub lands have substantially

declined, Mohammad (1989). Generally, Balochistan relief is 52% high and low

mountains, 22% valley fans (usually gravelly) and terraces, and 26% plains.

Balochistan with its mountainous highlands, arid rangelands and deserts low land.

Balochistan is fundamentally an extremely dry area with a fragile environment

that is sensitive to mis-use. Balochistan is the largest most sparsely populated and

most arid of the four provinces of Pakistan, Buzdar and Jameson (1984). Less than

3 % of Balochistan land (347 million hectares 85.7 million acres) is reported to be

under cultivation and the remainder is rangelands, IUCN (1999).

In Balochistan, as in other arid and semi arid regions of the world, the

division between range management and other forms of the Agriculture is based

primarily on water available, the higher potential value of cultivated crops dictate

that the land be used for crop production, where water is unavailable and the land

is used extensively for live stock grazing. A major influence on range production

is climatic uncertainty. Natural variations in weather limit production stability,

Buzdar and Jameson (1984).

1.3 Quetta

Quetta lies between 29°-52' to 30°-15' latitude and 66°- 55' to 67°-48'

longitude. Quetta is capital of Balochistan. The climate of this area is arid with

cold winter, hot summer and has been classified as temperate desert bush type

with mediterranean trend, Qadir (1968). Average mean summer temperature is

35°C and mean minimum winter temperature is -6°C. Average yearly precipitation

is 325mm. Quetta valley is surrounded by the mountain ranges commonly known

as Murdaar (to the east), Chiltan (to the west), Zarghoon (to the north east), and to

the north is Takatu range. Stratigraphically both Murdaar and Chiltan ranges are

comprised of Jurassic limestone, known as Chiltan limestone, composed of

Hazargangi and Karkhasa. Zarghoon is composed mainly of Urak and Walitangi.

a) Geology

Quetta is surrounded by hill ranges having complicated geological

structure. It makes a part of Irano-Anatolian folded zone of sedimentary strata.

The disturbance that produced folded mountain has weakened the earth so that the

region has come under great strain, as a result the beds of rock cause earth quake.

Quetta was completely destroyed in the earth quake of 1935 due to sharp bending

of fold mountains, Marwat & Haq (1980). The origin of the study area is traceable

to tertiary period of earth formation. Mountains are sedimentary in nature, so it

proves its origin as marine. These sedimentary rocks are rich in fossils.

b) Climatology Climate of the area is dry temperate. Winters are dry and cold, while

summers are dry and bracing. Quetta district of Pakistan is not as cooler as

compared to hills in the north of Pakistan, lying at the same altitude. This variation

in climate is the main ecological factor, due to which vegetation of southern zone

differs from that of North. The annual climatic variations establish four seasons in

the study area, spring, summer, winter and autumn. There is variation in

temperature, wind, precipitation, atmospheric pressure and humidity. These are the

main ecological climatic factors which determine the vegetation of the area and

due to variation in these factors, there is a variation in the phenology of the

vegetation from season to season. Maximum rainfall occurs in winter; however,

monsoon shower occur occasionally in spring. Rainfall occurs more in winter than

summer, spring and autumn. These variations cause difference in kind and amount

of vegetation of the area. Snowfall occurs only in winter. Snowfall is important for

vegetation in providing water to the soil of the area. Wind is important climate

factor for vegetation. Persistent dry wind blows over the area for the grater part of

the year, which becomes more strong and persistent in winter. It blows from North

and North – West to South and South – East. They blow with higher speed in the

evening and with low speed in the morning, Beg (1966).

Fig. 9 showing the mean temperature during 2003 and 2004

Fig.10 Total monthly rain fall during 2003 – 04

Fig. 11 showing monthly humidity during 2003 and 2004

c) Hydrology

Quetta valley has shortage of water. Most of the area is Barani. Shortage of

water has remained a problem nearly from two decades. The demand of water has

increased due to increase in population, and the development of local industries

and agricultures. Ground water is important water supply source of the area.

Gravelly piedmont fans and aprons skirting the mountains constitute the main

ground water reservoir. When precipitation on the water shed of the area occurs

the ground water is recharged. Ground water is discharged by tubewllls, Karazes,

springs effluent discharged of streams. Mountain, rocky hills, gravelly piedmont,

has safe and pure water, which are useful for irrigation, domestic and livestock

consumption, Marwat & Haq (1980).

d) Soil The soil of the Quetta is formed from the parent rocks. Different types of

parent rocks produce weathered particles of different size and chemical

composition. Formation high in particular trace minerals produce soils high in that

minerals. The soil that accumulates on limestone contains practically, the same

minerals that were in the original rock, only their proportions have been drastically

changed. Weathering merely changes the texture and minerals proportions without

producing a radically new set of minerals. The central part of the Quetta is covered

by the soil that ranges from sandy loam to silt loam. At the margin of valley near

foot hills the soils consist of sandy loam mixed pebbles and rock fragments.

e) Biotic Factors

Biotic factors play important role in the determination of vegetation of an

area. Once vegetation is developed, it establishes itself in a particular habitat and it

changes the climate of that habitat. Man is the main biotic factor that determines

or establishes or destroys the plant communities. Wild animals and birds are also

the consumers of the vegetation but their consumption of plants also depends on

man.

1.4 Description of the Study Sites

All three habitats are found in district Quetta, is semi-arid region, with hot

dry summer, cool winter and receiving less than 250mm of precipitation per year.

The study was conducted in three different habitats of Quetta district. Following

areas were selected for the study.

l: Hazargangi Chiltan National Park 2: Zarghoon 3: Karkhasa.

a) Hazargangi Chiltan National Park

Hazargangi National Park are located near Quetta at a distance of 20Km on

Quetta Mastung road towards N W at 30° 07’N longitude, 66° 58 ’E, 1700 m

altitude). It is one of the oldest and most important enclosed areas of Balochistan.

The region has Mediterranean climate, cold winter and dry summer. The park is

characterized by a dry semi-arid type of vegetation. This vegetation is well

preserved and occurs on the banks and terraces of water courses and along run-off

channels on the hill slopes.

The climate of Hazargangi is similar to Quetta annual rain fall varies

between 250-300 mm per year, Khan & Hussain (1963); Qadir and Ahmed

(1989). The precipitation is mostly confined to winter and spring seasons. Winter

snowfall is dominated the peak of hills in Hazargangi are covered with snow.

Run-off water (rain as well as melting snow) flows down the hill slopes into the

sloping plains as a result of which a number of water courses have developed

which remains dry for the greater part of the year. The mean maximum

temperature in summer is 36 °C and mean minimum temperature in winter is –10

°C.

According to Holdridge’s (1947) bio-climatic system, the region is falls

under the warm temperate bush type of bio-climate, Qadir (1968); Qadir and

Ahmed (1989). The climate of this region indicates a mediterranean trend due to

restriction of precipitation to winter and spring months.

b) Zarghoon

Zarghoon region is located to the southern part of Quetta valley lies

approximately between latitude 30o 39΄ N and longitude 67o 15΄ E. It covers an

area of about 354 square miles out of which 86 sq miles is piedmont 101 square

miles is valley floor and the rest is mountain high land, Hunting Survey

Corporation, (1960). The locality has tremendous variation from hill top to valley

bottoms and gentle slopes with grasses scattered trees, dominated by Fraxinus

xanthoxyloides and Pistacia khinjuk. Rain and snow fall is dominated in winter;

the mean maximum temperature in summer is 25°C and means minimum

temperature in winter is –15°.

c) Karkhasa

The third locality Karkhasa which is near to the slopes of Chiltan mountain

range of Quetta has rocks and precipitation occurs only in winter. Karkhasa

region lies at latitude 30o 09 ́ and longitude 66o 55,́ Hunting Survey Corporation

(1960). The climate of the valley is arid with mild summer and severe winter. It is

characterized by low precipitation, high rate of evaporation and wide range of

temperature. Rain fall of the area greatly varies from year to year. The average

mean monthly maximum temperature rises to 35°C for the month of July in

summer and the mean minimum in winter goes down to –5°C for the month of

January.

Fig. 12 Map of Quetta district showing the sampling sites

Zarghoon ▲

▲ Hazargangi

▲ Karkhasa

QUETTA

LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter II

LITERATURE REVIEW

According to Holechek et al., (1995), rangelands remain critical to the

economy of many countries and provide about 70% of the feed needs to domestic

ruminants and 95% of the wild ruminant. Baumer (1983); Ainallis and Tsiouvars

(1996), concluded that in the arid and semi-arid areas of the mediterranean regions

fodder trees and shrubs, as forage plants can fill the gap of feed for livestock

during harsh period. Good (1947), suggested that plant distribution is controlled

by three climatic factors, moisture, temperature and wind and among all these

factors moisture is the most variable and specific for the occurrence of trees and

shrubs. It is documented that range site strongly influences the plant species that

grow in a particular region. This characteristic of site influence is found through

out the world.

According to Papanastasis et al., (1998); Parthasarathy (1986); Bhatia et al.,

(1976) woody plants of the arid zone play an essential role for mammalian

herbivores, tree leaves have also been successfully incorporated into concentrated

supplemented diets of sheep and goats. Incorporation of fodder trees in live stock

diet varies according to climatic zone, topography, soil condition, land utilization,

seasons, species and management of live stock. Trees or woody plants are

common components of most rangelands around the world. The crucial role of

woody plants in semi- arid region has long been recognized by Scholes & Walker

(1993); Breman & Kessler; (1995) and Rosenschein et al., (1999). However, trees

have traditionally been viewed negatively because they are presumed to reduce

herbaceous production and their presence increases the difficulty of livestock

manipulation.

Information on the nutritive value of many trees and shrubs is scarce, Rosales

and Gill (1997). In general, the quality of a diet for grazing ruminants depends upon

the species present in the range, the amount of forage available, and the nutritional

quality of the plant species. Nelson and Molser (1994) concluded that the type of

species present in the range depends on their adaptation for survival.

Lefroy et al., (1992); Corbet (1951), suggested that trees, often called

browse or top feed, have long been considered important for nutrition of grazing

animals in Pakistan, particularly in those areas with pronounced dry season and used

as supplement in the quantity and quality of pastures compounds.

Raghavan (1989); Azim et al., (2002) indicated that tree foliage makes a

significant contribution to meet the nutritional requirements of the ruminants during

the winter. It is well recognized that some tree leaves are palatable, digestible and

high in protein, Palmer and Schlink (1992); Subba et al., (1994); Leng (1997).

They provide a supplement of green feed when grasses and other herbaceous

material are dry and they provide the only source of protein and energy during

drought, when all other feed is absent. Different trees require different management

for maximum production, beside this different species have different soil

requirements, and palatability and preference differ among species.

Abel et al., (1997) concluded that fodder trees are less affected by seasonal

dry conditions because of their more extensive root systems and longer life- spans.

Chemical compositions and nutritive values of tree fodders vary a great deal.

According to Soc. Range Manage (1989), forage includes browse and herbage

which can be consumed by or harvested and fed to animals, their foliage generally

has higher fiber and lignin content than grasses, often has higher levels of tannins

and other astringent compounds. But according to Wilson (1969); Lefroy et al.,

(1992), they have higher in protein; often they have lower energy value than

herbaceous plant due to their lower digestibility. As a consequence of these factors

they are rarely the first choice of grazing animals and seldom make up a

significant proportion of the diet when grasses and other herbaceous feed is

available Graetz and Wilson (1979); Leigh and Mulham (1986); Squires and

Siebert (1983); Lefroy et al., (1992). In recent years, the roles of multipurpose

trees as fodder for maintenance and for production of livestock becomes more

dominant as the environment become harsher, Nitis (1989) and they are only

source of proteins and energy during drought when all other feeds are absent.

The nutritional quality of temperate deciduous tree leaves decreases with

leaf maturity, because mature leaves contain less nitrogen and water Mitchell

(1936); Haukioja et al., (1978); Mattson (1980); Scriber (1984) and Schroeder

(1986), but more fiber, lignin, and tannins than immature leaves, they are less

digestible and nutritionally inferior for herbivores. Leaves with shorter life spans

often have high photosynthetic capacities and high nitrogen contents which make

them favored by herbivores Rathcke (1985); Mooney and Gulman (1982) and

Coley (1983a).

Several researchers have investigated the biology and utilization of wild land

shrubs Chapin (1980); May and Killingbeck (1992). However, little information is

available on the trees and shrubs of the Balochistan, especially studies on mineral

composition of tree’s and shrubs as forage.

In many arid and semi arid regions of the world, shrubs have long been

recognized as an important rangeland resources McKell et al., (1972); Hyder (1973);

McKell (1975); Blaisdell and Holmgren (1984). Large areas of the arid and semi-

arid areas are covered with the combination of shrubby vegetation. Shrubs are

difficult to characterize. Generally shrub can be defined as a plant with multiple

woody, persistent stem but no central trunk and a height from 4.5 to 8m. McArthur

(1988); West and Ibrahim (1968); West (1982). Weber et a1., (1990) concluded that wild land shrubs represent a major forage source for livestock and wild life during

the harsh winter period. Mohammad et al., (1986) concluded that shrub and trees draw fewer nutrients

into above ground biomass and more into roots, and suggested that they have certain

advantages because of their productivity, palatability and nutritional quality. Fodder

shrubs constitute a vital component in livestock productivity in the arid and semi-

arid zones of Balochistan.

Walser et al., (1990) observed that temperate zone woody plants have the

ability to acclimatize during the fall season and thus withstand extremely cold

winter temperatures. Smith and Smith (1989) concluded that aridity, cold

temperature, short growing season, long periods of drought and low nutrient

supply favor shrubs. In certain environments shrubs have many advantages.

Shrubs invest less energy and nutrients in above ground parts than trees. Their

structural modifications improve light interception, heat dissipation, and

evaporation. The multi stemmed forms of shrubs influence interception of

moisture and stem flow, increasing or decreasing infiltration in to the soil, because

most shrubs can get their roots down quickly and form extensive root systems,

they use moisture deep in the soil. This feature gives them a competitive

advantage over trees and grasses Smith and Smith (1989). Ueckert (1985)

suggested that many of the shrubs that were valuable as fodder for livestock and

for wildlife are almost eliminated in many areas by continuous year long grazing

by cattle, sheep and goat. Therefore, the shrubs are suitable, because they produce

more biomass than other plant groups such as annual and perennial grasses during

periods of environmental stress, the level of production may not be sufficient to

sustain a consistently high level of uses.

Ueckert (1985) also suggested that shrubs are good source of digestible

protein during most of their active growth period. In animal grazing the main

nutritional characteristics of shrubs for ruminants and non–ruminants are

palatability, voluntary intake, chemical composition, mineral and amino acid

composition, apparent digestibility, feeding value, toxic or anti–nutritional factors.

Palatability depends upon a number of interacting factors linked to animals as well

as environment. However Sharifi et al., (1990) suggested that the success of

shrubs depends on their ability to compete for nutrients, energy and space.

Date, (1973) suggested that shrubs are recognized as fodder that may vary

from region to region and an extensive inventory of them is difficult to make.

Garcia-Moya and McKell (1970) pointed out in describing the immediate area under

the canopy of desert shrubs as “islands of fertility,” where the interspaced areas is

almost devoid of soil nitrogen. West and Skujins (1978) suggested that each shrub

creates a micro system in which it influences temperature, cycles nutrients, reduces

wind speed, adds organic matter as well as chemical breakdown products, and

stability to the plant- soil animal complex. Generally leaves, pods and flowers could

provide fodder to sustain live stock through the dry season.

Malcolm (1996), suggested that shrub are regarded as desirable component

of a pasture because (i) they provide a forage reserve after the ephemeral feed has

been exhausted, (ii) they help control erosion by reducing wind speed, (iii) they

act as a shelter for plants of other species to become established .While Boulanour

et al., (1996) consider that fodder shrubs are use for several purposes, (i) to reduce

grazing pressure on degraded areas where plant cover is poor, (ii) as a standing

fodder crop to buffer seasonal fluctuations that cover in arid and semi-arid

mediterranean areas, (iii) as a protein supplement for live stock on poor native

range lands or those consuming low quality roughage, (iv) as a forage source on

arid and salt- affected areas, (v) as a source of fuel for low- income farmers, (vi) as

a means of soil erosion control and (vii) as an emergency feed during drought

years.

Shrubs require less care and attention than herbaceous plants. The perennial

nature of shrubs allows immobilization of limiting nutrients and slows nutrient

recycling, Smith and Smith (1989). This feature gives them a competitive

advantage over trees and grasses, Smith and Smith (1989). Heitschmidt and Stuth

(1993) concluded that shrubs and most forbs are dicots, and their leaf biomass is

generally of higher nutritive value than that of grasses.

Cook (1972) suggested that shrubs have higher value of protein,

phosphorus, lignin and carotene than grasses and are most important for fall

and winter grazing when grasses and forbs are not available in quantity and as a

result value of shrubs increases.

Morley (1981); Van Soest (1982); Huston and Pinchak (1993), pointed out

that forage quality is determined by various combinations of micro and macro

scale, biotic and abiotic factors. Fleming (1973); Wilson (1981); Greene et al.,

(1987) considered that chemical and nutrient composition of plants and plant

communities in rangeland varies with climate, species, soil type, phenology and

other abiotic factors. The inherent morphological, anatomical, physiological and

chemical characteristics of each plant species determine its potential nutritive

value while abiotic and temporal factors modify this potential, Huston and Pinchak

(1993). Özcan and Bayçu (2005) worked on some elemental concentrations in

Acrons of Turkish Quercus L. (Fagaceae) Taxa in Turkey and they evaluated

different mineral concentrations in twigs.

Lefroy et al., (1992) concluded that the forage value of any feed depends on

the combination of its palatability, nutrition value and digestibility, Most feed typed

are not sufficiently digestible or nutritious to meet all of animal’s need in isolation.

According to Heitschmidt and Stuth (1993), nutritive value is an inclusive

expression used to encompass all nutritional attributes of forage in relation to it’s

over all value to the consuming animals. Small ruminants are generally tackled with

severe nutritional deficiency during this period of food scarcity, which exacerbate

disease and health problems Akbar et al., (1990). In this period, fodder trees and

shrubs play an important role in meeting part of the nutritional requirement.

Wiener (1975) suggested that concentrations of nutrients in foliage play a

major role in determining the suitability and attractiveness of the foliage for

herbivores. According to “Economic Survey of Pakistan (2004-2005)” the

populations of small ruminants in Balochistan are 25% of the sheep, 56% of the

goats and 80% of the camels. According to Cook and Harris (1977), the daily

nutrition demand of the stock fluctuates according to the physiological functions

of the grazing animals, their pattern of maintenance, gestation, growth, fattening

and lactation.

Abel et al., (1997) suggested that fodder trees can provide protein and

energy to keep rumen microbes active, increasing their ability to digest fiber, and

thus enable live stock to make use of dry season pastures. Ruminants are capable

to utilize forages only because of the unique digestive system they posses Beever,

(1993); Phillipson & Mc Anally (1942).

Zucker (1983); Lindroth (1988); Hanley et al., (1992) pointed out that the

selectively of the plant species by grazing animals may be affected by the presence

of some carbon based anti herbivory compounds found in the foliage. The most

common compounds are lignin and condensed tannin that derive their anti-

nutritional properties from smell taste or physiological activity with the animals.

Mangan (1988); Kumar and D’Mello (1995); Rubanza et al., (2003) also

mentioned that the utilization of browse forages are limited by the anti nutritional

factors such as tannins and Phenolics. In dry environments many range plant

species accumulate large amount of secondary metabolites and these can constitute

a significant proportion of the total carbon fixed by the plant. Haslam (1988);

Garry et. al., (1994), noted that the accumulation of condensed tannins in plants as

chemical defense plays an important role against vertebrates and invertebrate

herbivores. The amount of condense tannin in the foliage may vary with genotype

Garry et al., (1994), although changes in physical environmental factors such as

climate, Jonasson et al., (1986); Horner et al.,(1988); Mole and Joern (1993), light,

Bryant et al., (1987), water availability, Gershenzon (1984) and soil fertility,

Dustin and Cooper-Driver (1992), Northup et al., (1995). Some shrubs have high

level of soluble Phenolics and tannins that can reduce protein digestibility and

retention Moukld and Robbins (1981); Nastis and Malchek (1981); Robinson

(1982).

Feeny (1976); Swain (1979); Niknam and Ebrahimazeh (2002), believed

that Phenolic compounds are distributed in plants and they play important role in

plant- herbivore interactions. According to Farnsworth (1966), Niknam and

Ebrahimazeh (2002), tannins are group of phenols, are economically important as

agents for the tanning of leathers and for certain medicinal purposes, beside this

the medicinal values of phenolics are well known for the long time. Although

some of these substances are poisonous this is not the primary reason for

avoidance because some poisonous plants are selectively eaten by small

ruminants, Arnold (1981). This character may develop with maturity, and

unpalatability occurs with that of fodder plants age due to increased fibrousness.

While Holechek et al., (1990) found that the condensed tannins negatively affect

the nutritional status of ruminants consuming forage with high content of browse

plants, reducing the ruminal digestion of protein and cell wall.

Nuñez - Hernández et al., (1989) mentioned that crude protein

concentration may be misleading used as an indicator of nutritive value of the

species. The most important requirement of a good quality of forage is that it

should contain sufficient energy and protein. Forage contains fixed energy largely

in the form of complex carbohydrates, waxes, terpenes, essential oils, saponins

and phenypropanoids (lignins and tannins). Generally the lignin is high in browse

plants and has a negative effect upon the total organic matter digestibility, Van

Soest (1993).

Le Houerou (1993); Papanastasis (1993) concluded that the forage value of

any feed depends on the combination of its palatability, nutritive value and

digestibility. It is documented that shrubs and trees play an important role in the

nutrition of grazing animals in areas with a prolonged dry season, such as those

found in the mediterranean climate. During the dry months, they produce forage of

high nutritive value, Nastis (1993); Papanastasis (1993), which is the only

available feed.

Ruminants select nutritious diets from environment that contain diverse

array of plant species, growth stage, and plant parts that vary temporally and

spatially in nutritional value and toxicity, Provenza et al., (1994), Bryant et al.,

(1991), Mc Arthur et al., (1991). Youssef et al., (1990) and Khan et al., (2004)

access that the health and degree of productivity of grazing animals are dependent

on balanced and enough quantities and necessary nutrients to meet their

requirements for a given physiological stage.

Lefroy et al., (1992) resulted that the intake of sufficient energy and

nutrients by an animal can not be predicted from separate analysis of plant’s

nutrient content, digestibility or palatability. Firstly, chemical analysis commonly

over estimates digestibility, particularly that of protein, infact that protein is often

bound to lignins and tannins which can prevent its break down in animals, Dann

and low (1988); Miller (1991) secondly, digestibility can be a poor indicator of

forage value , thirdly palatability can vary seasonally and between animals and

can not there fore be assessed on the basis of occasional consumption of browse,

Dann and low (1988); Wilson (1969).

Niknam and Lisar (2004), worked on the carbohydrate, muscilage contents

and chemical composition of Astragalus species of Iran, and suggested that the

variations in the content of plants metabolites are due to genetic components.

Nutritient availability affects the sustainability of plants to herbivores due to

absolute content for minerals, nutritional influences on other essential constituents

such as carbohydrates, and the balance between essential and detrimental

chemicals, Bryant et al., (1983) and McNaughton and chapin (1985).

Ali (1988) concluded the crude protein content of forage is also important

in determining their nutritive value. Crude protein digestibility varies with plant

maturation. As the cell wall hardens through lignifications, protein and other

nutrients become less easily available to rumen micro organisms.

Wallace et al., (1980) concluded that mineral composition of the plants in

any ecosystem is one of its distinguishing features. Chapin and Slack (1979),

suggested that it is possible that plant parts with different chemical composition

that adjust carbohydrate allocation and nutrient acquisition would be expected to

show different mineralization, which might be relevant in determining the release

of nutrients to the soil.Del Vale and Rossel (2000) concluded that edaphic,

climatic and genetic factors affect the morphology and metabolism of shrubs, also

affect the digestibility of shrub tissues. Minson (1982); Elliott and McMeniman

(1987) concluded that edaphic factors such as limited availability of water and

nutrients, are the cause of plant foliage being poor in nitrogen (N), digestible

energy, phosphorus (P), occasionally sodium (Na) and calcium (Ca). McDowell

(1997); Tiffany et al., (2000); Khan et al., (2004) concluded that the poor animal

growth and reproductive problems are common even when forage supply is

enough and can be directed related to minerals deficiencies caused by low mineral

concentration in the soil and associated forages.

Ettershank et al., (1978); West and Skujins (1978); Sharifi et al., (1990)

suggested that nitrogen is generally considered to be the second most important

factor limiting growth in warm desert ecosystem and play a major role in

determining productivity under conditions of adequate water supplies. Beadle and

Tchan (1955) concluded that nitrogen is most limiting factor of arid and semi-arid

regions of the world. Other factors such as phosphorus interact and confound the

relation between available nitrogen status and growth, because nitrogen, primary

control over the fertility of the soil, biological mechanism responsible for nitrogen

fixation are controlled by available soil moisture and it is strongly correlated with

climate. Mooney et al., (1981); Egli and Schmid (1999) observed the effect of leaf

age on leaf nitrogen content with younger leaves having high nitrogen contents

than older ones.

Al-Jaloud et al., (1994) mentioned that the phosphorus content of plant

tissue declines with increasing maturity, and the rate and extent of decline varies

with species.

Noy-Meir (1973) observed that unpredictable and highly variable amounts

of precipitation in arid ecosystems are limiting to primary plant productivity.

However when water is available, the productivity may be influenced or limited

by other factors such as soil and air temperature, herbivory, microflora activity and

soil nutrient availability.

MATERIALS AND

METHODS

Chapter III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An area of approximately 3 ha represented the experimental plot of each

site. Complete random block design was used for sample collection. Samples were

selected randomly from different trees and shrubs with in the range. Leave

samples were randomly harvested (plucked by hand), from 5-7 trees of each

species and made one unit sample. Three replicates of each forage samples were

taken (as same method). As there is no vegetation during winter season, therefore

fallen leaves from the ground were collected. Plant samples were brought to the

Lab for analysis and one specimen was deposited for identification in the

herbarium of Botany department, University of Balochistan Quetta. After

collection harvested vegetative samples were kept to the laboratory and were dried

in shade at room temperature and ground to pass through 1mm screen thoroughly

mix and stored in sealed plastic bottles until analyzed. Various conversion factors

have been used to determine different factors.

3.1 Forage Sample Collection

Forage samples of two dominant tree Fraxinus xanthoxyloides G.Don and

Pistacia khinjuk stocks, and six shrubs, Amylgdalus brahuica Boiss, Prunus

eburnea Aitch, Caragana ambigua Stocks, Sophora mollis Royle, Perovskia

abrotanoides Karel, and Berberis baluchistanica Ahrendt, (as because Sophora

mollis were not found in Zarghoon). These plants were collected in all four

seasons from March 2003 to Dec 2004 for two years from three habitats;

Hazargangi Chiltan National Park, Zarghoon and Karkhasa.

3.2 Moisture and Ash Content

Moisture content was determined by drying the samples at room

temperature. Ash content was determined by ignited the known amount of plant

material in muffle furnace to 650C° for at least 8 hours. Ash was cooled in

desiccator at room temperature and weighed. Ash content of the samples was

determined by AOAC, (1990).

3.3 Sample Preparation

From each plant sample 0.3 gm of ash in test tube was dissolved in aqua

regia (HCl +HNO3), 6ml: 2ml and kept in aluminum block for digestion at 180C°.

The samples were digested to cool and dry and were diluted with 20ml of 10%

HCl, till the transparent color appears.

3.4 Elemental Analysis

Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Calcium(Ca), Sodium(Na), Potassium (K),

Iron (Fe), Aluminum(Al), Manganese (Mn) were determined by atomic absorption

/ flame spectrophotometer AA-6105 (Shimdzu),X-ray fluorescence

spectrophotometer, according to “A manual of experiment for plant biology

methods (1995)”. Analysis of samples was carried out in duplicate. Results were

calculated as% on dry weight basis. Elemental analysis of different species was

carried out from nutritional point of view.

3.5 Antinutritional Analysis

Phenolics determination

a. Extraction

0.5 gm plant powder material was extracted with 100ml of MeOH-H2O

(80:20) at 70Co in water bath for three hours (modified from Conde et al., (1995).

The suspensions of water extraction were filtered and the aqueous solution was

used for quantitative determination. The suspensions of methanolic extraction

were filtered and then these solutions were used for quantitative determination.

b. Quantitative determination

Total phenolics content were determined by Waterman and Mole (1994);

Niknam and Ebrahimzadeh (2002) method. In this procedure appropriate volumes

of aqueous solutions were diluted to final volume of 17 ml by distilled H2O then

add 1ml of Folin reagent and 2ml of saturated solution of sodium carbonate were

added. After 30 min, the absorbance was measured at 760nm. Aqueous solutions

of tannic acid (0.0–6.25µg/ml) were used as standards for plotting working curve,

Ranganna (1986). UV-Visible recording spectrophotometer (UV1601Shimadzu)

was used for absorbance measurement.

3.6 Nutritional Studies

Chemical composition of two trees and six shrubs was studied for

nutritional point of view. Carbohydrate, Crude protein, Crude fiber, and Gross

energy of foliage were estimated.

a. Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates were analyzed by Clegg’s Anthrone (1956) method. 1gm of

foliage grind samples was mixed with 10 ml distilled water with a dispenser in

50ml conical flask, after mixing on a vortex mixer for 2min, 13ml of 52% per

chloric acid (HOCLO3) was added. Digestion of samples with per chloric acid was

modified in the present study by shaking the sample on shaker for 20 minutes.

After filtration through Whatman filter paper No. 44 the contents were diluted,

made up to 250ml, mixed thoroughly and then processed for carbohydrate

determined and read the absorbance of the samples at 630nm against the reagent

on spectrophotometer (UV visible1 601 Shimadzu). Total available carbohydrate

(as % glucose) was calculated by the following formula:

% Glucose = 25 × absorbance of diluted sample wt of sample × absorbance of diluted standard

b. Proteins

To determine the protein contents approximately 2gm grind leaves were

taken in the Kjeldhal flask and equal amount of selenium mixture (Catalyst) was

added and mixed. Then 5ml of concentrated H2SO4 was also added to the flask and

heated until contents became transparent. Volume was raised to 100ml with

distilled water. 5ml of digested sample was transferred in distillation chamber of

Kjeldhal apparatus.5ml of 40% NaOH was added. Vapors were passed through the

condenser into flask containing 5ml of 20% boric acid solution mixed with one

drop of methyl red. Ammonia vapors were treated with boric acid solution, pink

color of mixture turned yellow. This ammonium borate solution was titrated

against 0.014 NHCL. The volume of acid consumed during neutralization was

noted till the pink colour was obtained. The amount of nitrogen determined was

multiplied by 6.25, so protein was estimated by using the following formula.

Three replicate samples were taken.

Protein = wt of nitrogen x 6.25.

c. Crude Fiber

Fibers are the organic residue that remains after being digested. Weight

2gm moisture free and ether extracted sample place in a beaker, and add 200ml

boiling dilute H2SO4.Digested the sample for exactly 30 minutes on crude fiber

extraction apparatus. Filtered through glass funnel with the aid of suction air

pump. Washed with hot water until it is acid free. Collect 15ml filtrate; added one

ml of NaOH and one ml of phenolphthalein indicator. (A pink colour indicates that

it is acid free).Then transferred it in to beaker again. Then again added 200ml

boiling dilute NaOH. Again digested for exactly 30 minutes, filtered through glass

funnel with the aid of suction air pump. Washed this first with 10ml hot dilute

H2SO4, and then with hot water until it is acid free and transferred it into crucible

dry it in oven at 135 Co for 2 hour. The whole sample was cooled in desiccator for

30 minutes and weighed. As a last step it was ignited in muffle furnace at 600 Co

for 30 minutes and cooled in desiccator for 1hour and weight. Crude fiber was

calculation by the following formula, PARC (1982).

Loss in weight on ignition % Crude fiber (as fed) = × (100 – % moisture- Sample weight % ether extract)

% crude fiber (as fed) % Crude fiber (DM) = × 100 % dry matter of sample

d. Energy Level Estimation

Foliage gross energy (GE) values were estimated, by ignited the 1gm of

dried sample, using a Parr bomb calorimeter (Model 1266), Parr instrument Co.,

Moline. IL).

3.7 Metabolic Studies

Forty two male sheep of 8 to 10 months old and average body weight of

45.6 ± 1.6 kg were used for experiment. Sheep were obtained from Live Stock

Department (Government of Balochistan) Quetta. Sheep were fed 500gm daily F.

xanthoxyloides, P. Khinjuk and six shrubs, A. Brahuica, P. eburnean, C.

ambigua, S. mollis, P. abrotanoides; and B. baluchistanica for 21 days in

addition to their normal feed. During the experiment sheep were kept in individual

pens. Three sheep were used as control treatment. They were fed on normal diet

(mixed herbage), and no special treatment was accorded to them regarding their

food content. There fecal and urine samples were also collected, analyzed and

compared with the results of experimented animals. Feed was offered once daily at

09:00 hr, water was available free of choice. During digestion trail samples of

feces and urine were collected before new feed was given each morning for 21

days. From every daily out put 10% of fecal sub samples were collected and after

every three days this sample was made one unit to get the mean. The same was

practiced with urine sample where 20 ml of urine was collected in plastic

container to which 5ml of HCl was added.

Fecal samples were dried in oven at 70 Co, grinded to pass 1mm screen and

stored at room temperature for chemical analysis. Carbohydrate, Crude protein,

Crude fiber and total nitrogen were analyzed by the method of PARC (1982).

Initial body weight and final body weight was measured. Difference was

calculated.

3.8 Soil Analysis

Soil of three habitats were collected and analyzed for their physical and

chemical characters. Samples were dried, sieved and made saturated paste with

distal water and filtered it, filtrate were used. pH of soil saturated paste was used

by using glass electrode (pH 3305 Jenway). Electrical Conductivity (EC) of

extract was measured by EC (Solo-bridge) meter. Water holding capacity (WHC)

was estimated by the method SSSA (1952). Soil texture was calculated by

hydrometer (Bouyoucos 1962). Calcium Sodium and Potassium were determined

by flame photometer (Corning 400). Phosphate and Iron were measured by using

UV visible 1601 Spectrophotometer Shimadzu.

3.9 Statistical Analysis

Result are expressed in means and standard error of means (Means ±SEM).

Mean value and standard deviation of elemental concentrations and other

treatments were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Level of

significance was checked at 0.05 levels.

RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION

Chapter IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Forage Mineral Concentrations

Forage trees of three localities of Quetta were analyzed seasonally for two

years for their macro, micro elemental composition. The major mineral element

essential for plants are Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca)

and Sodium (Na) and micro elements include Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn) and

Aluminum (Al).

Elemental ratios have been successfully used to establish the nature of

nutrient limitation in range lands ecology. The assessments of the potential of

forages to meet the mineral requirement of animals has been mostly assayed and

are well reported in literature, Poland and Schnabel (1980); Jumba et al., (1996).

Biological scientist has investigated the biology and utilization of wild land

shrubs, Chapin (1980); May and Killingbeck (1992). Previously no work on the

quality of these plants was done especially, studies on mineral composition of

trees and shrubs of Quetta. Most of the woody species found here are deciduous,

considering the above-mentioned aspects the study was conducted to determine

mineral composition of these trees and shrubs, their seasonal variation at different

localities. Nitrogen and crude proteins in leaves were found in almost same

amounts, therefore it has been describes with crude protein at section 4.3c.

a) Phosphorus Phosphorus concentration of two trees and six dominated shrubs are

presented (Table1-8). The results of trees showed high concentration was found

(1.65 -1.16%) DM in F. xanthoxyloides, less concentration (1.62-0.12%) DM was

found in P. khinjuk. Maximum concentration was observed in F. xanthoxyloides

from Zarghoon during summer season, while the lowest amount (0.12%) DM was

estimated in P. khinjuk from Karkhasa in winter, and in autumn season.

Phosphorus accumulation in two tree species was high in Zarghoon medium in

Hazargangi and low at Karkhasa.

In shrub species the amount of phosphorus ranged between 1.70 - 0.06%

DM (Table 3-8). Highest amount (1.70%) DM was found in P. eburnea followed

by S. mollis (0.96%) DM. Medium amount (0.86%) DM was observed in C.

ambigua and in P. abrotanoides it was (0.71%) DM. Low amount (0.59%) DM

was found in A. brahuica, and B. baluchistanica (0.51%) DM. High phosphorus

was found during spring season and it decreased in autumn and winter, but this

difference was non significant difference (P > 0.05). S. mollis had high amount of

phosphorus as it is a leguminous plant, almost similar amount was reported from

other leguminous plants by Nasrullah et al., (2004). However mature trees and

shrubs are found to be a good source of phosphorus for animal health during

spring and summer season and these plants are also able to provide complete

nutritional requirement to animals as all trees and shrubs examined were above the

deficiency level of phosphorus which is below 0.15%, Allen (1989). Phosphorus is

a mobile element that this element may be strongly reused within the plant, being

translocated from the senescent tissues to the younger ones Del Valle and Rosell

(2000). The phosphorus content found from trees and shrubs during this study

were more then those reported from grasses. Norton (1981), reported 0.33%

phosphorus in grasses in temperate area and 0.22% in tropical areas, he also found

that phosphorus was highly affected by seasons. More phosphorus was observed

during spring and summer than in autumn and winter similar results were found by

Badri and Hamed (2000), while working on different shrubs of arid environment

they observed phosphorus contents in plant tissues declines with increasing

maturity, and the rate and extent of decline varies with species.

b) Calcium Calcium concentration in leaves of two trees and six shrubs of three habits

were evaluated seasonally (Table1-8). Calcium in tree ranged between 1.37-0.48%

DM was found in F. xanthoxyloides, while in P. khinjuk it ranged between 0.82-

0.49% DM. High calcium was recorded from F. xanthoxyloides leaves (1.37%)

DM, while in P. khinjuk slightly less amount of calcium was found. Its highest

concentration was found from trees of Zarghoon, while low concentration was in

the leaves of Hazargangi. High calcium was found during spring and summer

season. It gradually declined in autumn and winter season, because the fallen

leaves were collected from ground, as during winter as no leaves were found to

growing on trees, therefore true picture during winter cannot be portrayed. The

calcium recorded was more or equal to that required for animal nutrition, a dietary

essential level of calcium is 0.43%, little (1982). Forage concentration required by

grazing animal is influenced by the animal type, age, and weight of the animal and

level of production Khan et al., (2004). According to the recommendation of NRC

(1996), Ca requirement for growing and finishing animals expected to grow is

0.35% DM. Therefore both these tree species are good source of calcium for the

grazing animals.

Shrubs evaluated for calcium concentration has range between 0.71-0.14%

DM. Maximum amount (0.71%) DM was found in C. ambigua followed by P.

eburnea and A. brahuica (0.65%) DM, medium amount was noted in B.

baluchistanica (0.39%) DM and low amount was found in S. mollis (0.13%) DM.

Significantly different (P < 0.05) was observed. Almost same amount was

recorded from all shrubs with the exception of P. abrotanoides, where the

maximum amount of calcium was 1.62% DM, but this amount in shrub is more

than that required for animal nutrition, as a dietary level of 0.43% calcium is

required, Little (1982). Accumulation in high concentrations of any element in any

plant tissue without toxic effects may be a genetic characteristic and may include

tolerance mechanism though these elements are essential, they are also potentially

toxic, so plant possess complex biochemistry to control them Özcan and Bayçu

(2005). Calcium recorded from shrubs was less than that found in trees. Similar

results were found by Del Valle and Rosell (2000); they found low quantity from

two shrubs Atriplex lampa and Prosopis alpacto in Northeastern Patagonia. These

findings were contrary to Nasrullah et al., (2004) who recorded higher calcium

content (0.4-0.6%) from grasses and (1.2-1.6%) from legumes.

c) Sodium

Foliage of two trees and six shrubs species were evaluated seasonally for

the sodium concentration. The range of sodium in trees was 1.33%-0.8% DM

(Table 1-8). F. xanthoxyloides had higher amount of sodium as compared to P.

khinjuk. In both the tree species high amount was found from Karkhasa valley

during winter season, medium amount (0.32%) DM was observed in P. khinjuk

during spring season from Hazargangi, less amount of sodium in both trees was

observed from Zarghoon. My results of trees are comparable to the Badri and

Hamed, (2000) who found highest value (1.68%) in Tamarix from Egypt which

can be categorized as high sodium accumulator.

The sodium concentration in shrub species ranged between 1.33-0.03%

DM, this range was almost similar to that found in trees. High concentration of

sodium (1.33%) DM was observed in P. abrotanoides, the medium amount

(0.58%) DM was found in P. eburnean and low (0.03%) DM was fouond in B.

baluchistanica, however A. brahuica had (0.21%) DM, C. ambigua (0.28%)

DM, and S. mollis had (0.22%) DM of sodium. High sodium content was found

during winter season, maximum amount (0.42%) DM was observed in C.

ambigua from Hazargangi during this season. High (0.32%) DM was found in P.

eburnea and S .mollis during winter season from Hazargangi. Lowest amount

(0.3%) DM was found in P. abrotanoides from Zarghoon during spring season.

Similar results are found by Minson (1990) he found 0.22% from tropical

crops. Sodium in shrubs are non significantly different (P > 0.05) from trees

studied. While low sodium content was reported from grasses and legumes (0.09

and 0.06%) as reported by Nasrullah et al., (2004). Standard concentration of Na

in dry matter required for animals nutrition ranges between 0.09 and 0.21%,

Common Wealth Agricultural Bureau (1980). Critical concentration of Na 0.06%

in forage is recommended by NRC (1996), Anonymous (1996). The highest

amount of sodium in P. abrotanoides makes it less palatable to the grazing

animals therefore this plant is not liked by the animals and is not eaten by them so

this shrub remains green and present through out the year, similar findings was

observed by the Silva Colmer and Passera (1990), in Atriplex sp of Northeastern

Patagonia.

d) Potassium

Potassium concentration of two trees and six shrubs were evaluated

seasonally from three habitats of Quetta are given in (Table1-8). Amount ranged

in trees between 0.71-0.32% DM. Highest (0.71%) DM amount was observed in

P. khinjuk from Hazargangi during autumn season. Lowest amount (0.32%) was

found in F. xanthoxyloides from Zarghoon during summer season.

The amount of potassium in shrub ranges from 1.14-0.04% DM. High

(1.13%) DM amount was found in P. abrotanoides during summer season from

Hazargangi. Medium amount (0.64%) DM was noted in P. eburnea and B.

baluchistanica (0.52%) DM from Zarghoon during summer season, low amount

(0.04%) DM was recorded from, S. mollis, C. ambigua (0.26%) DM and A.

brahuica (0.23%) DM was found during summer season from Karkhasa. Similar

amounts were recorded by Del Valle and Rosell (2000), who found highest

(0.78%) DM value of potassium in summer in the leaves of a shrub Prosopis

alpacto.

Critical level for potassium is 0.60% as recommended by NRC (1996).

Therefore all samples analyzed had less then the required levels of potassium

except a tree P. khinjuk, and two shrubs P. eburnea and B. baluchistanica had

enough amount that can fulfills the animal requirements and are therefore

recommended as the best plants of the area. P. abrotanoides had excessive amount

of potassium in Zarghoon and Hazargangi which is more then the required amount

recommended by NRC (1996), is therefore not much suitable for animal

consumption, although it may not produce any toxic effect. All other species were

potassium deficient in all habitats so are not recommended for animal

consumption as reduced potassium can also depress animal productivity, by

reducing the appetite and so the food intake, Huston and Pinchak (1993). High

solubility and diffusion are fundamental characteristics of hydrated potassium (K)

ions. It provides them with functional mobility through biological membrane and

easy transportation over the entire plant, it also effects on opening and closing of

stomata. Potassium also plays a vital role in the plant water economy because of

its easy hydration and cooperation due to its abundance and high solubility, Del

Valle and Rosell (2000).

e) Iron

Iron is found in plants as micro element, Concentration of Iron of two trees

and six dominated shrubs of Quetta valley are evaluated and presented seasonally

(Table1-8). In tree species its range was 0.07-0.01% DM high Iron (0.07%) DM

was found in P. khinjuk from spring season, while lowest amount (0.01%) DM

was found in summer season from Hazargangi. F. xanthoxyloides had medium

amounts (0.05-0.02%) DM was observed in summer season. Less seasonal

differences were observed between localities.

Shrubs had almost similar amount of iron as found in trees they do not

differ much in their concentration. Maximum amount was found in C.

ambigua (0.09%) DM from summer season from Karkhasa, medium amount

(0.05%) DM was found in A. brahuica, P. eburnea and P. abrotanoides were

also recorded from three habitats. B. baluchistanica also showed medium amount

(0.04%) DM. Lowest amount of iron (0.02%) DM was found in S. mollis from

winter season from Hazargangi. Naturally occurring Iron (Fe) content of fodder

plants ranged from 18 to about 1000µg/g (0.018-0.10%), and various cereal grains

do not differ much in their concentrations. Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1986)

found the common average iron content of different cereal ranges from 25 to

around 80µg/g. The iron deficiency causes chlorosis in leaves the excessive

amount is beneficial and is stored in leaves. The amount of iron recorded from all

plants were equal or more than that required for animal nutrition therefore all

plants studied provide a good source of animal nutrition.

f ) Other Elements

Other microelement Aluminum (Al) and Manganese (Mn) of two trees and

six shrubs were also evaluated from three habitats of Quetta. The amount of

Aluminum (0.002%) DM was found in F. xanthoxyloides while in P. khinjuk

(0.003%) DM was recorded.

In Shrub the concentration of Aluminum (Al) in A. brahuica (0.003%) was

found, while in C. ambigua, P. eburnean, an P. abrotanoides (0.002%) DM was

observed, (0.004%) DM was found in S. mollis and in B. baluchistanica (0.003%)

DM was recorded from Zarghoon.

Manganese (Mn) in F. xanthoxyloides was (0.004%), while in P. khinjuk

(0.005%) DM was observed. The concentrations of manganese in B.

baluchistanica was (0.006%) DM. P. abrotanoides and A .brahuica (0.005%)

DM, while in C. ambigua and S. mollis (0.004%) DM was recorded. P. eburnea

showed (0.003%) DM. However the amount of these two elements was negligible

in trees and shrubs. Manganese is vital for normal functioning of several enzymes

and particularly for those that regulate the oxidation and reduction phenomena.

This element also is necessary in nitrate reduction, and protein synthesis.

TABLE: 1 Concentration of foliage elements of F. xanthoxyloide

Seasons Phosphorus %

Calcium %

Sodium % Potassium %

Iron % Phenolics %

Hazargangi Spring 1.55 ±0.02 0.86± 0.02 0.45± 0.02 0.61± 0.04 0.02 ±0.001 0.2 ± 0.01

Summer 1.70± 0.03 1.08± 0.04 0.98 ±0.04 0.59 ± 0.02 0.03±0.002 0.3 ±0.02 Autumn 1.63± 0.02 0.55± 0.03 1.25 ±0.03 0.55 ±0.03 0.03±0.001 0.4 ±0.01 Winter 1.36± 0.03 0.68 ± 0.04 1.25± 0.03 0.69 ±0.02 0.02±0.001 0.7 ±0.03 Mean 1.56 0.79 0.98 0.61 0.02 0.4

Zarghoon Spring 1.55± 0. 03 1.01±0.04 0.8 ±0.03 0.57±0.03 0.60±0.01 0.7± 0.03

Summer 1.65± 0. 03 0.81±0.03 0.29 ±0.03 0.32±0.02 0.54±0.02 0.5 ±0.02 Autumn 1.01± 0. 04 0.69±0.03 0.41 ±0.03 0.37±0.03 0.52±0.03 0.3 ±0.01 Winter 1.07±0. 02 1.37±0.04 0.29 ±0.03 0.37±0.02 0.41±0.01 0.2 ±0.01 Mean 1.32 0.99 0.44 0.40 0.51 0.4

KarkhasaSpring 1.28±0.03 1.12±0.03 1.26±0.03 0.59±0.02 0.06±0.01 0.3±0.01

Summer 1.60± 0.03 0.73±0.05 1.32±0.03 0.55±0.02 0.04±0.02 0.4±0.01 Autumn 1.16±0.02 0.71±0.04 1.29±0.02 0.59±0.03 0.05±0.03 0.6±0.03 Winter 1.16±0.03 0.48±0.02 1.30±0.04 0.39±0.02 0.04±0.01 0.4±0.02

1.41 0.77 1.29 0.53 0.04 0.4

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of twelve determinations. Mn (0.001% – 0.004%) Al (0.001% – 0.002%) ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE: 2 Concentration of foliage elements of P. khinjuk

Seasons Phosphorus %

Calcium, %

Sodium. %

Potassium %

Iron %

Phenolics %

Hazargangi Spring 0.52 ±0 .02 0.61±0.03 0.32±0.02 0.62±0.02 0.02±0.001 0.3±0.01

Summer 0.65 ± 0 .03 0.71±0.04 0.31±0.03 0.71±0.02 0.02±0.001 0.5±0.01 Autumn 0.67 ± 0 .02 0.52±0.02 0.18 ±0.02 0.61±0.02 0.02±0.001 0.6±0.02 Winter 0.46± 0 .02 0.49±0.02 0.19±0.03 0.71±0.01 0.03±0.002 0.9±0.03 Mean 0.58 0.58 0.25 0.66 0.02 0.58

Zarghoon Spring 1.62 ±0.02 0.61±0.03 0.28±0.03 0.61±0.01 0.05±0.002 0.4±0.02

Summer 1.32 ±0.02 0.73±0.04 0.27±0.03 0.49±0.02 0.63±0.003 0.5±0.01 Autumn 1.41 ±0.02 0.65±0.03 0.26±0.02 0.32±0.02 0.64±0.002 0.8±0.03 Winter 1.19 ±0.02 0.39±0.02 0.26±0.02 0.42±0.02 0.051±0.002 0.3±0.01 Mean 1.39 0.6 0.27 0.46 0.199 0.5

Karkhasa Spring 0.18±0.02 0.61±0.03 1.20±0.03 0.62±0.01 0.07±0.002 0.3±0.01

Summer 0.17±0.02 0.82±0.05 1.27±0.02 0.62±0.01 0.59±0.003 0.4±0.02 Autumn 0.19±0.02 0.67±0.06 1.26±0.02 0.44±0.02 0.06±0.002 0.7±0.03 Winter 0.12±0.02 0.49±0.02 1.28±0.02 0.43±0.02 0.05±0.002 0.7±0.02 Mean 0.17 0.65 1.25 0.53 0.19 0.5

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of twelve determinations. Mn (0.001% – 0.005%), Al (0.001% – 0.003) ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE: 3 Concentration of foliage elements of A. brahuica

Seasons Phosphorus %

Calcium, %

Sodium. %

Potassium %

Iron %

Phenolics %

Hazargangi Spring 0.37±0.02 0.51±0.06 0.21±0.02 0.14±0.02 0.02±0.001 1.2±0.03

Summer 0.38±0.02 0.52±0.04 0.20±0.03 0.13±0.02 0.01±0.002 1.3±0.03 Autumn 0.47±0.03 0.47±0.05 0.24±0.02 0.16±0.03 0.02±0.001 1.6±0.02 Winter 0.32±0.02 0.41±0.04 0.21±0 .03 0.11±0.01 0.03±0.002 1.3±0.03 Mean 0.39 0.48 0.22 0.14 0.02 1.35

Zarghoon Spring 1.25±0.02 0.53±0.03 0.18±0.03 0.20±0.02 0.05±0.002 1.4 ±0.02

Summer 1.02±0.03 0.56±0.04 0.17±0.03 0.19±0.02 0.03±0.003 1.4±0.02 Autumn 1.39±0.02 0.65±0.03 0.17±0.02 0.12±0.02 0.04±0.002 1.3± 0.03 Winter 1.41± 0.02 0.49±0.02 0.16±0.02 0.12±0.02 0.051±0.002 1.40±.02 Mean 1.27 0.56 0.17 5.11 0.043 1.29

Karkhasa Spring 0.18±0.02 0.61±0.03 0.20±0.02 0.22±0.02 0.07±0.002 1.3±0.01

Summer 0.17±0.02 0.52±0.05 0.27±0.02 0.32±0.02 0.05±0.003 1.4±0.02 Autumn 0.16±0.02 0.57±0.06 0.26±0.01 0.34±0.02 0.06±0.002 1.6±0.03 Winter 0.12±0.02 0.49±0.02 0.28±0.01 0.23±0.02 0.05±0.002 1.5±0.02 Mean 0.16 0.55 0.25 0.27 0.06 1.38

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of twelve determinations.

Mn (0.001% – 0.005%), Al (0.001% – 0.003%) ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE: 4 Concentration of foliage elements of P. eburnea

Seasons Phosphorus %

Calcium, %

Sodium. %

Potassium %

Iron %

Phenolics %

Hazargangi Spring 1.65 ±0 .02 0.46 ± 0.02 0.32 ± 0.02 0.26 ± 0.02 0.02 ± 0.001 1.7 ± 0.02

Summer 1.70 ±0 .02 0.48 ± 0.04 0.31 ± 0.02 0.61 ± 0.02 0.03 ± 0.002 1.8 ± 0.02 Autumn 1.67 ± 0.02 0.52 ± 0.02 0.18 ± 0.02 0.63 ± 0.02 0.02 ± 0.002 1.5 ± 0.03 Winter 1.46 ± 0.02 0.32 ± 0.02 0.19 ± 0.03 0.42 ± 0.02 0.05 ± 0.002 1.9 ± 0.03 Mean 1.62 0.45 0.25 0.48 0.03 1.56

Zarghoon Spring 1.62 ± 0.02 0.61 ± 0.03 0.58 ± 0.03 0.66 ± 0.03 0.05 ±0.002 1.2 ±0.02

Summer 0.53 ± 0.02 0.63 ± 0.04 0.47 ± 0.03 0.64 ± 0.03 0.08 ±0.003 1.4 ± 0.02 Autumn 1.40 ± 0.02 0.65 ± 0.03 0.36 ± 0.02 0.63 ± 0.02 0.05 ± 0.002 1.3 ± 0.03 Winter 0.39 ± 0.02 0.49 ± 0.02 0.39 ± 0.02 0.64 ± 0.02 0.03 ± 0.002 1.7 ± 0.02 Mean 0.98 0.59 0.45 0.64 0.65 1.4

KarkhasaSpring 1.18 ± 0.02 0.41 ± 0.03 0.29 ±0.02 0.35 ± 0.02 0.06 ±0 .002 1.7 ± 0.03

Summer 1.19 ± 0.02 0.52 ± 0.04 0.27 ±0.02 0.36 ±0.02 0.06 ± 0.003 1.9 ±0.03 Autumn 1.10 ± 0.02 0.49 ± 0.03 0.26 ± 0.02 0.46 ±0.03 0.04 ± 0.002 1.6 ± 0.03 Winter 1.12 ± 0.02 0.47 ± 0.02 0.18 ±0.02 0.41 ±0.02 0.05 ± 0.002 1.4 ± 0.02 Mean 1.14 0.47 0.25 0.39 0.05 1.65

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of twelve determinations.

Mn (0.001% – 0.003%), Al (0.001% – 0.002%) ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE: 5 Concentration of foliage elements of C. ambigua

Seasons Phosphorus%

Calcium, %

Sodium. %

Potassium %

Iron %

Phenolics %

Hazargangi Spring 0.50 ± 0.02 0.39 ±0.03 0.25 ± 0.02 0.26 ± 0.02 0.02 ± 0.001 1.1 ± 0.04

Summer 0.49 ± 0.03 0.30 ± 0.04 0.31 ± 0.03 0.32 ± 0.02 0.01 ± 0.001 1.2 ± 0.03

Autumn 0.86 ± 0.02 0.39 ± 0.02 0.28 ± 0.02 0.48 ± 0.02 0.01 ± 0.001 1.0 ± 0.03

Winter 0.59 ± 0.02 0.31 ± 0.02 0.42 ± 0.02 0.42 ± 0.02 0.02 ± 0.001 1.3 ± 0.03

Mean 0.55 0.34 0.31 0.37 0.01 1.15 Zarghoon

Spring 1.02 ±0 .02 0.61 ± 0.03 0.28 ±0 .03 0.24 ±0.02 0.05 ± 0.002 1.2 ± 0.05 Summer 1.40 ± 0.03 0.71 ± 0.04 0.27 ± 0.02 0.25 ±0.01 0.03 ± 0.003 1.5 ± 0.04 Autumn 1.2 ± 0.02 0.65 ± 0.06 0.23 ± 0.02 0.22 ±0.02 0.05 ± 0.002 1.7 ± 0.03

Winter 1.5 ± 0.02 0.48 ±0.02 0.30 ± 0.02 0.24 ±0.02 0.05 ± 0.002 1.3 ± 0.02

Mean 1.28 0.61 0.27 0.23 0.24 1.4 Karkhasa

Spring 0.8 ± 0.02 0.16 ± 0.03 0.26 ± 0.02 0.25 ±0.02 0.07 ± 0.002 1.3 ±0.04 Summer 0.7 ± 0.02 0.15 ± 0.05 0.27 ±0.03 0.26 ±0.02 0.09 ± 0.003 1.7 ±0.03 Autumn 0.8 ± 0.02 0.16 ± 0.06 0.26 ±0.02 0.24 ± 0.02 0.64 ± 0.002 1.8 ±0 .03 Winter 0.7 ± 0.02 0.14 ± 0.02 0.28 ± 0.03 0.24 ± 0.02 0.52 ± 0.002 1.5 ± 0.02 Mean 0.75 0.15 0.26 0.24 0.20 1.57

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of twelve determinations. Mn (0.001% – 0.004%), Al (0.001% – 0.002%) ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE: 6 Concentration of foliage elements of S. mollis

Seasons Phosphorus %

Calcium %

Sodium % Potassium %

Iron % Phenolics %

Hazargangi Spring 0.96±0.02 0.9± 0.02 0.32±0.02 0.15±0.02 0.02±0.001 1.2±0.04

Summer 1.2±0.04 0.37± 0.02 0.31±0.02 0.13±0.02 0.02±0.001 1.8±0.03 Autumn 1.0±0.03 0.55±0.02 0.25±0.03 0.14±0.03 0.03±0.002 1.4 ± 0.03 Winter 0.9±0.02 0.31±0.02 0.23±0.02 0.11±0.02 0.02±0.001 1.5 ± 0.04 Mean 1.02 0.40 0.27 0.13 0.01 1.5

Karkhasa Spring 0.8±0.03 0.13±0.02 0.12±0.03 0.06±0.02 0.06±0.002 1.0± 0.03

Summer 1.3±0.06 0.15±0.02 0.13±0.03 0.06±0.02 0.07±0.001 1.7±0.04 Autumn 0.6±0.02 0.17±0.02 0.12±0.02 0.05±0.01 0.05±0.001 1.4±0.03 Winter 0.6±0.02 0.15±0.02 0.13±0.02 0.04±0.02 0.04±0.001 1.6±0.02 Mean 0.82 0.15 0.13 0.05 0.06 1.43

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of twelve determinations. Mn (0.001% – 0.004%) Al (0.001% – 0.004%) ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE: 7 Concentration of foliage elements of P. abrotanoides

Seasons Phosphorus %

Calcium, %

Sodium. %

Potassium %

Iron %

Phenolics %

Hazargangi Spring 1.00 ± 0.02 1.10 ±0.04 1.3 ± 0.03 1.12 ± 0.05 0.031±0.001 3.2 ±0.03

Summer 0.9 ± 0.02 1.23 ±0.04 1.23 ± 0.04 1.14 ± 0.04 0.02± 0.001 3.3 ± 0.02 Autumn 0.82 ± 0.01 1.5 ±0.03 1.31 ± 0.03 1.13 ± 0.03 0.02 ±0.002 2.4 ± 0.02 Winter 0.62 ± 0.02 1.5 ±0.03 1.25 ± 0.04 1.12 ± 0.04 0.02± 0.001 3.7 ± 0.03 Mean 0.83 1.22 1.27 1.12 0.02 3.15

Zarghoon Spring 0.55 ±0.03 0.50 ± 0.02 0.3 ±0.02 0.18 ± 0.03 0.05 ±0.002 4.7±0.02

Summer 1.55 ± 0.03 1.61 ± 0.04 0.20 ±0.02 0.13 ± 0.02 0.04 ± 0.001 3.5±0.03 Autumn 1.4 ± 0.03 1.62 ± 0.05 0.22 ±0.02 0.13 ± 0.03 0.03 ± 0.001 2.3±0.03 Winter 1.7 ± 0.02 0.48 ± 0.04 0.2 ± 0.02 0.16 ± 0.02 0.04 ± 0.001 2.2 ±0.02 Mean 1.05 1.05 0.23 0.5 0.04 3.17

Karkhasa Spring 0.28 ±0.02 1.20 ± 0.03 0.30 ± 0.02 0.19 ±0 .02 0.06 ± 0.002 3.3 ± 0.03

Summer 0.26 ± 0.02 1.30 ± 0.04 0.33 ± 0.02 0.15 ± 0.02 0.04 ± 0.002 4.3 ± 0.03 Autumn 0.26 ± 0.03 1.29± 0.04 0.31 ± 0.02 0.15 ±0.02 0.05 ± 0.001 4.6 ± 0.02 Winter 0.23 ± 0.04 1.38 ±0.03 0.32 ± 0.02 0.13 ±0.02 0.042 ±0.001 4.4 ± 0.02 Mean 0.25 1.29 0.31 0.15 0.04 4.15

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of twelve determinations.

Mn (0.001% – 0.005%), Al (0.001% – 0.002%) ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE: 8 Concentration of foliage elements of B. baluchistanica

Seasons Phosphorus %

Calcium, %

Sodium. %

Potassium %

Iron %

Phenolics %

Zarghoon Spring 0.58 ±0.03 0.39 ±0.02 0.04 ±0.003 0.62 ±0.03 0.04 ±0.002 1.3 ±0.07

Summer 0.56 ±0.06 0.37 ±0.02 0.04±0.003 0.52 ±0.02 0.05±0.003 1.4 ±0.05 Autumn 0.50 ±0.02 0.34 ±0.01 0.04±0.002 0.37±0 .01 0.05±0.001 1.0 ±0.03 Winter 0.42 ±0.0.2 0.32 ±0.01 0.03±0.002 0.37±0.02 0.04±0.002 1.7 ±0.02 Mean 0.51 0.35 0.03 0.47 0.04 1.3

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of twelve determinations. Mn (0.001% – 0.006%), Al (0.001% – 0.003%) ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

4.2 Anti nutritional Studies

Phenolics of two trees and six shrub species were analyzed from

three habitats of Quetta and are presented in (Tables 1 – 8).

The amount of phenolics in tree ranged from (0.2%-0.9%) DM

(Table 1 and 2). High contents of phenolics were recorded from P. khinjuk

(0.9-0.3%) as compared to F. xanthoxyloides (0.2%-0.7%). These amounts

were lower than that reported by Niknam and Ebrahimzadeh (2002). It was

observed that animals do not prefer to eat P. khinjuk, may be due to high

phenolics. Phenolics have both primary and secondary deterrence causes a

predator to reject a plant because of its bitter taste or offensive odor.

Secondary deterrence involves inducing uneasiness in the animals, which

lead the rejection of plants, Grey et al., (1997).

However the amount of phenolics found in shrubs were significantly

higher than those found in trees. Shrubs contain (1.0 - 4.9%) DM of

phenolics. Highest phenol content was observed in P. abrotanoides

(4.9 -2.2%). P. ebrunea (1.9%) DM, C. ambigua (1.8%) DM and S. mollis

(1.8%) DM also showed medium amount of phenolics. While lowest was

found in A. brahuica (1.6 - 1.2%) DM. B. baluchistanica also had low

phenolics contents (1.7%) DM, although this plant is not found in these two

localities so, this plant was only collected and analyzed from Zarghoon.

Results were significantly different from tree species (P < 0.05). Similar

amount of phenolics were recorded from Niknam and Ebrahimzadeh (2002)

from Astragalus species of Iran. The amount of phenolics increases

gradually in summer, winter and autumn season. Domestic animals and

wild ruminants avoid to graze P. abrotanoides, it may be due to the reason

that the high amount of phenolics present in its foliage. Sheep are less

adapted to digest anti-nutritional rich plants, Kumar and Vaithiyanathan

(1990).

The result of this study, along with the results of other scientists

Ebrahimazeh et al., (1999); Ebrahimazeh et al.,(2002); Niknam and

Ebrahimzadeh (2002), can be used for selection of desirable species of

forage, to restore overgrazed range, control erosion, and can replace

undesirable plants in Quetta.

However variations in contents of plant secondary metabolites are

effected by many factors. There may be genetic components to such

variations Bowers and Stamp (1992), but the genotype can be modified by

a variety of biotic and abiotic features. Niknam and Ebrahimzadeh (2002)

suggested that seasonal changes in biochemistry caused by shifting patterns

of resource allocation that reflect different physiological demands

associated with growth, defense and reproduction. However, at the same

time a diversity of environmental stresses contribute to spatial variation

within and among populations Waterman and Mole (1994); Dudt and Shure

(1994).

Schroder (1986) stated that leaf nutrients (nitrogen, sugar, and water

contents) are negatively correlated with the amounts of anti nutrients

(phenolics and fibers) these increase with leaf maturity. The significant

changes in leaf water, nitrogen, or sugar content occurred between spring

and summer. The amount of these compounds present in shrub varies with

the kind of tissue, the age or stage of development, and the season. Similar

results were found in this study, the amount of phenolics increased in

autumn and winter seasons while more nutritional content were found

during spring and summer seasons. Barry and Fross (1983) concluded that

concentration of anti- nutritional compounds in plants is often increased by

low soil fertility, high light intensity, high temperature and drought.

Some shrubs have high level of soluble phenolics and tannins that

can reduce protein digestibility and retention Moukld and Robbins (1981);

Nastis and Malchek (1981) and Robinson (1982). Plants with high

phenolics like P. abrotanoides were not like by the animal, as some of

these substances are poisonous; this is not the primary reason for

avoidance because some poisonous plants are selectively eaten. This

character may develop with maturity, and un-palatability can also advance

with age due to increased fibrousness, similar results were found by

Arnold (1981). The accumulation of tannin in plants as a chemical defense

plays an important role against vertebrates and invertebrate herbivores,

Haslam (1988) and Garry et al., (1994). The amount of condensed

phenolics and tannins in the foliage may vary with genotype, Garry et al.,

(1994); although changes in physical environmental factors such as

climate, Jonasson et al., (1986); Horner et al., (1988); Mole and Joern

(1993); light, Bryant et al., (1987); water availability, Gershenzon, (1984);

and soil fertility, Dustin and Cooper-Driver (1992) and Northup et al.,

(1995).

4.3 Nutritional Studies

a) Ash Content Two dominant trees and six shrubs of Quetta valley from three

habitats were evaluated for their ash content. The fresh weight, dry weight

and ash content of two tree species (Table 9 and 10) and six shrub species

(Table 11-16).

The results of trees showed that ash content in F. xanthoxyloides

ranged from 0.522mg–0.302/10 gm. Maximum ash content were found

during spring season while lowest was found during winter season. Almost

equal amount of ash was recorded from all three localities.

P. khinjuk showed high ash content it ranged from

0.532mg–0.436/10gm. Maximum ash content was found in autumn season

and low amount was found in spring, however Zarghoon was the area in

which high amount of ash was observed. P. khinjuk had high ash content

as compare to F. xanthoxyloides, and both species are non significant

(P < 0.05) in all three habitats. Dry weight in P. khinjuk ranged between

4.7 - 5.8 mg while in F. xanthoxyloides it ranged between 5.5 - 4.6 mg in

P. khinjuk. More or less the amount of dry matter was similar in all three

habitats.

In case of shrub species maximum ash content ranged between

0.592mg - 0.400/10gm. Maximum amount (0.592) was recorded in

S. mollis from Hazargangi this might be due to that S. mollis leaves has

thick cuticle that increases the thickness of leaves. S. mollis is used as fuel

or green manure and as pesticide by the burning of whole plant to the local

people. The minimum amount (0.400mg/10gm) was recorded from

C. ambigua during winter season from Karkhasa and medium amount

(0.497mg/10gm) was noted in A. brahuica and P. abrotanoides from

Karkhasa (Table 11 and 15). The amount of ash (5.23mg/10 gm) was found

from B. baluchistanica and light red to whitish in color that might be due

to the red coloring pigment present in stem and mid vein of leaves.

P. eburnea showed medium amount (0.463mg/10gm), almost all three

habitats showed more or less equal amount of ash content. Species are non

significant at (P < 0.05) level.

The maximum dry weight (5.8mg/10 gm) was calculated in S. mollis

from Karkhasa and lowest amount was noted in A. brahuica (4.8mg /10gm)

the medium amount was in A. brahuica in Karkhasa and Zarghoon

respectively. Almost all of the mineral content of plants is recovered in the

ash; ash gives an indication of the total mineral content, but may be

misleading because of high levels of silica or other no nutrient elements.

b) Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates of two trees and six shrubs leaves were determined

from three habitats of Quetta district during four seasons (Table 9 – 16).

High amount of carbohydrate (15.32%) DM was found in

F. xanthoxyloides from Zarghoon during summer season. Medium amount

(14.60%) DM was found from P. khinjuk during autumn season from

Zarghoon, while minimum amount (10.20%) DM was also recorded from

P. khinjuk during spring season. However different habitats showed high

significant differences in carbohydrates concentration (P > 0.05). Zarghoon

was the best area for both the tree species for the accumulation of

carbohydrate. My findings were similar and comparable with the result of

Norton (1981), he reported that 10% carbohydrate is the minimum required

amount for the effective lactic acid formation, and low amount leads to

poor fodder fermentation.

In shrub species the amount of carbohydrate ranged from 19.24% -

12.00% DM (Table 11–16). Maximum carbohydrates ranged between

19.24% - 16.72% DM, were recorded from P. eburnea it was (19.24%)

DM, medium amount ranged between15.67% - 14.67% DM and found in

A. brahuica while minimum amount ranged between12.59% - 12.00% DM,

low amount (12.00%) DM was found in P. abrotanoides. In the

B. baluchistanica maximum average amount (17.37%) DM was found,

followed by C. ambigua (15.03%) DM, while in S. mollis it was (13.38%)

DM.

In spring season (19.24%) DM was found in P. eburnea. Same

amount in two shrubs (16.72%) DM was found in P. eburnea and

B. baluchistanica in summer season, winter season responded slightly less

amount of carbohydrate in shrub species. In Hazargangi maximum amount

(19.24%) DM was found in P. eburnea, medium amount (17.37%) DM of

carbohydrate in B. baluchistanica was recorded from Zarghoon, less

amount (14.41%) DM was found in A. brahuica from Karkhasa.

P. eburnea and B. baluchistanica showed average good concentration

(16.2, 17.37%) of carbohydrate in all the seasons from all three habitats.

Therefore, P. eburnea and B. baluchistanica can be regarded as a richest

source of carbohydrate, and all other plants studied also proved to be a

good source of carbohydrate. These carbohydrate contents were remarkably

high than those of mixed herbage (4.2%) and far lower than wheat grains

(70 %) Reuter and Robinson (1986).

Similar findings were observed by Arnold (1964), he concluded that

carbohydrates are completely digested, related to palatability, and

negatively correlated with protein concentration. Almost equal amount

(18%) was recorded by Dahot (1993), from Capparis decidua. Niknam and

Lisar (2004) also found low amount of carbohydrates from Astragalus

species from Iran.

However a large variation in plant carbohydrates was recorded in

other shrub species, this may be due to variations in the content of plant

metabolites appears to be the result of many factors. There may be a genetic

component to such variation, Bowers and Stamp (1992); Niknam and Lisar

(2004), but the genotype can be modified by a variety of biotic and abiotic

features. It might be seasonal changes in biochemical characteristics are

caused by shifting patterns of resource allocation that reflect different

physiological demands associated with growth, defense and reproduction.

At the same time, a diversity of environmental stresses such as drought,

rain fall, altitudes, temperature contributes to spatial variation with in and

among populations, Waterman and Mole (1994).

Similar investigations were found by Ebrahimzadeh et al., (1999);

Ebrahimzadeh et al., (2000); Niknam and Ebrahimzadeh (2002); Niknam et

al., (2003) and Niknam and Lisar (2004), can be used for selection of

desirable species for forage purpose to restore overgrazed range, control

erosion and replace desirable plants. Carbohydrates and fats is the basic

source of energy for the small grazing ruminant but these consume able

energy may not be entirely usefully for them.

c) Crude Protein and Nitrogen

Almost same amount of crude protein and nitrogen was found in

leave samples although analysis through different methods. Fodder tree and

shrubs have always played a significant role in feeding domestic animals.

In fact, tree and shrubs are increasingly recognized as important

components of animal feeding, particularly as suppliers of protein and

especially in harsh environmental conditions. In such situations, the

available grazing is not generally sufficient to meet the maintenance

requirements of animals, at least for part of the year. In arid and semi arid

areas, the availability and quality of the forage determines the livestock

production. Rainfall and drought directly affect forage yields and grazing

pressure on various range sites, but rain fall and lack of it, plays an

important role in the utilization of less palatable browse plants.

The main features of browse plants are high crude protein (CP) and

mineral contents. Hence crude protein concentration may be misleading as

an indicator of nutritive value of these species Nuñez- Hernández et al., (1989).

High Crude protein and nitrogen contents of all trees and shrubs

leaves from three localities were analysis during four seasons (Table 9–16).

The tree leave had mean high crude protein (18.25%) DM, in

F. xanthoxyloides crude protein was higher (21.36%) DM and significantly

different (P > 0.05) in summer seasons from Zarghoon. These were more

then that found in P. khinjuk. Similarly crude protein of P. khinjuk showed

(18.72%) DM and significantly different (P > 0.05) from Zarghoon during

autumn season. Crude protein in trees were higher (13–14%) than those

found in shrubs (10–20 %). These were not much affected by the season

and were non-significantly high during summer season, it gradually

decrease dry season. Similar findings were observed by Forwood and

Owensby (1985) they suggested that withdrawal of protein from leaves to

the branches shortly before leaf abscission may explain the leaf protein

decline.

The maximum crude protein in shrubs ranged between 19.38% –

17.42 % DM, these were recorded from P. eburnea (19.38%) and

B. baluchistanica (19.35%) from Zarghoon during autumn season.

A. brahuica and C. ambigua contained medium amount of crude protein

ranged between 16–14% DM basis, while S. mollis and P. abrotanoides

had low amount ranged between 12–10% DM.

Among shrubs average maximum crude protein (18.21%) was found

in P. eburnea leaves followed by B. baluchistanica (17.74%). The crude

protein values found in this study was comparable with the values

(10–28%) reported by Singh (1982), Papachristou and Papanastasis (1994),

Shavo (1997) and Subba (1998). Leaves of P. eburnea and

B. baluchistanica, and C. ambigua contained significantly high amount

(P > 0.05) of crude protein contents during autumn. P. abrotanoides

showed high crude protein during summer and autumn from Zarghoon

only. Generally some plant species are highly nutritious but available only

in limited quantities, while more readily available species are less nutritious

Huston and Pinchak (1993). S. mollis showed low crude protein, although

it is leguminous plant and crude protein content was not significantly

affected by seasons and altitudes. Same results were observed by Tewatia

and Virk (1996), who suggested that some species of family Fabaceae

(Leguminoseae) are the cheap source of protein for both animals and

human beings. Similar findings were observed by Nasrullah et al., (2003);

Wilson (1969) and Nitis (1989), they found that leguminous species contain

more than 25–50% crude protein than non-leguminous plants. Crude

protein in trees and shrubs leave was lower during spring season as

compared to autumn, similarly crude protein of all trees and shrubs leave

were high in winter season.

Crude protein in grasses is low 6– 8% Farooq et al., (1989) compare

to shrubs while these were highest in trees 18.25% DM. The crude protein

recorded from all shrubs was high than those found in grasses, Skarpe and

Bergstrom (1986). These were comparable to the standard table of feed

composition in Japan (2001). Therefore all these plants provide a good

source of protein to animals.

Differences in crude protein content between tree and shrub species

could be mainly due to variations in factors controlling crude protein

accumulation in forage during the growth process. The main factor in

Quetta is severe drought during last four years, due to this crude protein

was less in Hazargangi and Karkhasa and high in Zarghoon, where more

water was available. Martin (1998), found more crude protein during rainy

seasons from some grasses. Our results are contrary to Le Houerou (1992);

he observed more crude protein from arid environment. In drier areas,

forage quality often remains relatively constant through out the year and

sufficient for animal requirements, Danckwerts (1989a), Danckwerts and

Tainton (1996). Turning to inter seasonal variability, forage productivity is

directly related to mean annual rain fall Danckwerts and Tainton (1996). In

arid environments, plant may have adequate protein in relation to other

nutrients when measured as concentrations of total nitrogen, through out

the growing season, Jones and Wilson (1987).

However, some variations in chemical composition between current

findings and literature value could also be due to sample preparation and

climatic influences as forage growth and plant nutrient accumulation,

Rubanza et al., (2003). My findings showed that in tree and shrub species

level of crude protein decreases in winter probably as the plants with draw

these elements for use in the next generation’s similar result were observed

by Skarpe & Bergstrom (1986) and Fadel Elseed (2002).

Therefore it is concluded that all plants studied had high nutritional

values as fodder. Trees had more crude protein as compared to shrubs.

These quantities are more than that found in standard plants and can easily

fulfill the animal’s nutritional requirements.

d) Crude Fiber. The results of crude fiber of two trees and six shrub species were

evaluated during all season from three localities of Quetta are given in

Table (9–16). In tree species it ranged between 17.00– 37.00 % DM, while

in shrubs it range was 16.24–26.10% DM. In tree maximum fiber content

(37.00%) DM was found in F. xanthoxyloides during winter season from

Hazargangi it was significantly different (P > 0.05). In P. khinjuk medium

amount (29.3%) was observed during autumn season from Hazargangi.

However low amount of crude fiber was (17.04%) DM was found in

P. khinjuk from Hazargangi in spring season. As the growth stages

advances the percentage of crude fiber increases in autumn in both tree

species. F. .xanthoxyloides are nutritious for animal feeding in early

season, but it contain large amount of crude fiber as the season matures, so

during winter season crude fiber are digested more slowly and less

completely.

Site conditions are also important for the formation of nutrient

content but in case of crude fiber formation it is negatively correlated with

the digestibility, but frequently this correlation is not significant, Dent and

Aldrich (1963). Seasons and altitude did not affect the formation of fibers,

it might be genetically controlled.

My finding about the tree species indicates the low amount of crude

fiber was present in P. khinjuk as compared to F. xanthoxyloides.

P. khinjuk plant is less nutritious and digestible. It might contain

secondary metabolites, as the plant matures these metabolites increases but

it contain large amount of crude fiber, which increase with the maturation

of leaves, so the P. khinjuk is not palatable for the small ruminant. It might

be due to that fiber digestion takes much time and not completely digested.

Contemporary scientist consider that nutritional value of plant as feed can

be best calculated by the amount of crude protein and crude fiber present in

them Bryant and Kuropat (1983) and Heneidy (1992).

Crude fiber analyzed from six shrubs ranged between 16.00–28.00%

DM. Maximum amount of crude fiber ranged between 22.00–27.00% DM,

was recorded in A. brahuica (27.77%) DM, less amount ranged between

16.24–17.79 % DM, and found in C. ambigua (16.24%) DM.

Crude fiber in leaves of all shrubs was high during autumn and

winter season. In all habitats of the study area more amount of crude fiber

was observed from Zarghoon as compared to Hazargangi, where the

medium amount of crude fiber was recorded, while the lowest amount was

observed from Karkhasa valley. The amount recorded from these trees and

shrub species are comparable to the standard cabbage leaves (27.00%) DM

PARC (1982). Heneidy (2002) also reported high crude fiber (30–36%)

DM from some palatable supplementary feed.

e) Gross Energy

The productivity of the large herbivores depends basically on the

intake of digestible energy and nutrients, not only on the biomass and

species composition of the grazing available, but also on the nutritive

composition and digestibility of the fodder species at any particular time.

All eight plants were analyzed for energy level. Gross energy was

calculated of two dominant trees and six shrub species of Quetta district

during four seasons (Table 9–16). Result indicates the high range of energy

was 4.98–4.81 (Mcal/Kg-DM), and found in F. xanthoxyloides. The

medium amount ranged between 4.61–4.56 (Mcal/Kg-DM) and less amount

ranged between 4.4–4.3 (Mcal/Kg-DM). High amount of gross energy

5.5 (Mcal/Kg-DM) was found during summer season in F. xanthoxyloides.

Low amount was observed 4.1 (Mcal/Kg-DM) in winter season in

F. xanthoxyloides. Medium amount 5.2 (Mcal/Kg-DM) was observed in

autumn in both the tree species from Zarghoon, while from Hazargangi

medium amount 4.54 (Mcal/Kg-DM) of gross energy was found in

P. khinjuk, low amount 4.3 (Mcal/Kg-DM) was noted from Karkhasa

valley. The energy level of trees was similar through out the year but

slightly increases in summer and autumn seasons were recorded. Trees of

Zarghoon area showed slightly better energy level.

In shrub species amount ranged between 4.7–4.29 (Mcal/Kg-DM).

Highest amount was 5.2 (Mcal/Kg-DM) found in P. eburnea and

B. baluchistanica. Medium amount 4.8 (Mcal/Kg-DM) was found in

C. ambigua, S. mollis, and P. abrotanoides while less energy

3.9 (Mcal/Kg-DM) was observed in A. brahuica.

High energy level 5.2 (Mcal/Kg-DM) found in P. eburnea from

spring season medium amount 4.8 (Mcal/Kg-DM) was noted in

P. abrotanoides in autumn season, less energy was calculated

3.9 (Mcal/Kg-DM) was observed in A. brahuica from spring season.

Almost (Table 11–16) all of the shrubs was slightly decreased

(P > 0.005) during autumn and winter season, this may be due to the fact

that shrubs in this seasons are not considered good source of energy after

fruit development, they fail to meet the energy requirement of animals

during these two season. Lower 3.6–3.5 (Mcal/Kg-DM) gross energy was

recorded by Heineidy (1992) in western coastal region of halophytic range.

Our results indicate high gross energy of the plants of this region and

comparable to Heineidy (2002), he found low energy level from coastal

region, NW– Egypt. My findings were also comparable to Yu et al., (2004)

he found similar gross energy from Alfa Alfa.

Forages provide an important source of nutrients for ruminants,

Beever (1993), phonologically young plant tissue is relatively nutritious,

McNaughton (1979); Detling and Painter (1983) and Douglas et al., (1998).

TABLE 9 Average leaf nutritional value of F. xanthoxyloides

Seasons Fresh Weight

(gm)

Dry Weight

(gm)

Ash Weight

(mg)

Carbohydrate %

Crude Protein

%

Crude Fiber

%

Energy (Mcal/Kg-DM)

Hazargangi Spring 10 4.8 0.436 12.24 17.05 28.00 4.3

Summer 10 5.2 0.489 14.65 18.15 30.00 4.6 Autumn 10 5.5 0.497 14.7 18.27 32.00 5.2 Winter 10 5.9 0.522 13.34 19.10 37.00 3.50 Mean 10 5.35 0.486 13.73 18.14 31.75 4.4

Zarghoon Spring 10 5.00 0.512 14.65 18.17 26.00 4.6

Summer 10 5.32 0.4600 15.32 20.21 28.00 5.56 Autumn 10 4.97 0.489 14.60 21.36 31.00 5.2 Winter 10 4.65 0.499 14.27 19.97 30.00 4.56 Mean 10 4.99 0.49 14.71 19.93 28.75 4.98

Karkhasa Spring 10 4.75 0.489 12.26 17 25.00 4.0

Summer 10 4.9 0.432 12.93 18.0 28.00 4.5 Autumn 10 5.0 0.459 14.47 18.2 29.00 4.6 Winter 10 4.8 0.302 14.00 13.6 30.00 4.1 Mean 10 4.86 0.421 13.42 16.7 28.00 4.3

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 18 samples

ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE 10 Average leaf nutritional value of P. khinjuk

Seasons Fresh Weight

(gm)

Dry Weight

(gm)

Ash Weight

(mg)

Carbohydrate %

Crude Protein

%

CrudeFiber

%

Energy (Mcal/Kg-DM)

Hazargangi Spring 10 4.9 0.436 12.00 13.75 17.04 4.46

Summer 10 5.2 0.489 12.24 18.00 24.31 4.52 Autumn 10 5.00 0.532 12.70 20.00 29.30 4.67 Winter 10 5.8 0.412 13.00 17.23 28.20 4.50 Mean 10 5.23 0.467 12.49 17.25 24.71 4.54

Zarghoon Spring 10 5.0 0.502 10.2 17.00 18.70 4.67

Summer 10 5.2 0.522 14.7 18.1 19.31 4.56 Autumn 10 5.6 0.531 14.60 18.72 19.69 5.2 Winter 10 4.9 0.422 13.3 18.32 20.42 4.81 Mean 10 5.18 0.494 13.2 18.04 19.53 4.81

Karkhasa Spring 10 5.0 0.499 12.20 16.37 18.1 4.6

Summer 10 5.2 0.515 14.7 17.92 18.67 4.7 Autumn 10 5.3 0.512 14.37 17.39 18.45 4.5 Winter 10 4.7 0.513 10.20 14.37 18.86 4.2 Mean 10 5.05 0.51 12.87 16.51 18.52 4.5

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 18 samples

ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE 11 Average leaf nutritional value of A. brahuica

Seasons Fresh Weight

(gm)

Dry Weight

(gm)

Ash weight (mg)

Carbohydrate %

Crude Protein

%

CrudeFiber

%

Energy (Mcal/Kg-DM)

Hazargangi Spring 10 4.6 0.531 15.34 14.22 21.0 3.9

Summer 10 4.8 0.522 16.31 15.32 22.12 4.6 Autumn 10 5.1 0.537 16.0 15.32 26.10 4.9 Winter 10 5.0 0.419 14.4 12.42 23.9 4.5 Mean 10 4.88 0.502 15.51 14.32 23.28 4.48

Zarghoon Spring 10 5.0 0.527 15.37 13.39 23.4 4.6

Summer 10 5.1 0.532 15.48 15.26 24.3 4.2 Autumn 10 5.4 0.531 15.56 16.32 26.4 5.1 Winter 10 5.0 0.497 15.03 14.49 27.7 4.7 Mean 10 5.13 0.522 15.36 14.87 25.45 4.65

Karkhasa Spring 10 5.1 0.498 14.41 13.6 19.9 4.7

Summer 10 5.4 0.499 15.49 16.23 20.1 4.4 Autumn 10 5.7 5.0 15.67 17.42 20.62 4.6 Winter 10 4.9 4.97 15.50 15.70 26.37 3.9 Mean 10 5.28 2.742 15.27 15.74 21.75 4.4

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 18 samples

ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE 12 Average leaf nutritional value of P. eburnea

Seasons Fresh Weight

(gm)

Dry Weight

(gm)

Ash weight(mg)

Carbohydrate % Crude Protein

%

CrudeFiber

%

Energy (Mcal/Kg-DM)

Hazargangi Spring 10 4.5 0.432 13.32 13.72 17.04 4.4

Summer 10 4.8 0.489 14.59 17.63 20.42 4.46 Autumn 10 5.3 0.547 15.32 18.21 22.28 4.9 Winter 10 4.7 0.472 13.14 17.2 21.31 4.5 Mean 10 4.83 0.485 14.09 16.69 20.26 4.57

Zarghoon Spring 10 4.9 0.451 19.24 18.21 20.17 5.2

Summer 10 5.1 0.463 16.72 18.72 19.51 5.1 Autumn 10 5.3 0.489 15.65 19.38 19.69 4.8 Winter 10 5.0 0.472 14.23 17.9 21.31 4.0 Mean 10 5.075 0.469 16.46 18.55 20.17 4.78

Karkhasa Spring 10 4.6 0.52 16.42 17.6 19.37 4.3

Summer 10 4.9 0.462 15.51 17.92 20.24 4.4 Autumn 10 5.0 0.439 14.39 18.2 19.97 4.6 Winter 10 4.8 0.404 12.47 16.2 18.32 3.9 Mean 10 4.83 0.456 14.7 17.48 19.48 4.3

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 18 samples ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE: 13 Average leaf nutritional value of C. ambigua

Seasons Fresh Weight

(gm)

Dry Weight

(gm)

Ash Weight

(mg)

Carbohydrate %

Crude Protein

%

CrudeFiber

%

Energy (Mcal/Kg-DM)

Hazargangi Spring 10 4.8 0.486 14.65 15.25 17.4 4.2

Summer 10 5 0.393 13.25 15.18 17.9 4.3 Autumn 10 5.1 0.462 15.2 16.24 17.97 4.42 Winter 10 4.7 0.417 13.91 15.1 18.23 4.25 Mean 10 4.9 0.44 14.25 15.44 17.88 4.29

Zarghoon Spring 10 5.0 0.459 14.37 15.63 16.24 4.6

Summer 10 5.6 0.531 14.67 15.98 18.29 4.9 Autumn 10 5.3 0.522 15.25 14.25 21.37 4.5 Winter 10 5.2 0.417 14.31 16.18 20.24 4.6 Mean 10 5.28 0.482 14.65 15.51 19.04 4.65

Karkhasa Spring 10 4.8 0.431 14.21 14.23 16.24 4.6

Summer 10 4.9 0.411 14.15 16.11 16.29 4.7 Autumn 10 5.1 0.459 15.26 16.27 18.32 4.8 Winter 10 4.7 0.400 13.27 14.23 16.57 4.6 Mean 10 4.88 0.425 14.22 15.21 16.86 4.68

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 18 samples ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE 14 Average leaf nutritional value of S. mollis

Seasons Fresh Weight

(gm)

Dry Weight

(gm)

Ash Weight

(mg)

Carbohydrate % Crude Protein

%

Crude Fiber

%

Energy (Mcal/Kg-DM)

Hazargangi Spring 10 5.9 0.592 13.3 10.25 18.7 4.3

Summer 10 5.8 0.475 14.4 11.18 19.7 4.7 Autumn 10 5.2 0.524 15.9 10.27 18.21 4.8 Winter 10 5.4 0.57 14.3 12.52 18.31 4.6 Mean 10 5.58 0.54 14.48 11.06 18.73 4.6

Karkhasa Spring 10 5.5 0.59 12.25 12.37 17.04 4.4

Summer 10 5.2 0.57 12.18 10.39 19.32 4.6 Autumn 10 5.3 0.52 13.25 11.22 20.61 4.4 Winter 10 4.9 0.55 13.25 12.52 19.67 4.3 Mean 10 5.23 0.56 12.73 11.63 19.16 4.43

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 18 samples

ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE 15 Average leaf nutritional value of P. abrotanoides

Seasons Fresh Weight

(gm)

Dry Weight

(gm)

Ash Weight

(mg)

Carbohydrate %

Crude Protein

%

CrudeFiber

%

Energy (Mcal/Kg-DM)

Hazargangi Spring 10 5.00 0.430 12.00 10.10 17.04 4.3

Summer 10 5.8 0.463 13.32 10.57 18.42 4.40 Autumn 10 5.2 0.457 13.97 11.42 18.68 4.6 Winter 10 5 0.432 12.89 11.11 19.31 4.0 Mean 10 5.25 0.446 13.05 10.8 18.36 4.33

Zarghoon Spring 10 5.1 0.412 12.24 11.31 19.41 4.5

Summer 10 5.6 0.512 13.97 14.42 18.68 4.6 Autumn 10 5.9 0.517 13.5 14.96 20.29 4.8 Winter 10 5.2 0.513 13.3 11.16 17.23 4.2 Mean 10 5.45 0.489 13.25 12.96 18.9 4.53

Karkhasa Spring 10 4.9 0.461 12.5 10.23 20.42 4.1

Summer 10 5.2 0.497 13.4 11.42 21.29 4.3 Autumn 10 5.9 0.519 14.2 11.53 23.27 4.7 Winter 10 5.4 0.50 12.6 11.16 19.42 4.2 Mean 10 5.35 0.494 13.18 11.09 21.1 4.33

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 18 samples

ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

TABLE 16 Average leaf nutritional value of B.baluchistanica

Seasons Fresh Weight

(gm)

Dry Weight

(gm)

Ash Weight

(mg)

Carbohydrate% Crude Protein

%

CrudeFiber

%

Energy (Mcal/Kg-

DM) Zarghoon

Spring 10 4.8 0.523 16.14 17.00 21.3 4.6 Summer 10 5.2 0.498 16.72 18.10 23.0 4.56 Autumn 10 5.3 0.542 18.87 19.35 26.3 5.2 Winter 10 5.0 0.531 17.77 16.52 25.4 4.52 Mean 10 5.08 0.524 17.38 17.74 24 4.72

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 18 samples ANOVA (P < 0.05), (P > 0.05)

4.4 Feeding Trials

Minerals in forage always play significant role in nutrient utilization

and some biochemical functions related to the production, feeding and

reproduction in grazing animals. The presence of minerals in required

amount in animal diet varies due to several factors which influence their

intake and utilization. Generally the quality of leaves varies in nutrient

quality and digestibility through out the year. Animal utilize minerals

through the consumption of natural available feed Gowda et al., (2004).

Animals can not function normally with out sufficient supply of any of the

essential elements either it may be macro or micro. Trace elements

deficiencies are less wide spread, more difficult to recognize and probably

quantatively less important than macro element deficiencies. Grazing

ruminants select diets from an array of plant species that vary in nutrients

and toxins, Wang and Provenza (1996). The quality of plants found in

ranges is judged primarily upon how readily it is eaten up by animals and

its nutritive content in respect to its phonological development.

F. xanthoxyloides and P. eburnea are most palatable through out

the year. While B. baluchistanica is eaten up only during early growth and

only certain portions of a particular species are consumed during the later

stages of development. Most forage F. xanthoxyloides and P. eburnea are

high in nutrients from April to August, however as they get mature they

lose nutrients, gradually decreasing in autumn to winter season.

a) Carbohydrate

The effect of two trees and six shrubs of Quetta from three habitats

on sheep metabolism were studied. Fecal and urine samples were analyzed

for carbohydrate, crude protein, crude fiber and total nitrogen. Body weight

was also monitored. (Table 17-20).

The sheep fed with P. khinjuk had high carbohydrate (2.8%) in their

feces and (1.3%) in urine. The amount of carbohydrate in P. khinjuk

leaves was 13.08% this shows that almost 21.46% of the plant carbohydrate

was not absorbed, while leaves of F. xanthoxyloides had 13.77%

carbohydrate with significantly low amount of carbohydrate (1.4%) from

feces and (1.2%) in urine of sheep were recorded, this shows that only 10%

carbohydrates were excreted and 90% was absorbed. The carbohydrate of

control sheep was 1.11% while in urine it was 0.10%. This shows that

carbohydrate of F. xanthoxyloides were absorbed more as compared to

P. khinjuk and the amount excreted was comparable to control (1.4%) in

feces and (1.1%) in urine which were fed with mixed herbage therefore it is

concluded that among trees F. xanthoxyloides provides better nutrition to

animal as compared to P. khinjuk. Same results were found by Decandia

et al., (1997), they observed that in mediterranean basin, tannin rich species

(P. lenticus L.) are wide spread and although they are less preferred their

contribution to the diet is important.

In all six shrubs studied the amount of carbohydrate ranged between

6.7 - 2.3% in feces and in urine 2.1% -1.0% (Table17-20).The feeding

experiment of P. eburnea proved it to be a better shrub comparatively as

the amount of carbohydrate was (2.4%) in feces and (1.4%) in urine. The

leaves of P. eburnea had high (17%) carbohydrate content, it indicates that

it was better absorbed (88.24%) in the body of sheep only 14.76% of the

plant carbohydrate was not absorbed and excreted through feces (2.4%).

Therefore P. eburnea proved to be an excellent source of fodder.

Results indicate that the high amount of carbohydrates in feces

(6.7%) and (1.4%) in urine of sheep was observed when they were fed

P. abrotanoides this shows that the plant was not properly absorbed and

digested (40.82% excreted). However, the sheep did not prefer eating this

plant; the reason might be that it has very strong aromatic smell. This

proves that this plant is non palatable and less digestible therefore is not a

good source of fodder. Similar results were found by Arnold (1964), he

observed carbohydrates are completely digested related to palatability and

negatively correlated with protein concentration. Similarly S. mollis had

4.6% carbohydrate in feces and 1.2% in urine. In the foliage of S. mollis

less amount (14.47%) was found, it means that 31.8% carbohydrates were

not absorbed and passed undigested. A. brahuica, C. ambigua and

B. baluchistanica had almost same amount of carbohydrate (3.2%)

respectively while in urine it was 1.4%. The amount of carbohydrates found

in leaves was almost 15%, 20% of the carbohydrate passed unabsorbed

therefore these plants also proved to be less palatable and less digestible.

Carbohydrates are significant part of nutrition in animal, as it is main

source of food. This quality provides satisfaction of appetite and also

stimulates intestinal peristalsis. Sheep lack cellulase enzymes therefore it

can not be absorbed in gastrointestinal tract. Symbiosis helps herbivores to

utilize cellulose (carbohydrate) due to non availability of cellulase. Hence it

is converted into glucose and consumable products.

b) Crude Protein

The crude protein of animal fecal and urine samples were also

evaluated by feeding two native tree species and six shrub species to sheep.

The range of crude protein in feces of sheep fed with all tree leaves were

7.7%- 6.8% in feces and 0.2- 0.4% in urine (Table 17-20). High percentage

of crude protein in P. khinjuk leaves (17.62%) was recorded while 7.9%

was found in feces and 0.3% in urine of the sheep when fed with this plant

while significantly low amount (6.8%) was found in feces and (0.3%) in

urine when fed with F. xanthoxyloides, although high crude Protein 18.25%

was found in its leaves. This proves that crude protein of

F. xanthoxyloides was better digested as very little amount was excreted

therefore this tree provides a very good source of nutrition to animals as

compared to P. khinjuk. The crude protein requirement in ruminants is

6-8% in the diet for the microbial populations and both these plants have

more than the required amount. The feeding experiments of shrub leaves

showed no significant difference between trees and shrubs. Almost similar

amount of crude protein was found in the feces of sheep fed with A.

brahuica (7.2%), P. abrotanoides (7.2%) and B. baluchistanica (7.5%)

while (0.5%, 1.1%, and 1.6%) was found in urine samples respectively.

Medium amount of Crude Protein was observed when fed with

C. ambigua (6.4%) in feces and (1.1%) in urine. The amount recorded

from feces (5.6%) and (1.1%) in urine when fed with S. mollis, while

P. eburnea had less amount (5.0%) of crude protein in feces and in urine

(0.2%). Therefore P. eburnea proved to be the best source of fodder among

all shrubs studied as very less amount of crude protein was excreted and

maximum was absorbed. Generally grazing ruminants get energy from

plant’s carbohydrates and proteins. The animal nutritional needs change

depending on the nutrient content of the food it ingests, and macronutrients

(protein) play a primary role in food preferences Wang and Provenza

(1997).

c) Crude Fiber

Tree and shrubs species were evaluated for crude fiber in sheep’s

fecal and urine samples (Table17-20). The range of crude fiber was

21- 16% in the feces and 1.0-1.2% in urine. Sheep fed with P. khinjuk had

18% crude fiber in feces and in urine 1.3%, while crude fiber were less

when fed with F. xanthoxyloides, it was (16%) in feces and (1.0%) in

urine. Generally the fibrous diet is less preferred and has less nutritional

value for small ruminants. Similarly some woody species have a high fiber,

lignin content, high level of soluble phenolics and tannins that can reduce

nitrogen digestibility and retention, Van Soest (1994).

Shrub species evaluated had high crude fiber13% was found in feces

and 1.1% in urine fed with P. abrotanoides. However, sheep did not prefer

to eat P. abrotanoides might be due to its aromatic smell. Provenza (1995)

observed that taste and odor and their association are important for the

selection of food by small ruminants. While medium amount of crude fiber

was found in feces (10.6%) and (1.3%) in urine by feeding A. brahuica.

Significantly low crude fiber 5.2% in feces and 1.4% in urine by feeding

B. baluchistanica and P. eburnea while by eating C. ambigua 5.6% of

crude fiber was excreted in feces and 2.3% in urine. Therefore among

shrubs studied C. ambigua and P. eburnea are considered as good source of

nutrition as they had lowest crude fiber in the leaves as well as in feces and

urine. Variability in feed degradability could also be due to forage fiber

consumptions. According to Fonseca et al., (1998) and Rubenza et al.,

(2003), fiber proportion and type determine extent and rate of feed

degradation.

d) Total Nitrogen

Total nitrogen from feces and urine of sheep fed separately with two

tree and six shrub species were evaluated. The amount of total nitrogen was

(1.08%) in feces and (0.3%) in urine when fed F. xanthoxyloides, while the

amount (1.18%) was in feces and (0.3%) % in urine was found by feeding

P. khinjuk (Table17-20).

In shrub species when fed P. eburnea less nitrogen (0.8%) was

observed in feces and 0.2% was found in urine. While the amount of total

nitrogen was 1.14% in the feces and 0.2% in urine when fed with

A. brahuica. The amount of nitrogen was found by the feeding of

C. ambigua, S. mollis and P. abrotanoides ranged between 0.9-1.1% in

fecal and 0.3-0.4% in urine. Urine analysis is important tool in disease

detection as well as monitoring and screening animal health. When sheep

fed B. baluchistanica high amount (1.2%) in feces and 0.6% in urine was

found. Generally the protein requirements in ruminants include protein

while nitrogen required for their microbial population. Generally, microbial

requirements are 6-8% crude protein in diet. Nitrite occurs in urine during

some bacterial infection. The ratio of dietary energy and protein play an

important role in efficiency of rumen microbe active. These microbes

require energy to metabolize nitrogen.

Excessive nitrogen in food can also adversely affect in take, Baker

et al., (1988) and Provenza (1995). Small ruminant are better adapted to

the consumption of trees and shrubs with high content of deleterious

substances, provided a gradual ingestion of the browse. These

phenomenons of adaptation, as metabolism of antinutritional substances,

still need further investigation.

e) Body Weight

Body weight was recorded before and after feeding plants to sheep

(Table 17-20). By feeding of F. xanthoxyloides body weight significantly

increased (Fig. 20) and sheep preferred to eat this plant as compared to,

when fed with P. khinjuk. The nutritional concentration of

F. xanthoxyloides is similar or more than the amount required for the

animal nutrition as recommended by Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau

(1980). Feeding experiments proved high palatability and digestibility of

F. xanthoxyloides as the body weight of sheep significantly increased

(P < 0.05) when fed with F. xanthoxyloides as compare to P. khinjuk. It

also had a high level of phenolics which may be a reason of less palatability

and hence sheep do not prefer to eat it. Therefore it is concluded that

F. xanthoxyloides provides high quality of nutritional factors for animal

grazing.

Significantly increase (P < 0.05) in body weight was observed in

those sheep that were fed with P. eburnea (Table18, Fig 21). By the feeding

of A. brahuica, B. baluchistanica and C. ambigua almost same amount of

body weight (2.27kg) was increased. Comparatively less body weight (2kg)

was observed to have increased when fed B. baluchistanica. Shrub and tree

species are especially important in regions having long, cold winters as

during cold period, there is little growth of herbs or grasses, so animals are

forced to consume shrubs and these native tree species during this harsh

season. Shrub consumption in winter varies widely depending upon the

location of the site and the kind of grazing animals. Variations are probably

due to varying rainfall, temperature, time of sampling, site of

interrelationship or other conditions. However, due to increasing demand

for forage and extensive availability of low quality feed materials which

require protein supplementation, high protein fodders from leguminous

shrubs can play more significant role in animal feeding systems throughout

the developing world. F. xanthoxyloides and P. eburnea are palatable and

digestible and became good source of fodder in Quetta, while

B. baluchistanica, C. ambigua and A. brahuica leaves are nutritious but

has spines and thorns which reduce its palatability. Balochistan’s mountain

trees and shrubs provide good and complete diet for sheep, goats and

camels.

Table 17 Average value of animal fecal and urine out put of two trees Localities Carbohydrate

% Crude Protein

% Crude Fiber % Total Nitrogen

% Body weight

Kg Control F U F U F U F U I. wt F. wt

1.2 1.1 5.20 0.2 15.0 1.1 1.1 0.2 45.8 51.2 F. xanthoxyloides

F U F U F U F U I. wt F. wt Hazargangi 1.3 1.2 6.90 0.2 16.0 1.2 1.10 0.2 46.5 49.0 Zarghoon 1.4 1.1 6.80 0.3 13.0 1.0 1.10 0.2 45.3 52.3 Karkhasa 1.5 1.2 6.56 0.2 19.0 1.3 1.05 0.4 46.6 50.4 Mean 1.4 1.17 6.75 0.23 16.0 1.17 1.08 0.27 46.13 50.57

P. khinjuk Hazargangi 2.7 1.2 7.79 0.3 21.0 1.2 1.24 0.2 45.5 49.7 Zarghoon 2.8 1.3 7.5 0.3 17.0 1.4 1.2 0.4 45.6 49.4 Karkhasa 2.6 1.2 6.8 0.4 16.0 1.3 1.1 0.3 45.3 48.2 Mean 2.7 1.23 7.36 0.33 18.0 1.3 1.18 0.3 45.47 49.1

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 3 samples ANOVA (P > 0.05), (P < 0.05)

02468

101214161820

Hazargangi Zarghoon Karkhasa

Fig.13 Showing sheep fecal and urine out put fed with F. xanthoxyloides

Carbohydrate FecalCarbohydrate UrineCrude Protein FecalCrude Protein UrineCrude Fiber FecalCrude Fiber UrineTotal Nitrogen FecalTotal Nitrogen Urine

0

5

10

15

20

25

Hazargangi Zarghoon Karkhasa

%

Fig 14 Showing sheep fecal and urine out put fed with P. khinjak

Carbohydrate FecalCarbohydrate UrineCrude Protein FecalCrude Protein UrineCrude Fiber FecalCrude Fiber UrineTotal Nitrogen FecalTotal Nitrogen Urine

Table 18 Average value of animal fecal and urine out put of two Shrubs

Localities Carbohydrate

% Crude Protein

% Crude Fiber

% Total Nitrogen

% Body weight

Kg Control F U F U F U F U I. wt F. wt

1.2 1.1 5.20 0.2 15.0 1.1 1.1 0.2 45.8 51.2 A. brauhica

F U F U F U F U I. wt F. wt Hazargangi 3.2 1.2 6.5 0.2 10 1.2 1.02 0.2 46.6 47.5 Zarghoon 2.6 1.4 7.5 0.2 12 1.5 1.2 0.1 45.4 49.3 Karkhasa 2.3 1.6 7.0 0.3 10 1.2 1.2 0.3 45.3 47.4 Mean 2.7 1.4 7 0.23 10.67 1.3 1.14 0.2 45.8 48.07

P. eburnea Hazargangi 2.4 1.2 5.6 0.3 5.3 1.1 0.9 0.2 45.2 50.2 Zarghoon 2.6 1.4 5.0 0.5 6.3 1.3 0.8 0.2 46.5 52.5 Karkhasa 2.3 1.5 4.3 0.3 4.2 1.5 0.7 0.2 45.5 49.5 Mean 2.43 1.37 4.97 0.37 5.27 1.3 0.8 0.2 45.73 50.73

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 3 samples ANOVA (P > 0.05), (P < 0.05)

02468

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Hazargangi Zarghoon Karkhasa

%

Fig 15. Showing sheep fecal and urine out put fed with A. brauhica

Carbohydrate FecalCarbohydrate UrineCrude Protein FecalCrude Protein UrineCrude Fiber FecalCrude Fiber UrineTotal Nitrogen FecalTotal Nitrogen Urine

01234567

Hazargangi Zarghoon Karkhasa

Fig 16. Showing sheep fecal and urine out put fed with P. eburnea

%

Carbohydrate FecalCarbohydrate UrineCrude Protein FecalCrude Protein UrineCrude Fiber FecalCrude Fiber UrineTotal Nitrogen FecalTotal Nitrogen Urine

Table 19 Average value of animal fecal and urine out put of two Shrubs

Localities Carbohydrate

% Crude Protein

% Crude Fiber

% Total Nitrogen

% Body weight

Kg Control F U F U F U F U I. wt F. wt

1.2 1.1 5.20 0.2 15.0 1.1 1.1 0.2 45.8 51.2 C. ambigua

F U F U F U F U I. wt F. wt Hazargangi 3.7 1.0 6.3 1.0 7.3 2.5 1.0 0.4 44.8 47.5 Walitangi 3.1 1.3 6.8 1.3 5.8 2.6 1.1 0.6 46.7 49.3 Karkhasa 3.4 1.2 6.2 1.2 3.7 2.3 1.0 0.2 45.9 47.4 Mean 3.4 1.17 6.43 1.17 5.6 2.47 1.03 0.4 45.8 48.07

S. mollis Hazargangi 4.2 1.3 3.7 1.0 7.4 3.1 0.6 0.4 45.2 46.3 Karkhasa 4.6 1.2 7.5 1.2 6.2 3.9 1.2 0.3 45.5 49.5 Mean 4.4 1.25 5.6 1.1 6.8 3.5 0.9 0.35 45.35 47.9

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 3 samples ANOVA (P > 0.05), (P < 0.05)

012345678

Hazargangi Zarghoon Karkhasa

Fig 17. Showing sheep fecal and urine out put fed with C. ambigua

Carbohydrate FecalCarbohydrate UrineCrude Protein FecalCrude Protein UrineCrude Fiber FecalCrude Fiber UrineTotal Nitrogen FecalTotal Nitrogen Urine

Table 20 Average value of animal fecal and urine out put of two Shrubs

Localities Carbohydrate

% Crude Protein

% Crude Fiber

% Total Nitrogen

% Body weight

Kg Control F U F U F U F U I. wt F. wt

1.2 1.1 5.20 0.2 15.0 1.1 1.1 0.2 45.8 51.2 P. abrotanoides

F U F U F U F U I. wt F. wt Hazargangi 6.1 2.1 6.25 1.1 10.0 1.2 1.0 0.1 44.5 45.8 Zarghoon 5.2 1.3 7.50 1.0 13.0 1.1 1.2 0.5 45.3 47.3 Karkhasa 6.7 1.4 8.10 1.4 12.0 1.4 1.3 0.4 42.6 44.5 Mean 6 1.6 7.28 1.17 11.67 1.23 1.17 0.33 44.13 45.87

B. baluchistanica Zarghoon 3.2 1.6 7.5 1.2 5.2 2.9 1.2 0.6 46.5 48.5

Each value is mean ± standard deviation of 3 samples ANOVA (P > 0.05), (P < 0.05)

02468

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Hazargangi Zarghoon Karkhasa

Fig 18. Showing sheep fecal and urine out put of fed with P. abrotanoides

Carbohydrate FecalCarbohydrate UrineCrude Protein FecalCrude Protein UrineCrude Fiber FecalCrude Fiber UrineTotal Nitrogen FecalTotal Nitrogen Urine

Fig 19. Some trail sheep waiting to be photograph

40

42

44

46

48

50

52

54

Hazargangi Zarghoon Karkhasa

Body weifgt of Sheep after consuming two tree foliage

Incr

ease

in k

g

Iwt (Fx)fwt (Fx)iwt (Pk)FT(Pk)

Iwt = Initial Weight (F. xanthoxyloides), fwt = Final Weight(F. xanthoxyloides), iwt = Initial Weight (P. khinjuk). FT = Final weight (P. khinjuk)

Fig 20. Showing comparison of body weight of sheep after consuming tree foliage

40

42

44

46

48

50

52

54

Hazargangi Zarghoon Karkhasa

Body weight of Sheeps after consuming six shurbs foliage

Incr

eaas

e in

kg

Iwt (A.b)fwt (A.b)iwt (P.eb)FT(P.eb)Iwt (C.a)fwt (C.a)iwt (S.m)FT(S.m)Iwt (P.ab)fwt (P.ab)iwt (B.ba)FT(B.ba)

Iwt = Initial Weight (A. brahuica), fwt = Final Weight (A. brahuica), iwt = Initial Weight (P. eburnea), FT = Final weight (P. eburnea) Iwt = Initial Weight (C. ambigua), fwt = Final weight (C. ambigua) iwt = Initial Weight (S. mollis), FT = Final weight (S. mollis) Iwt = Initial Weight (P. abrotanoides), fwt = Final weight (P. abrotanoides) iwt = Initial Weight (B. baluchistanica), FT = Final weight (B. baluchistanica)

Fig 21. Showing comparison of body weight of sheep after consuming shrubs foliage

4.5 Soil

a) Physical Characters

Different elements play vital role in plant growth as they are

absorbed from soil. Soil of 3 localities of Quetta was analyzed for their

physical and chemical characteristics (Table21, Fig 22). Soil has important

chemical physiological and biological properties and it varies from place to

place, depending upon the parent rock materials, climate topography, age

and biological factors. Soil texture is important because it determine water

intake rates.

The result of physical analysis showed that pH values of soil varies

from 7.6 - 8.1. High pH (8.1) was found from the soil of Hazargangi,

medium (7.6) from Zarghoon and almost neutral (7.3) from Karkhasa.

Electric conductivity (EC) varies from 3.3 to3.6 mS/cm. Water holding

capacity ranged between 22.40-36.04%. High water holding capacity

(36.04%) was found in Zarghoon, medium (28.23%) was analyzed from

Karkhasa and low (22.40%) was found from Hazargangi habitats. Texture

was sandy clay loam in Hazargangi while silt loam was found from

Karkhasa and clay loam from Zarghoon soil.

b) Chemical Characters

i. Calcium

There was variation in soil calcium concentration in all three

different localities. Highest concentration of calcium was found (285mg/kg)

from the soil of Zarghoon area, while (235mg/kg) was estimated from soil

of Karkhasa. Lowest calcium (230mg/kg) was recorded from the soils of

Hazargangi. According to Adams & Hartzog (1980), critical concentration

of calcium in soil is 250mg/kg. Therefore the soil of Zarghoon had enough

calcium required for the growth of these plants. Calcium in plants was

positively correlated with calcium found in soils. Higher level of soil

calcium may increases forage calcium, but no plant studied had more

calcium. Almost same amount of calcium in soil was found by Tiffany

et al., (2000). High calcium was reported by Khan et al., (2004) while

working on soils of Islamabad. The calcium from soil of Zarghoon

(285mg/kg) was higher than Hazargangi and Karkhasa (235mg/kg). This

calcium is directly absorbed by the trees of the area therefore the leaves of

trees of Zarghoon area also had high calcium as compared to trees of

Hazargangi and Karkhasa.

Among the shrub species studied high calcium was recorded from

Karkhasa. Maximum calcium (1.29%) was recorded from a shrub

P. abrotanoides growing in this habitat. Other species C. ambigua,

A. brahuica and P. eburnea absorbed medium amount of calcium from all

3 habitats. In foliage samples of B. baluchistanica and S. mollis less

amount of calcium was absorbed. Calcium is important in pectin synthesis

of middle lamella of cell wall. It is also involved in the metabolism of

nucleus and mitochondria. Beside the structural role, calcium plays minor

catalytic role, involved as activator of a few enzyme as phospholipase.

ii. Sodium

Sodium in soil ranged from 230-310mg/kg. Its high amount

(310mg/kg) was found from Zarghoon site. Medium amount (230mg/kg)

was estimated from Hazargangi and less (226mg/kg) was evaluated from

the soils of Karkhasa. However, according to Rhue & Kidder (1983), Khan

et al.,(2004) the critical concentration of sodium in soil is 62mg/kg. The

soils of all areas studied had excessive amount of sodium than the critical

value. The result shows that sodium was absorbed in high concentration by

the trees. The trees of Karkhasa had maximum sodium as compare to all

other sites. The foliage of P. abrotanoides absorbed maximum amount

(1.27%) of sodium from the soil of Hazargangi. Second highest amount

(0.45%) of sodium was absorbed by P. eburnea leaves from Zarghoon

region. Less amount (0.03%) was absorbed by the leaves of

B. baluchistanica from Zarghoon.

iii. Potassium

The amount of potassium concentration in soil was recorded from all

three studied sites. Highest amount (233mg/kg) was found in soil of

Zarghoon, medium amount (225mg/kg) from Hazargangi and less amount

(200mg/kg) from Karkhasa. Potassium is required in large amount in plants

and this cation is involved in maintenance of ionic balance in cells. It also

serves as a catalytic role. The critical concentration of potassium is

(60mg/kg) as reported by Hanlon et al., (1990). The leaves of P. khinjuk

from Hazargangi absorbed maximum amount of potassium (0.66%) as

compared to F. xanthoxyloides. Among the shrub species studied P.

abrotanoides had highest concentration in the leaves (1.12%) from

Hazargangi. Lowest amount of potassium was absorbed by the leaves of S.

mollis from Karkhasa (0.05%).

iv. Phosphorus

Phosphorus was estimated from the soils of all three sites. High

amount (246mg/kg) was analyzed from Karkhasa, Medium amount

(218mg/kg) was found from Zarghoon and slightly less (192mg/kg) was

estimated from Hazargangi soil. High amount of phosphorus in Karkhasa

was recorded, but low amount was absorbed by the shrubs growing in the

area which might be due to the deficiency of water. As least amount was

found in foliages of P. abrotanoides, C. ambigua and A. brahuica

(0.16-0.75%) from Karkhasa. High phosphorus was found in the leaves of

A. brahuica and C. ambigua (1.05-1.28%) from Zarghoon area where

plenty of water is available. Among trees maximum phosphorus

(1.32-1.56%) was recorded from the leaves of F. xanthoxyloides from all

three habitats. Among shrubs P. eburnea absorbed high amount (1.62%)

from Hazargangi. Phosphate is usually held tightly in soil mineral complex

and is unavailable without water. It forms structural part of many

compounds especially nucleic acid and phospholipids. It is also involved in

energy metabolism. Phosphorus deficiency affects all aspect of plant

metabolism and growth.

v. Iron

Slightly high iron (100mg/kg) was found in Zarghoon soils, medium

amount (97mg/kg) was analyzed in the soils of Karkhasa and less

(62mg/kg) was evaluated from Hazargangi. According to Viets & Lindsay

(1973), critical concentration of iron is 2.5mg/Kg. Less amount (0.02%) of

iron was up taken by the trees studied from Hazargangi. Highest amount

(0.51%) was absorbed in leaves of F. xanthoxyloides from Zarghoon. In

shrub species A. brahuica, P. eburnea and S. mollis takes up (0.05-0.06%)

iron in their foliage from Karkhasa habitats; however the amount of

Karkhasa soil was less as compared to other sites. B. baluchistanica,

P. abrotanoides and A. brahuica absorbed medium amount (0.04%) of Iron

from Zarghoon sites.

Soil conditions are important because it influences the growth

characteristics of plant and indirectly affects their nutritive value. Site also

affects the chemical content of plants and plant parts. Variation in cation

uptake selectively occurs between taxa of different ecological habitats,

Marschner (1995). The soil properties as well as the genotype of any plant

differentiate the concentration and quantity of different plant materials,

Ernst (1995); Őzcan and Bayçu (2005). The variation among plants in their

abilities to absorb different elements is not always constant and is affected

by changing conditions of soil, climate and by the stages of plant growth

Kabata-Pendias & Pendias (1986), Őzcan and Bayçu (2005). Where an

element is easily soluble, plants may take up very large amount of minerals

if water is available. Nutrient which are non functional in plants are linked

to moisture availability.

Table 21 Physiochemical characteristics of soil from three localities of Quetta

Physical

Chemical

pH. E.C. ms/cm

W.H.C %

Sand Silt Clay Texture class

Na mg/kg

K. mg/kg

Ca mg/kg

P mg/kg Fe mg/kg

Hazargangi

8.1 3.3 22.40 50 28 22 Sand Clay Loam

2.30 2.25 2.3 1.92 0.62

Zarghoon

7.6 3.6 36.04 30 56 14 Clay Loam

3.10 2.33 2.85 2.18 1.00

Karkhasa

7.3 3.4 28.23 46 22 32 Silt Loam 2.26 2.00 2.35 2.46 0.97

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

pH E.C. W.H.C. Sand Silt ClayPhysical Characteristic of Soil

HazargangiZarghoonKarkhasa

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

Na K Ca P FeChemical Characteristic of Soil

% o

f Ele

men

ts

HazargangiZarghoonKarkhasa

Fig 22.

Fig 23.

4.6 Conclusions

In Balochistan 90% area is rangeland. The climate is harsh with low

precipitation and erratic rainfall. This has limited scope of crop cultivation.

Animal get more than 80% feed from these native trees and shrubs. Range

lands are over grazed and are found in sufficient to meet the overall

nutritional requirements for live stock population. The study was carried

out in 3 entirely different habitats of the Quetta valley with diverse climatic

conditions and different vegetation pattern. The objective of this study was

to evaluate seasonal variation in nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of

leaves used as fodder and their digestibility. Two dominant trees Fraxinus

xanthoxyloides and Pistacia khinjuk and six shrubs Prunus eburnea,

Caragana ambigua, Amylgdalus brahuica, Perovskia abrotanoides,

Berberis baluchistanica, and Sophara mollis were studied.

Among the trees studied F. xanthoxyloides showed high ash,

carbohydrates, crude protein, crude fiber, energy levels, with less amount of

Phenolics as compare to P. khinjuk. These concentrations were high during

summer season. Significantly high amount (P < 0.05) of elemental

concentrations of Sodium, Phosphorus and Calcium was recorded from this

plant. Mineral concentration showed gradually increase from spring to

autumn season and decrease in winters. Significant increase (P < 0.05) in

body weight of sheep was observed when fed with this plant. The trees

found at Zarghoon had high nutritional values than the other two sites.

The shrub species studied had almost low nutritional value as

compare to trees. Among all shrubs studied P. eburnea was proved to be

the best species for animal nutrition, as it had high carbohydrates and high

crude protein. The mineral concentration showed high phosphorus,

calcium, medium sodium and potassium concentration and negligible

amount of trace elements.Less amount of Phenolics was also observed.

Significant increase in the body weight of sheep was observed (P < 0.05)

when fed with this plant.

Among the other five shrubs the following 3 species C. ambigua,

A. brahuica and B. baluchistanica were found to have medium nutritional

value as they had high mineral contents and energy level, and less

phenolics content. But all these 3 species has hard stem, small size of

leaves and hard spines make this plant less palatable for grazing ruminants,

although these plants have good nutritional value but these must be

supplemented with some other complete diet.

P. abratonoides remain green in majority of the time of the year,

the plant has maximum calcium and potassium content. Further more it is

low in sodium and carbohydrate. The plant has bad odor and high Phenolics

which makes it less preferred by small ruminants. S. mollis has maximum

amount of ash it has medium amount of phosphorus, calcium and crude

protein. But due to lignin deposition on leaf surface its palatability and

digestibility is reduced. These two plants are not preferred for grazing and

therefore not recommended as fodder.

Minerals concentration was affected by seasons and locations with

regard to satisfying grazing sheep nutrient requirement. These

concentrations were positively correlated with soil physical and chemical

characters. Beside this the persistent drought for the last decade has gravely

influenced the growth and vegetational pattern and their intake by animals.

Zarghoon area was found to be the best, as the nutritional value of plants

growing here were high.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Amylgdalus brahuica A b

Berberis baluchistanica B ba

Caragana ambigua C a

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides F x

Perovskia abrotanoides P a

Pistacia khinjuk P k

Prunus eburnea P eb

Sophora mollis S m

Initial weight Iwt

Initial Weight iwt

Final weight fwt

Final Weight F T