science, medicine, and the concept of health the theoretical and professional development of...

Science, Medicine, and the Concept of Health

The Theoretical and Professional Development of Physical

Education in the United States, 1885-1930

Introduction to the 19th Century Concept of Health

• Health was one of the major concerns of 19th Century Americans and Europeans

• Health was the subject of books, subjects, lectures, articles and pamphlets

• Not surprising, when we consider the routine occurrence of disease

• Americans cities were ravaged by cholera, typhus, typhoid, scarlet fever, influenza, diphtheria, smallpox, measles, yellow fever and whooping cough


• Illnesses such as tuberculosis (consumption) were common

• The state of medical knowledge during the 19th Century was poor

• As a result, physicians and other “healers” were not very effective in treating disease

The population of Manhattan grew from 60,000 people in 1800 to 2,300,000 people in 1900 The rapid growth of the city along with the density of the population led to very unhealthy living conditions, particularly among the poor and the immigrants Below is a list of epidemics that struck New York City in the 19th Century:

1805: Yellow Fever1819: Yellow Fever 1822: Yellow Fever 1832: Cholera1834: Cholera1847: Typhus 1848-1849: Cholera

1854: Cholera1862: Typhus 1865-1873: Smallpox 1866: Cholera 1881: Typhus1882: Typhus 1892: Cholera

1832 hand bill from the New York City Board of Health.

The outdated public health advice

demonstrates the lack of understanding of the disease and its

actual causative factors

Case of smallpox

1896

St. Vincent’s Hospital, 1849

Bellevue Hospital Ambulance, 1895

Lafayette Cemetery, New Orleans

From John M. Woodworth, The Cholera Epidemic of 1873 in the United States, 1875

Deck passengers usually outnumbered cabin passengers three or four to one. The fares were cheap but the comforts few: without beds or shelter, they found room among the cargo crates. Diseases spread in such close quarters and were carried to unsuspecting communities along the steamers’ routes. The deck passengers in this image are suffering from cholera, an epidemic that spread along the Mississippi in 1873.

Cholera outbreaks

Immigrants moving west in the1800s brought with them more than hopes and dreams. They brought cholera. Cholera

probably began in India and spread around the world along trade routes. It first

appeared in America in the 1800s. Many western emigrants suffered from the

dreaded disease.

Cholera outbreaks

Various indigenous tribes who came in contact with these newcomers suffered major losses to

their population. Cholera rarely spread from person to person but through the contamination of water sources. The "west" had its first taste of the

disease in 1832. Immigrant ships destined for Canada, carried the disease up the St. Lawrence River. From there, the cholera traveled down Lake Champlain and west by canal boat from Albany to

Buffalo. In a short time it reached troopers at Jefferson Barracks outside St. Louis.

Cholera outbreaks

Wintering each year in the Deep South, in the spring the disease would join the emigrants heading west. Cholera made its way up the

Missouri on riverboats. An outbreak on board the Yellowstone in July 1833 turned it into a floating death trap. One of the few survivors, Joseph La Barge, later recalled that just below Kansas City he buried eight victims in one grave. Fear of an epidemic caused Missouri residents in Jackson

County to threaten to destroy the ship.

Victims of cholera, Union Cemetery, Shawnee County

1892 hospital ward, cholera outbreak in Hamburg, Germany

Cholera disinfection team, Hamburg, Germany, 1892


• In the 19th Century, a dialogue began between physicians and physical educators over the relationship between mind and body with regard to health

• Medical knowledge was based on the idea that health consisted of a balanced constitution (body) and temperament (mind and spirit)


• Known as humoral medicine, medical diagnoses and treatment of illnesses consisted of “heroic” procedures, many of which resulted in tragic consequences for the patient

• Treatments included bleeding, leeching, and cupping. Large doses of medicine were administered that included such toxic substances as arsenic, strychnine, emetics, and mercurial compounds

Lithograph showing

leeching of a patient, date

unknown

National Library of Medicine,

Bethesda MD

19th Century cupping set


• In addition to these invasive methods of purging the body, medical “experts” believed that the mind could predispose the body to disease

• Health was believed to be of a moral character – such attributes as diligence, hard work, integrity, honesty, and right action

• The belief that a healthy mind resided in a healthy body was the foundation of what constituted health

Although Louis Pasteur’s germ theory of disease was proposed in 1860, it was not widely accepted by medical professionals until the end of the 19th Century. Pasteur

was able to demonstrate that organisms such as bacteria were responsible for souring wine and

beer (he later extended his studies to prove that milk was the same),

and that the bacteria could be removed by boiling and then

cooling the liquid. This process is now called pasteurisation.

Pasteur then undertook experiments to find where these bacteria came from, and was able to prove that they were

introduced from the environment.

Orthodox Medicine• Physicians have not always been considered

the guardians of health• Absence of educational standards• Depending on which region of the country

you lived in, your physician could have been credible or abysmal; standards for professional licensure as a doctor varied greatly around the country

• “Cure rate” of doctors during this era was poor, and Americans began taking steps to take care of their health and well-being

Alternatives to Orthodox Medicine• Numerous health and hygiene reforms

emerged, many of which attempted to merge moral and social reform with health promotion

• Vegetarianism blended current theories of chemical vitalism with Christian morality

• Homeopathy attempted to restore the body’s balance with small doses of medicine (in contract to “heroic” dosing used by traditional physicians)

Alternatives to Orthodox Medicine

• Chemotherapy (chemical treatments)

• Electropathy (electrical treatment)

• Hydropathy (water cures)

• Thomsonianism (created by Samuel Thomson)

Thomsonianism, created by

American Samuel Thomson, claimed every person could

be his own physician. Based

on herbs and spices.

Thomson hawked books, pamphlets, botanical preparations, and Thomsonian medical credentials.

Social and Institutional Changes in 19th Century America

• By the end of the 19th Century, the exclusive professional authority once given to orthodox physicians (as well as to lawyers and clergy) was gone forever

• New disciplines were developed to house the evolving bodies of knowledge

• These new disciplines created additional “ways of knowing” that would augment and sometimes replace older philosophies


• Some of these new disciplines found a home in the American university system

• Prior to 19th century, universities focused on the liberal arts (literature, language, history and philosophy)

• During the 19th century, American universities began to cater to career-oriented students

• During the 1880s and 1890s, young professionals created communities of academic interest through professional associations


• American Historical Association (1884)

• American Economic Association (1885)

• National Statistical Society (1888)

• American Political Science Assoc (1889)

• American Neurological Association (1875) was one of many subdisciplinary groups

• American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (1885)

AAAPE• On November 27, 1885, William G.

Anderson MD invited 49 people to discuss their interest in PE

• Discussed the Battle of the Systems – German gymnastics vs Swedish gymnastics

• Some physical educators, such as Catherine Beecher and Dioclesian Lewis incorporated exercises that were not identified with either system

• Beecher and Lewis devoted their efforts to promoting health and exercise for women

Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) developed a PE

curriculum that included 26 lessons in physiology and

two courses in calisthenics, one designed for school and

the other to be used in exercise halls. Her system

used “light exercises,” sometimes performed with

the use of light weights.

In 1864, Dioclesian Lewis hired Beecher to teach at his school for girls in Lexington, Massachusetts.

The Theoretical Basis of American Physical Education

• Interest in health, hygiene, exercise and physical education had been growing in America since the 1830s

• Theoretical base of early American PE was derived from a variety of sources

• Experimental science (anatomy and physiology) and medicine were important

• Theory base was also influenced by middle class cultural values, and the 19th century reform movements

Theoretical Framework of American PE developed through

three distinct periods• 1885-1900: 19th century beliefs that viewed

health as a balance/harmony between mind, body and spirit

• 1900-1917: PE was engaged in a debate regarding the appropriate methods and goals of the field

• 1917-1930: Acceptance by PE of psychosocial and behavioristic principles as a major part of its theoretical foundation

Changing Concepts of Health• By 1900, the 19th century concepts of health as a

balance between mind, body and will became inappropriate and impossible to sustain in the face of new biological and medical evidence

• The understanding of germs and their connection to disease undermined the idea that health is a balance of mind, body and will

• One of the products of the health reform movement was the creation of career opportunities in the practice of PE; gymnasium directors, physical training instructors, playground leaders, and hygiene teachers

The Professional Preparation of PE Teachers

• “Normal Schools” were one or two-year schools that teacher preparation schools, popular before World War 1

• Until the 1890s, normal schools were the only programs for training physical educators

• Sargent Normal School of Physical Education lengthened to two years in 1891 and merged with Boston University in 1902 to become the Sargent College of Physical Education

Old State Normal School, Albany NY

The Professional Preparation of PE Teachers

• YMCA International Training School, later renamed Springfield College, est in 1887

• Offered a two-year course in professional PE, which enabled the YMCA to staff its gymnasiums with qualified teachers

• Luther Halsey Gulick, MD, was appointed as an instructor in 1887 and was the YMCA’s first secretary of the Physical Training Department of the International Committee of the YMCA of North America

Luther Halsey Gulick, 1865 - 1918

Luther Halsey Gulick, MD• Started a summer school course for the

training of PE teachers who were already in the field

• The first graduate course work in PE was started in 1891

• Courses offered in physiological psychology, history and philosophy of PE, and literature of PE

• Three men completed the work necessary for a diploma (not a degree) between 1891 and 1900

Chautauqua Summer School (NY)

• Founded in 1896, offered teacher preparation (normal school) program in gymnastics, playground supervision and management, first aid, sport skills, and aquatics instruction

• Classroom instruction was given in anatomy, physiology, psychology, medical gymnastics, orthopedics, Swedish and German gymnastics, and storytelling

Staff and students of the first PE class at the Chautauqua School, 1896

Dudley Sargent operated the Harvard Summer School of Physical Education, which he opened in 1887.

Harvard Summer School• Probably the most important source of

professional training in the United States during the early part of the 20th century; alumni totaled 5,086

• Coursework consisted of anatomy, physiology, hygiene, and lectures on various gymnastic systems, including their history and philosophy

• Closed in 1932 because a bachelor’s degree was required by the state to teach PE, which forced potential educators into a four-year program

Hemenway Gymnasium

The original Hemenway Gymnasium was the finest physical education facility ever created. It contained every manner of physical training equipment: climbing ladders, tumbling mats, climbing ropes, flying rings, barbells, dumbbells, indian clubs, medicine balls... even early strength building "machines" (which you may be able to see on the left if you look closely.)

There was a running track, handball courts and rooms for fencing, wrestling, boxing and any other imaginable physical activity. At the head of this fantastic facility was Dudley Allen Sargent, who virtually founded the discipline of physical education.

PE in California• Always a leader in curriculum reform and

innovation, California passed a state law in 1866 requiring PE in schools

• The 1860s was a period in the history of America that evoked concern about the nation’s youth relative to their physical condition and ability to use arms in defense of the country

• Most educators favored military drills, not gymnastics, in the schools

PE in other states• Ohio passed a law in 1892 requiring PE in

the state’s larger schools; modified the law in 1904 to include smaller schools

• Other states that passed laws requiring PE included Louisiana (1894), Wisconsin (1897) and North Dakota (1899)

• As a result, the professional preparation of PE teachers was at the top of the political and professional agenda

Wand drills were an important part of PE program activities in the 1890s

PE in universities• Four-year PE programs were introduced at

Stanford (1892), Harvard (1892), University of California (1898), University of Nebraska (1899), Oberlin (1900), and University of Wisconsin (1910)

• Many PE programs were placed within schools of education

• Some PE educators felt the standards within the profession remained weak

• Until 1919, there were no state licensure laws for a teaching specialty in PE

PE profession• Until 1919, there were no state licensure

laws for a teaching specialty in PE

• Without state licensure, teachers could claim a specialty in PE by taking a summer school course, a normal course that varied from one to three years, or a four year degree program

• Until standards could be developed and agreed upon, practitioners of PE were able to certify themselves with little, if any, professional instruction

PE in the 1920s• Due to World War 1 and the poor physical

condition of many of the nation’s men, interest in PE increased

• By 1921, there was compulsory public school PE in 28 states

• By 1930, some type of certification was required for teaching in 38 states

• A four year program leading to a bachelor’s degree became the standard of training in the 1920s

Toward the Reform of Physical Education, 1900-1939

Gymnastics/Calisthenics(19th Century)

vs

Play/Games/Sports(20th Century)

Adoption of Sports Programs

• During early part of 20th Century, the American public was very interested in athletic competition

• Physical educators capitalized on this high interest in sports and began to reform their philosophy to accommodate sports into the curriculum

• By 1930, almost all of the instructional activities in PE were devoted to sports and intramural programs

How did this transformation come about?


• Prior to 1906, PE programs in colleges were administered by the faculty

• This was not the case with athletic competition, which was governed by athletic associations controlled by students and alumni

• There was no national governing body that oversaw intercollegiate athletic competition

• Students of questionable character enrolled on colleges just to play sports


• Faculty became outraged at these practices

• PE departments in some universities became partners in crime with the athletic departments to protect gifted athletes who depended on course work in PE to retain their eligibility

• Coaches of dubious character were hired to teach PE and coach the college’s sports teams


• Faculty finally achieved control over athletic competition by merging athletics and PE into a single entity

• Schools hired more athletic directors and coaches to teach PE and provided instruction in sports

• Increase in the number of PE programs, along with changes in how physical educators were academically prepared


• Philosophical shift away from the medical orientation of early PE preparation

• Physical educators no longer received their preparation in schools of medicine

• Instead, they were trained as educators and soon began to replace doctors in positions of leadership within the field

• Women dominated the ranks of physical educators; men preferred to become coaches


• From 1900 to 1920, most PE programs did not offer course work in coaching

• In 1919, George Huff created the first degree program in coaching at the Univ of Illinois

• Other established universities soon developed similar programs to train coaches

• However, it was not necessary to have a college degree to coach in high school or college; this would eventually undermine the profession of PE

George Huff

1872 – 1936

University of Illinois

Athletic Director, 1901-1935

Baseball Coach, 1896-1919

Football Coach, 1895-1899


• Would the professional identity of PE be compromised by including serious athletic competition and coaches?

• Was the transformation of PE in the best interests of the profession?

• In the 1920s, most states had mandated that PE be taught in the schools

• As a result, colleges established PE departments where students could earn a degree and become employed


• At the college level, there was a lack of physical educators who could qualify for academic rank

• As a result, unqualified individuals were given administrative appointments as directors of PE programs

• A survey in 1929 found that out of 177 PE directors, only 23 had majored in PE; only four had earned master’s degrees in the field of education


• Success as a football coach was the lone requirement for many of these “directors”

• Many physical educators were very concerned about the erosion of the profession caused by hiring unqualified individuals to provide instruction in PE

• The PE profession was forced to modify its philosophy and accommodate sports

• Jesse F. Williams convinced physical educators that it was the responsibility of the profession to make participation in competitive athletics an educational experience for students

Jesse Williams (1886-1966)

Taught at teachers college of Columbia.

Stressed educational values, social

education, and education through the physical. Became a

dominate influence in physical education

The Development of Play Theory1900-1915

• Perhaps the most powerful change that occurred in PE in the early 20th Century was the acceptance of play, games, dance and sport as methods for imparting educational goals

• Advocates of play as major component of PE included Herbert Spencer, Karl Groos, G. Stanley Hall, and Luther Halsey Gulick

Preeminent among

educators and philosophers –

and important to play theory –

was John Dewey (1859-1952).

John Dewey

• Believed that education was necessary for democratic citizenship, social efficiency and social experience

• Considered mind and body to be integrated parts of the human whole, and believed that the body served as the conductor of experience

• Believed that play helped to integrate mind and body

John Dewey• Play was important for its educational

possibilities; the ultimate of Dewey’s educational process was an individual who participated fully as a member of society

• These discussions may seem irrelevant to an understanding of PE, yet they justify new activities in PE

• Before Dewey, playful group activities such as football and baseball were considered poor choices to develop health and community

John Dewey

• The philosophy of Dewey and his colleagues was used to justify team sports in PE because they promoted democratic activities and social interaction

• The social benefits derived from participation in PE were significant and did much to insure strong support for PE and athletic programs

The Promotion of Play

• Physical educators viewed play with some ambivalence

• They felt it should have a secondary role in PE, rather than a primary role

• In 1889, Edward Hartwell wrote that the difference between sporting activities and gymnastics was the nature of the products; the goal of sporting activities was recreation, while the goal of gymnastics was discipline, training for pleasure, health and skill.

Play and Popular Culture

• General public took an interest in play between 1890 and 1900

• In 1886, sandgardens were built in Boston• In 1889, Charlesbank Outdoor Gymnasium opened

in Boston• 1899, New York City opened several school

playgrounds for recreational use• In 1903, Chicago opened South Park Playgrounds• In 1906, Playground Assoc of America was

founded

Playground, New York City - 1890

Carousel and playground in Golden Gate ParkSan Francisco - 1890s

Seward Park: The First Municipally Built Playground in New York City

When it opened on October 17, 1903, Seward Park heralded a new era in children's playgrounds in the city, becoming a model for

playground programming and design. The facility in the north corner of the park featured cinder surfacing, fences, recreation pavilion, and

play and gymnastic equipment.

Game of playground ball at Marshal Swenie Playground, Chicago, 1907 - Polk Street east of Halsted

Ashmead Park, Jamaica, June 1914, at Liberty Avenue and 168th Street, it was discontinued as a playground after being seen as a traffic hazard; another playground opened in 1914 in Forest Park

The Bronx: St. Mary's Park, June 22, 1914 – in 1914 eight playgrounds were opened in the Bronx; two in Crotona Park, and one each in St. Mary's, Macomb's Dam, Claremont, Pelham Bay,

Fulton and Echo Parks (the one in St. Mary's Park was first by about a week)

Playground, ca. 1910-1915

Play vs Gymnastics

• The popularity of play between 1900 and 1915 put advocates of gymnastics on the defensive

• Gymnastics diminished in popularity

• By 1915, play was the primary method of PE and gymnastics was used to correct posture problems

The New Physical Education1916-1930

• Post WW1 was characterized by the acceptance of social development objectives as a major part of the theoretical foundation of PE

• The three architects for the “new physical education” were Clark Hetherington, Thomas D. Wood, and Rosalind Cassidy

Clark Hetherington successfully integrated into

written form the new theoretical position of

physical education. His seminal work, School Program in Physical

Education, published in 1923, provided the direction for the

discipline early in the 20th Century. Although there

have been semantic changes over the years, the

conceptual structure has remained unchanged.

Five Objectives in PE

• The organization of child life as expressed in big-muscle or physical training activities.

• The development of social adjustment skills based on the customs of society

• Developing latent powers and capacities

• The development of character

• To use big-muscle and fine motor movements to improve thinking

Even though there were dozens of playgrounds across the city, it was not until 1926 that the first equipped play area opened in Central Park. At the

south end, Heckscher Playground opened in one of the three areas designated for play in the original 1858 Greensward Plan for Central Park (the other two being the current sites of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the North Meadow). The playground was an immediate success,

especially with children from outside the immediate neighborhood.

Playground in Aspinwall, PA – 1930s

Opening ceremonies at Sara D. Roosevelt Playground, Sept 1934

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