RHETORICAL MODES

(and stuff)

9 or 10 Different Rhetorical Modes (depending on whom you ask)

(You might want to write these down.) 1. Description 2. Narration 3. Example 4. Definition 5. Comparison/Contrast 6. Process 7. Division/Classification 8. Cause and Effect 9. Argumentation 10. Analysis

Description

Description captures impressions of persons, places, objects, or ideas. It records what you see, hear, taste, touch, feel. Description is probably the most basic task writers face. Whether you are writing a short story, a term paper, or a sales proposal, much of your success as a writer will depend on your ability to provide readers with detailed descriptions.

Description—2 types

1. Objective--Objective description focuses on facts, statistics, observable details.

2. Subjective--Subjective description is personal. It reflects the thoughts, feelings, mood of the writer.

Narration

I certainly hope you know what this is. Narration tells a story.

You’ve all written narratives before, but here are a couple of reminders if you explore this rhetorical mode:

Narration

Start By Defining Your PurposeBefore rushing into telling a story -- ask yourself what the goal of your narrative will be. What do you want to accomplish? What do you want your readers to understand or appreciate? Clarifying your purpose will help you determine which details are relevant and which events should be highlighted.

Limit The Chain Of EventsKeeping the desired length of the narrative in mind, limit the narrative to a key scene or scenes -- do not feel obligated to summarize everything that happened.

Sketch Out A TimelineBefore writing an outline, you may find it helpful to sketch out a timeline of events, placing events in chronological order. This may help you develop a fuller picture of the narrative and prompt your memory.

Determine The Starting And Ending Point Of The NarrativeSome narrative may have clear beginnings or dramatic finales. In other instances, you may have to decide when the narrative starts or what would make a logical conclusion.

Example

Examples illustrate ideas, issues, situations, theories, events, or personality types.

The most common error students make in trying to write example is confusing example with description or narration. A description might characterize an individual. A narration might relate a event. But an example serves to illustrate something larger. The individual must serve as a symbol or representative of other people, an idea, a problem. Similarly, an event must signify something greater. The story of a drunk driver illustrates a social problem. The failure of a government program signals a crisis in national policy.

Definition

Definitions serve two basic purposes:

1. To establish meaning and provide common understanding. Before doctors, engineers, lawyers, consumers, or teachers can intelligently discuss an issue, they must have a shared understanding of the terms they are using. 

2. To motivate readers to accept a particular point of view of an issue or problem. Should drug addiction be defined as a crime or a disease? Writers often persuade people to alter their perceptions by providing alternative definitions.

Definition

In writing a definition paper, establish a clear goal. Are you informing or persuading?

Comparison/Contrast

Comparison/contrast essays measure similarities and differences between two subjects. Sportswriters compare the teams playing in the Super Bowl. Stockbrokers contrast investment strategies. Medical journals compare therapy methods. Textbooks use comparison to explain related theories and methods. Consumer Reports examines competing products. Essay exams often ask students to compare authors, historical events, political figures, or scientific techniques. 

Comparison/Contrast

Comparisons serve two purposes: to explain differences between subjects or to persuade readers that one subject is superior others. You can think of informative comparisons as pairs of definitions or descriptions. Informative comparisons often serve to distinguish differences between commonly confused items:

induction/deduction psychologists/psychiatristsslander/libel ophthalmology/optometryfelony/misdemeanor viral/bacterial infections

Comparison/Contrast

Persuasive comparisons recommend one subject as being superior to another. You might argue that film has higher quality than videotape or that Word is easier to use than WordPerfect. Commercials often demonstrate how one product is better or cheaper than other brands. Politicians use comparison and contrast to demonstrate that their policies or positions are superior to those advocated by their opponents.

Process

Sometimes called process analysis, process or instruction writing demonstrates how something functions or shows readers how to accomplish a task in a step-by-step fashion.

A process paper does not simply describe or discuss an issue -- it has a specific goal. It will either teach readers about a specific subject or direct them to complete a task.

Division/Classification

Sometimes these are thought of as the same thing, but they can also be thought of as two quite similar but slightly different modes of rhetoric.

Division

Division separates items into categories. Complex subjects are easier understood when broken down into smaller groups. A complicated discipline like medicine is divided into specialties -- hematology, psychiatry, and neurology. Scientists organize rocks by the way they were formed, such as sedimentary and volcanic. College students, for instance, can be separated by ethnic groups, major, birthplace, or gender. Pollution can be easier to analyze by dividing environmental hazards by type -- biological, chemical, radioactive -- or by source -- sewage, ground run-off, or automobile exhaust.

Classification

Classification essays, like division essays, break a topic into subtopics -- with a difference. Instead of simply dividing a topic into groups, a classification essay rates or ranks the groups according to a common standard. Homicide, for instance, is classified as first, second, and third degree murder according to circumstances and intent. Burns are classified as first, second, or third degree depending on tissue damage.

You will study classification in psychology, anatomy, biology, business, and economics. It is a convenient way to organize data and simplify complex decisions, Insurance companies base rates on codes, classifying businesses according to their chance of experiencing a loss. Stockbrokers classify investments from a low to a high risk.

Cause and Effect

Cause and effect writing seeks to determine reasons and predict results.

Establishing causes demands collecting sufficient evidence and exercising critical thinking. Make sure you do not make assumptions or rely on first impressions. 

Cause and Effect

Even experienced researchers have difficulty avoiding three common lapses in critical thinking:

Confusing a time relationship for a cause.

Mistaking an effect for a cause.

Confusing associations with causes.

Argumentation

Persuasion -- the attempt to influence readers' views and opinions -- is perhaps the most important writing you will attempt in freshman English. Sales representatives persuade, lawyers persuade, executives persuade. The ability to state an argument, influence others, and explain a point of view is critical in almost every business and profession.

In developing a persuasion paper, consider your audience carefully, anticipating possible objections and addressing them in your paper. Consider which of the three appeals -- logic, emotion, ethics -- will be most effective.

Analysis

Analysis seeks to move beyond describing or narrating events and evaluating or measuring their significance. A book review not only summarizes a new book but comments on its contents, style, and accuracy. A stock broker analyzing a company not only reports on obvious facts, but examines whether it would make a sound investment. A doctor's diagnosis often consists of analysis of observations and test results.

Analysis often seeks to answer questions. Has recycling lowered the amount of waste going into landfills? Has the university's new financial aid program helped disadvantaged students? Does Affirmative Action help poor minorities obtain educational and job opportunities? 

Analysis

Subjective analysis is based on personal impressions, values, and tastes. A movie critic will review a new film and base his/her opinion on personal likes and dislikes. A studio accountant, however, would use objective analysis to determine at what point the film will make a profit.

Subjective analysis, even when based on personal opinion, requires proof. Simply stating a point of view is not analysis -- it must be based on evidence readers can examine for themselves.

Objective analysis rests on factual research rather than personal impressions.

Learn more!

Whichever rhetorical mode you choose to use for your essay about procrastination, you’ll find all the info presented here and a wealth of other information here:http://infotrac.thomsonlearning.com/infowrite/modes.html

There’s a page on each mode with suggestions for exploring topics and strengthening ideas within that mode. Remember, too, that some of the rhetorical modes may fit together in one essay (like description within narrative, persuasive, or classification essays).

One More Thing

Now that you’ve frantically taken notes on this whole presentation only to find out that there’s a website where I got all the information from, you should also know that I will post a copy of this presentation in the files section of my website within the next day or so.

Don’t worry—taking the notes will greatly help the information to “stick.”