History of Rhetoric Nikhil Mahajan (2011EE10465)

The theory of rhetoric is an attempt to understand the subtext of human

communication. The thinkers try to go beyond the dialectic, rational argumentation

that we as a civilization aspire for as a standard of communication. The body of

thought attempts to investigate the factors auxiliary to the inductive and deductive

argumentation that impact the acceptability and efficacy of speech. The term rhetoric

thus inspires a negative reaction in popular imagination. It is further contrasted with

action, meant to imply hollow words devoid of substance. This popular perception of

rhetoric stands in stark contrast to its understanding in those ancient great civilizations

of Greece and Rome.

The theories of rhetoric are always centered on the 'rhetorical situation'. Lloyd Blitzer

first defined and described this object of analysis in 1968. Some exigence, some

imperative, some situation contrary to what should have been occasions rhetoric. The

audience possess the capability to affect the exigence. This ability is impacted by

external factors, positively or negatively. The birth of rhetoric is thus observation or

creation of exigence by the rhetor, and the discourse he designs to harness the

interests of the audience into a favorable result. The rhetorical theorist must then

analyze all components of the rhetorical situation:

a) the rhetor and the degree of his agency

b) the audience and the associated constraints

c) the creation, construction and addressing of the exigence

d) the wider contexts (historical, economic, cultural and symbolic)

Rhetorical Theory: Origins and Evolution

Aristotle thus defined rhetoric: 'the art of discovering all the available means of

persuasion.' The Greeks regarded rhetoric as construction of a persuasive argument

via a composition of all of the following:

a) logos; logical argument

b) ethos; speaker credibility

c) pathos; emotional argument

Rhetoric was then seen as the art of discourse, of a systematic working through the

five rhetorical tenets:

a) invention

b) organization

c) style

d) delivery

e) memory

The contemporary understanding of rhetoric is a broader analysis of human symbol

use, which shall be explored later.

The origins of rhetorical theory are traced back to Sracuse, Siciliy. The legend goes

that when a dictator was disposed, a dispute arose as to the ownership of land between

the original owners or present owners, who had been granted land by the tyrant. The

legal justice system then required plaintiffs to present their case themselves, without

any provision for hiring professionals. This made it necessary for the people to master

the art of rhetoric. Corax made the first formal contribution to the theory of rhetoric;

his 'The Art of Rhetoric' was written for the people engaged in land disputes. He

placed immense stress on the importance of probabilities; in situations where there

were no binaries, it was imperative to harness probabilities to establish probable

connections.

Tisias, a student of Corax, hasc been credited with introducing mainland Greece to

rhetoric. A belief gathered ground that the art of persuasion was not innate, it could be

taught and learned. Sophists, deriving their name from the Greek word for knowledge

(sophos), was the group involved in teaching of the art. The sophists are today held in

high regard for building the foundations of the discipline of rhetoric and their

understanding of the power of language. However, they were highly distrusted back

in their time. There were several reasons:

a) Athenian Pride: Many of the sophists were foreigners, and Athenians were judgmental and critical of anyone who came from outside of Athens, even

from other Greek territories.

b) Expensive education: Charging of fees by the sophists for their services went against the Greek tradition. Plus it was too expensive for many of the

Athenians, engendering dislike among the disadvantaged.

c) Claim to wisdom: Virtue and wisdom were then seen in Greece as innate and not acquired. The sophists' philosophy stood in stark contrast, engendering

further ill-will.

But it has been argued that our perception of the time has probably been colored by an

accident of history: the survival of Plato's dialogues. Plato was extremely critical of

the sophists' notion of there being no absolute truth. In his dialogues he employs his

own rhetoric to debunk the sophists and establish the primacy of absolute forms:

justice, virtue, good. It has been speculated that the survival of Plato's writings is the

primary reason for negative perception of rhetoric in contemporary popular

imagination.

The writings of Aristotle and Plato dominated the classical theories of rhetoric. In his

dialogue Georiga, Plato compares rhetoric to cookery and thus emphasizes the

limitations of the sophists's rhetoric. He contrasts this image with his conception of an

ideal rhetoric, imbued with a moral perspective, which he puts forth in Pbaedrus.

Aristotle takes a more analytical approach towards the subject, attempting to codify

rhetorical instruction. His pragmatic approach has been articulated in his Rhetoric,

which is the first systematic and comprehensive work on the subject.

The Romans transported the major Greek texts on rhetoric across the Mediterranean.

The Greek rhetorical theories were subsequently modified and adapted to suit their

contingent scenario. Cicero is probably the most accomplished exponent of the

Roman tradition of rhetoric. He was not only a great orator himself, but also

contributed three major works to rhetorical theory: De Inventione (On Invention), De

Oratore (On Oratory), and Orator (Orator). His major original contribution was a

comprehensive development of the rhetorical tenet of style, and the types of style. The

Romans immensely valued rhetoric as a practical art with a great role in public affairs.

Later as Rome was ruled successively by dictators, rhetoric became separated from

public affairs (150-400 AD). The fear of punishment made people refrain from public

articulation on state matters. This limited rhetoric's application to concerns of style

and delivery rather than substance and content. Rhetoric continued to be applied as a

practical art through the medieval ages (400-1400 AD), with letter writing and

preaching particularly being the concerns of the theoreticians.

Arrival of Renaissance sounded the bells for revival of rhetoric as a subject of

philosophical inquiry. Generations of Italian humanists revived the sophists' interest

in the power and centrality of language to human life. But renaissance additionally

brought with itself the age of reason, with Descartes playing a central role in

divorcing reason from emotion. This dominance of reason in rhetorical treatises

continued through the 20th century. In the age of objectivity, rational argument

emerged as the preferred mode of persuasion. As the science of faculty psychology

developed, it was increasingly accepted that five faculties were relevant in governing

an individual:

a) Understanding

b) Memory

c) Imagination

d) Passion

e) Will

Reason would be directed at a single faculty: understanding. There arose increasing

interest among rhetoricians to understand ways to harness other five faculties. The

definition of rhetoric by George Campbell captures well this perspective:

'enlightening understanding, pleasing imagination, moving passions and influencing

will'.

Modern Period of Rhetoric

The modern period of rhetoric has thus attempted to understand the effects of the

rhetorical impulses across all human faculties and social contexts (letters, elocution,

belles lettres). The contemporary period has emerged in a specific historical context.

The propaganda efforts during and post WWII led to birth of several media institutes

directed at studying all kinds of communication processes. The contemporary

scholars: I.A. Richards (England) Cha'im Perelman (Netherlands), Jurgen Habermas

(Germany), Michael Foucault (France), while not calling themselves rhetoricians,

explored the questions of language and its function. There was immense interest in

how language could generate or remove misunderstandings, especially at the micro

level; how arguments were to be made suitable for particular audiences, and how the

structuring of societies has an implicit dependence on discourse systems.

I next highlight the major developments that characterize the modern period of

rhetoric.

1) The study of rhetoric has grown out of the strict verbal and written communication in the public sphere as in the classical period; it now

encompasses much wider forms of communication - 'from intra-personal to

interpersonal to public discourse to social movements and mediated discourse.'

The theories of rhetoric have as their subjects everything from television, art,

architecture, Internet, dress to sports. It appears there is nothing in human

experience that cannot be looked at with a rhetorical lens.

2) The subject of interest in terms of intent has shifted away from pure persuasion to a plethora of different reasons for which humans may create

rhetoric. Some rhetoricians find all use of symbols by humans to ultimately

persuasive, regardless of intent. Others cast aspersions on the act of persuasion

- inquiring into its appropriateness - and promote inquiry into alternative

rhetorical modes like invitational rhetoric. This focus on intent has built an

increasing interest in rhetoricians with regards rhetoric's relationship with

social change.

3) There is an increasing recognition of the diversity of rhetorical traditions, beyond the Western rhetoric originating in ancient Greece. If all rhetoric is

essentially human use of symbols in communication, different gestures and

actions in different cultural contexts carry vastly different meanings. Avoiding

communication is interpreted as a deficiency and a sign of weakness in

Western cultures, while Eastern and Native American cultures regard silence

as golden.

4) The rhetorical theories of ancient Greece were written for a particular kind of rhetor: elite, well educated Athenian men with access to public domain. This

has promoted recognition that the characteristics of the rhetor can necessitate

different rhetorics. Different rhetorical exigencies, arguments and styles were

introduced when historically marginalized social groups like women, LGBT,

African-American etc. were able to access public platforms.

It is indeed a long journey that the theory of rhetoric has traveled from theorizing

aimed at helping litigants in the ancient Greece.