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2015

Rethinking the Conquest : an exploration of the similarities Rethinking the Conquest : an exploration of the similarities

between pre-contact Spanish and Mexica society, culture, and between pre-contact Spanish and Mexica society, culture, and

royalty royalty

Samantha Billing University of Northern Iowa

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RETHINKINGTHECONQUEST:ANEXPLORATIONOFTHESIMILARITIESBETWEEN

PRE‐CONTACTSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETY,CULTURE,ANDROYALTY

AnAbstractofaThesis

Submitted

inPartialFulfillment

oftheRequirementsfortheDegree

MasterofArts

SamanthaBilling

UniversityofNorthernIowa

May2015

 

 

ABSTRACT

TheSpanishConquesthasbeenhistoricallymarkedbytheyear1521andis

popularlythoughtofasanabsoluteandcompleteprocessofindigenoussubjugation

intheNewWorld.Alongsidethisideacomesthewidespreadnarrativethat

describesabarbaric,uncivilizedgroupofindigenouspeoplebeingconqueredand

subjugatedbyamoresophisticatedandsuperiorgroupofEuropeans.Thereisalsoa

commonmisconceptionthattheConquestresultedinadominanceofEuropean

cultureandalossoftheindigenousheritagethathadprevailedintheNewWorldup

untilthatpoint.

ThismanuscriptexplorestheperiodknownastheConquestinanewway.I

arguethatbylimitingthescopeoftheSpanish‐indigenousinteractioninthe

sixteenth‐centurytoasingleevent,theactualhistoricalnarrativeofthisperiodis

lost.TheSpaniardsdidindeedwinawarin1521,butthiseventdidnotsignifya

conquestoranextinctionofindigenousculture.Instead,thisdatemarkstheendofa

two‐yearwarbetweentheSpaniardsandthepeoplecommonlyknownasthe

Aztecs.Thisgroupofindigenouspeople,theMexicaofcentralMexico,had

dominatedthecentralvalleyofMesoamericaforonlyafewcenturies,buthadbuilt

upanimposingempirecenteredaroundthecapitalcityofTenochtitlan.Their

culturewasnotonlyimpressivebyNewWorldstandards,butitwasremarkably

similartothesocietyandculturefoundinEarlyModernSpain.

 

 

Thefocusofthismanuscriptistheconceptofroyalculture,butIalsoexplore

broadertopicsofsocietysuchasreligion,warriorethos,andimperialcontrol.By

lookingatsimilaritiesbetweenthesetwocultures,itiseasytoseewhytheywere

abletocometogetherinsuchauniquewayduringtheColonialPeriod.Thesociety

thatemergedinNewSpainafter1521wasnotwhollyEuropean,norwasitwholly

indigenous;itwasaconglomerationofindigenousandSpanishelementsthattook

thebestconceptsfrombothsocietiesandcombinedthemintoanentirelynovel

culture,whichcanstillbeseeninMexicotoday.

RETHINKINGTHECONQUEST:ANEXPLORATIONOFTHESIMILARITIESBETWEEN

PRE‐CONTACTSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETY,CULTURE,ANDROYALTY

AThesis

Submitted

inPartialFulfillment

oftheRequirementsfortheDegree

MasterofArts

SamanthaBilling

UniversityofNorthernIowa

May2015

 

 

ii

ThisStudyby:SamanthaBilling

Entitled:RethinkingtheConquest:AnExplorationoftheSimilaritiesBetweenPre‐

ContactSpanishandMexicaSociety,Culture,andRoyalty

hasbeenapprovedasmeetingthethesisrequirementforthe

DegreeofMasterofArts

___________ _____________________________________________________ Date Dr.FernandoCalderón,Chair,ThesisCommittee

___________ _____________________________________________________Date Dr.BarbaraCutter,ThesisCommitteeMember

___________ _____________________________________________________Date Dr.EmilyMachen,ThesisCommitteeMember

___________ _____________________________________________________Date Dr.AprilChatham‐Carpenter,InterimDean,GraduateCollege

 

 

iii

TABLEOFCONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................1

CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTIONTOEARLYSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETIES..............19

CHAPTER2:INDIGENOUSSOURCEDESCRIPTIONSOFPRE‐CONQUESTMEXICAROYALTY ....................................................................................................................................................56

CHAPTER3:DESCRIPTIONSOFMEXICASOCIETYBYSPANISHCHRONICLERS........87

CHAPTER4:POST‐CONQUESTMESOAMERICA:THEBLENDINGOFSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETIESANDTHESURVIVALOFINDIGENOUSCULTURE..........................126

CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................................158

BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................................................169

 

 

1

INTRODUCTION

In1519agroupofSpanishconquistadorsreachedthecoastofMexicoand

encounteredagroupofNativeAmericanscalledtheMexicawhohadbuiltagreat

imperialcivilizationknowntousastheAztecEmpire.Theydominatedthemajority

ofthelandthatmakesuppresentdayMexicofromtheircapitalcityTenochtitlan,

whichisestimatedtohavehadapopulationofover200,000residents.Whenthe

capitalcityfellin1521,itwasnotonlythelargestcityintheNewWorld,butitwas

oneofthemostpopulouscitiesonearth.Yet,despiteacomparablepopulationsize

toEuropeancitiesandtheamazementSpanishconquistadors(conquerors)

experiencedwhentheyfirstenteredTenochtitlan,contemporaryaccountsquickly

begantofocusonthedifferencesbetweentheMexicaandtheEuropeans.

Differencessuchaslanguageandculture,includingthepracticeofhumansacrifice

andpolytheism,overshadowedthesimilarities.However,theMexicapracticed

medicine,hadroads,weapons,irrigationsystems,palacesandotherarchitectural

worksofastonishingsize.Theyhaddevelopedacalendar,systemsofwritingand

taxcollection,andhadamarketplaceinthecapitalcitywhichattracted60,000

peopledailyaccordingtosomesources.Manyoftheseinnovationsrivaledorwere

evenmoreadvancedthantheirEuropeancounterparts.Inaddition,theMexicahad

 

 

2

averystratifiedsocialhierarchy,hereditarynobilityandroyalcourtswhichwillbe

thefocusofthisstudy.1

Iwouldliketointroduceacomparativeapproachtoexplorethesimilarities

betweentheMexicaandEuropeanswithregardstopalaceandcourtlife,royalty

andsocialhierarchy.PreviousgenerationsofscholarshaveconcentratedonSpanish

primarysourceswhenwritingaboutthisperiodoftime.Theytranslatedthese

sourcesandmadethemwidelyavailabletoacademicsacrosstheglobe,however

theirfocuswasone‐sided.2Thenextwaveofscholarsbegantolookatindigenous

sources,especiallythenowinfamouscodices,buttheEuropeanperspective

dominatedandtheindigenouspeoplewerestilldepictedasbackwards,barbarous

andinferior.3Amorenovelapproachbyscholarsisthefocusonindigenoussources

onalargerscale,sourcesthatmayseemmundanebutthatprovideinvaluable

insightsintothelivesoftheMexicabeforeandaftertheconquest.Thisnewview

                                                            1MarcoA.Almazán,“TheAztecStates‐Society:RootsofCivilSocietyandSocialCapital,”AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience565(September1999):165.;LaneF.Fargher,VereniceY.HerediaEspionoza,andRichardE.Blanton,“AlternativePathwaystoPowerinLatePostclassicHighlandMesoamerica,”JournalofAnthropologicalArchaeology30(2011):307.;CharlesGibson,“TheAztecAristocracyinColonialMexico,”ComparativeStudiesinColonialMexico2,2(January1960):169‐171.;ChristianIsendahlandMichaelE.Smith,“SustainableAgrarianUrbanism:TheLow‐DensityCitiesoftheMayasandAztecs,”Cities31(2013):138.;TarmoKulmar,“AbouttheComparisonoftheStateAuthorityandSocialOrganizationbyIncasandAztecs,”Folklore45(June2010):142,144.;MatthewRestall,LisaSousa,andKevinTerraciano,eds.,MesoamericanVoices:NativeLanguageWritingsfromColonialMexico,Oaxaca,Yucatan,andGuatemala(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2005),4,126.;MatthewRestallandKrisLane,LatinAmericainColonialTimes(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2011),12‐13.;J.Rounds.“TheRoleoftheTecuhtliinAncientAztecSociety,”Ethnohistory24,4(Fall1977):352,354.;StuartB.Schwartz,Ed.,VictorsandVanquished:SpanishandNahuaViewsoftheConquestofMexico(Boston:Bedford/St.Martin’s,2000),6.;MichaelE.SmithandFrancesF.Berdan,“ArchaeologyandtheAztecEmpire,”WorldArchaeology23,3(February1992):354.2WilliamH.Prescott,HistoryoftheConquestofMexicowithaPreliminaryViewoftheAncientMexicanCivilizationandtheLifeoftheConquerorHernandoCortes(NewYork:TheHovendonCo.:1842).3MauriceCollis,CortésandMontezuma(London:Faber&Faber,1955).

 

 

3

stressesthesimilaritiesbetweenthehighlydevelopedsocietiesofMesoamericaand

theirEuropeancontemporaries.4Thefounderofthisschoolofthought,James

Lockhart,says,“Theextentoftheir[theSpanishgovernmentandfriars]success

dependedpreciselyupontheacceptanceandretentionofindigenouselementsand

patternsthatinmanyrespectswerestrikinglyclosetothoseofEurope.”5Thus,not

onlyweretheMexicacomparabletotheEuropeansinmanyways,butitwasthose

similaritiesthatcanexplainthesuccessoftheSpaniardsinimplementingcertain

practicesinthelargeurbanareasoftheBasinofMexico.

Iarguethatoneofthesesimilaritiesbetweenthetwocultureswastheir

socialstructure,royaltyandcourtlife.ManyindigenousrulersalloverMesoamerica

retainedtheirelevatedstatusaftertheconquestbecausetheSpanishrecognized

theirequivalencetocontemporaryEuropeannobility.Thisledtoanintegrationof

thetwocultures,withchangesonbothsides,ratherthanaone‐sidedconquest

wheretheindigenouspeoplelosteverythingandwerecompletelychanged.The

simplefactthateachculturerecognizeditsequalintheotheriswhyMexicansociety

todayisneitherwhollyEuropeannorwhollyindigenous.MatthewRestallcallsthis

“DoubleMistakenIdentity”andstatesthat“bothSpaniardsandnativesviewedthe

sameconceptsorwayofdoingsomethingasrootedintheirownculture.Inthis                                                            4JamesLockhart,TheNahuasAftertheConquest:ASocialandCulturalHistoryoftheIndiansofCentralMexico,SixteenthThroughEighteenthCenturies(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1992).;LauraMatthewandMichelR.Oudijk,eds.,IndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMexico(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007).;MatthewRestall,SevenMythsoftheSpanishConquest(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2003).;Restall,SousaandTerraciano,2005.;StephanieWood,TrancendingConquest:NahuaViewsofSpanishColonialMexico(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2003).5Lockhart,4.

 

 

4

way,thenativeborrowingofSpanishculturalelementsdidnotrepresentnative

culturelossordecline,butratheradaptabilityandvitality.”6Formystudy,Iwill

focusontheMexica,thedominantimperialrulersofwhatispopularlycalledthe

AztecEmpire,andtheSpanish,thepeoplewhotheycameintocontactwithinthe

sixteenthcenturyandoverhundredsofyearsexchangedmanyculturalelements.

Althoughmyfocuswillbeontheyearsimmediatelysurroundingthecontactperiod,

Iwillalsomovepasttheconquestafewdecadestoshowhowthesesimilarities

playedout.

Background

TheMexicabelongtoarareclassofNativeAmericans.Theybuiltlarge,

complexcities,hadextraordinaryarchitecture,andaverysophisticatedcultureand

society.Atthetimeofinitialcontactin1519,theMexicawerestillnewtothe

sedentarylifestyleandwerestillworkingonshapingandimprovingtheir

government,warriortactics,andideasaboutroyaltyandroyalculture.Whenthe

capitalcity,Tenochtitlan,fellin1521,theempirewasnotquitetwohundredyears

oldandthepeoplewerestilldevelopingtheirideasofclass‐consciousness.Thecity,

astheSpaniardssawit,wasafairlynewalbeitimposingmetropolisonanislandin

themiddleofLakeTexcoco.AlthoughitrivaledthemajorcitiesinEuropeatthe

                                                            6Restall,128.

 

 

5

timesuchasParis,SevilleandVenice,theMexicawerenottoofar,temporally,from

theirhumblebeginning.7

FollowingthefalloftheToltecs,ofwhomtheMexicaclaimdecent,therewas

alargemigrationofhunterandgatherernationsthatbeganmovingsouthintothe

centralplateauofMexicointhetwelfthcentury.TheMexica,oneofthelatecomers,

didnotreachthelakeuntilabout1250.KnowntousnowastheAztecsaftertheir

mythicalhomeland,Atzlán,theMexicawerenotwelllikedbythepreviously

establishedpeoplelivingonthelandaroundthelake.Pushedtothemarginallands

unwantedbytheothers,theMexicaestablishedthemselvesonafewswampy

islandsinthemiddleofLakeTexcocoandbeganbuildingtheircapitalcityin1325.

Startingfromscratchwithgardensbuiltonmudcoveredwickerraftsandunderthe

overlordshipofmorepowerfulneighbors,theMexicaworkedtheirwayupto

becomethemajorpowerincentralMexico.Undertherulershipofgreatemperors

likeItzcoatl(1426‐1440)andMoctezumaI(1440‐1468)theMexicaexpandedtheir

controltoincludethemajorityofpresentdaycentralMexicoby1470.Although

theiractualpresenceinvariousprovincesvaried,mostscholarsnowagreethat                                                            7JohnCharlesChasteen,BorninBloodandFire:AConciseHistoryofLatinAmerica(NewYork:W.W.NortonandCompany,Inc.,2011),12‐16;IngaClendinnen,“TheCostofCourageinAztecSociety,”Past&Present107(May1985):44.;Collis,48‐49.;CarolineDoddsPennock,“‘ARemarkablyPatternedLife’:DomesticandPublicintheAztecHouseholdCity,”GenderandHistory23,3(November2011):536,541.;Fargheretal.,307.;Martínez,MaríaElena,GenealogicalFictions:LimpiezadeSangre,Religion,andGenderinColonialMexico(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,2008),92‐95.;BarbaraE.Mundy,“MappingtheAztecCapital:The1524NurembergMapofTenochtitlan,ItsSourcesandMeanings,”ImagoMundi50(1998):11,26‐27.;Restall,xiii–xv.;RestallandLane,12‐13.;J.Rounds,“Lineage,Class,andPowerintheAztecState,”AmericanEthnologist6,1(February1979):77.;Schwartz,1,8.;JacquesSoustelle,TheDailyLifeoftheAztecsontheEveoftheSpanishConquest,trans.PatrickO’Brian(NewYork:TheMacmillanCompany,1962),5,34.;CamillaTownsend,Malintzin’sChoices:AnIndianWomanintheConquestofMexico(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,2006),85,91‐92.

 

 

6

whattheMexicahadaccomplishedwithinacouplehundredyearswasquite

remarkable.Althoughtheircontrolofprovinceswasoftenindirect,theirdominance

ofMesoamericacanindeedbeconsideredanempire.Underthelastpre‐contact

emperor,MoctezumaII(1503–1520),theirempirewasstillconqueringand

expanding.WhentheSpanishfirstarrived,comparingTenochtitlantothecityof

Venice,theMexicaEmpirehadnotevencomeclosetoreachingitsfullpotential.8

WhentheSpanishreachedtheBasinofMexico,theMexicadominatedtheir

empirefromtheircapitalcityoraltepetl(city‐state)Tenochtitlan.Theirsocial

hierarchyatthistimewasverystratifiedandcompletelyhereditary.Thedynastic

ruler(tlatoani)ofTenochtitlanwasMoctezumaIIandhehadbeeninpowersince

thedeathofhisuncleAhuitzotlin1503.InMexicansociety,therulerwastechnically

electedbytheothernoblesofthecityofTenochtitlananditspowerfulalliesand

neighborsTexcocoandTacuba(Tlacopan).However,theelectedemperoralways

camefromapoolofcloserelationstotheprevioustlatoani.Hence,thereisadirect

linefromthefirstrulerofTenochtitlan,Acamapichtli,toeveryothersuccessive

ruler.Especiallytowardtheendofthepre‐conquestera,thepatternclosely

                                                            8Almazán,166.;C.A.Burland,Montezuma:LordoftheAztec(NewYork:G.P.Putnam’sSons,1973),29‐35.;Clendinnen,45‐46.;FriedrichKatz,“TheEvolutionofAztecSociety,”Past&Present13(April1958):14‐15.;Kulmar,145.;JaimeMata‐Míguezetal.,“TheGeneticImpactofAztecImperialism:AncientMitochondrialDNAEvidencefromXaltocan,Mexico,”AmericanJournalofPhysicalAnthropology149(2012):504.;MichaelA.Ohnersorgen,“AztecProvincialAdministrationatCuetlaxtlan,Veracruz,”JournalofAnthropologicalArchaeology25(2006):1‐4.;RestallandLane,68‐74.;Restall,SousaandTerraciano,4‐5.;Rounds(1979):74‐77.;Schwartz,5‐6.;CarlaM.Sinopoli,“TheArchaeologyofEmpires,”AnnualReviewofAnthropology23(1994):164.;Soustelle,xv‐xvii.;BrianM.TomaszewskiandMichaelE.Smith,“Polities,TerritoryandHistoricalChangeinPostclassicMatlatzinco(TolucaValley,centralMexico),”JournalofHistoricalGeography37(2011):25.Townsend,14‐15.

 

 

7

followedthepracticeofpremogenitureinEurope,wheretheeldestsoninherits,

followedbyhisbrothersandsons.9

AlthoughtheSpanishtechnicallytookoverin1521,indigenousrulers

continuedtomaintaintheirtraditionalstatusandauthorityforcenturies.Inthe

wordsofSusanSchroeder,“thekingcertainlydied,butthefour‐partsocio‐political

structureofgovernancewasmaintainedwithtraditionalnoblesasSpanish‐styled

electedofficialsincontrolmuchastheyhadbeenbefore.”10Infact,manyaspectsof

indigenouscultureremainedincludinghousing,farming,clothing,andlanguagein

additiontochoosingtheirownleadersandworshipingthenewreligionof

Christianityinatraditionallyindigenousway.Notonlydidindigenouspeople

recognizesimilaritiesintheSpanishculturethattheycouldselectivelyadaptto

theirownlives,buttheSpanishrecognizedthattheeasiestwayto“conquer”would

betobuilduponalreadyexistingcultural,political,socialandeconomicindigenous

structures.Tenochtitlan,knowntodayasMexicoCity,continuedtoserveasthe

capitalanditcanevenbearguedthatwhatwecallthe“conquest”isstillnotentirely

complete.11

                                                            9Restall,SousaandTerraciano,4‐5.10SusanSchroeder,“Introduction:TheGenreofConquestStudies,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,eds.LauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007):12.11Restall,65,75,104.;Wood,5,10.

 

 

8

Historiography

CharlesGibsonwrotein1960that,“thereisnosatisfactoryfulltreatmentof

Mexicansocialorpoliticalorganization.”12Sincethen,however,historianshave

takenituponthemselvestofillinthisgap.Somescholars,suchasFriedrichKatz,

claimtheAztecsarewithoutcomparison.Katzsaysthatbecauseofhowadvanced

theirsocietywasdespitethelackofthebasiccommoditiesofOldWorldcivilizations

suchasthewheel,beastsofburdenandmetaltools,theMexicaareinaleagueof

theirown.13Manyscholars,however,usesomemeasureofcomparisonwhen

approachingthetopicofMexicasocietyandthiscontextvariesfromhistorianto

historian.

OnecommonandobviousthemeistocomparetheMexicatoother

indigenousgroupsinLatinAmerica.Thisgroupisfurthersubdividedintotwomain

classesofcomparisons:indigenousgroupsthatpredatetheMexicaorcontemporary

indigenousgroups.ScholarsthatcomparetheMexicatoancientindigenouspeople

tendtofocusontheToltecs,OlmecsandMaya,allofwhomhadtheirpeakpriorto

MexicadominanceinMesoamerica.PatriciaRieffAnawaltdoesthisinher

discussionoftheimperialcloakwornbytheAztecroyalty.Shediscusseshowthe

patternwhichdistinguishesroyaltyfromcommonpeopleisbasedonancientToltec

symbolsofnobility.Shealsodescribesthepatternassharingmanysimilaritieswith

                                                            12Gibson,171.13Katz,23.

 

 

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Mayannobleclothing.14NicholasJ.SaundersusescomparisonswiththeOlmecsand

MayatoshowtheimportanceofjaguarsymbolismtoMesoamericanroyalty.15Used

inamultitudeofwaystomakevariousarguments,comparisonsbetweentheMexica

andoneoftheseancientMesoamericancivilizationsisacommonthemeseenin

scholarship.16ComparisonstotheMexica’scontemporaries,theIncas,canalsobe

found.TarmoKulmarcomparestheirsocialorganizationandshowsthatalthough

thesegroupswerebothinpoweratthesametime,theyhadverydifferentwaysof

runningtheirrespectiveempires.17

SomescholarslooktoEuropeastheircomparativetoolinsteadofother

indigenoussocietiesanddosoinvariousways.Anawaltbeginsherarticlebysaying

that,“TheceremonyandgrandeursurroundingthecourtoftheAztecemperor

MoctezumaencompassedadegreeofelaborationunrivaledinEurope.”18However,

shedoesnotgointoacomparisonofthesetwoculturesbutinsteadswitchesto

strictlyindigenouscomparisons.MarcoA.AlmazánalsolooksatEuropeansfor

comparisonsandverybrieflydiscussessomesimilarities.Hearguesthatthebasisof

theMexicastates‐societywasinfactsimilartothatofModernEurope.19Stuart

SchwartzcomparesthehistoriesoftheSpanishandMexicabysayingthat,“Both

weretheheirsofalongprocessofculturaldevelopmentandfusion,bothhada                                                            14PatriciaRieffAnawalt,“TheEmperors’Cloak:AztecPomp,ToltecCircumstances,”AmericanAntiquity55,2(April1990):291,294,297‐298,302‐303.15NicholasJ.Saunders,“JaguarSymbolismandMesoamericanElites,”WorldArchaeology26,1(June1994):105‐108,112‐113.16IsendahlandSmith,132‐143.17Kulmar,148‐149.18Anawalt,291.19Almazán,174.

 

 

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warriorethos,bothheldferventlytoareligiousfaith,andbothjustifiedtheir

imperialexpansionintermsoftheologicalideals.”20NeitherAlmazánnorSchwartz

detailsthesesimilarities.IngaClendinnen,likemanyscholars,remarksonthe

differencesbetweentheAztecsandEuropeanswhilefocusingontherelationship

betweenwarandsocialdistinction.21Thisfollowsthemorecommonwayofusing

Europeancomparisons,asamodelofdissimilaritytotheMexica.22

AlthoughsomescholarshavetouchedontheideaofusingaEuropeanmodel

ascomparison,Idonotbelievetheyhavetakenitfarenough.Ihavethoroughly

studiedavailableworkonAztecsocietyandIthinkadeeperlookatthesimilarities

betweenthesocietyoftheMexicaandthatoftheircontemporaryEuropeansis

lacking.MorespecificallyacomparisontotheSpanish,thepeoplewhoconquered

theMexicaisneeded.EvenLockhart,whoisconsideredthemostinfluentialColonial

LatinAmericanhistoriansaid,“Sixteenth‐CenturySpaniardsfoundincentralMexico

asocietyremarkablyliketheirown.”23Whythenhasthiscomparisonneverbeen

studiedindepth?Lockhartsuggeststhattheremarkablesimilaritiesbetweenthe

twoculturesare“notalwaysemphasizedinthebodyofthestudy,sincetheEnglish

readeralreadyknowstheEuropeanelementsandwillimmediatelyrecognizethe

similarities.”24However,justbecausesimilaritiesareeasilyrecognizabledoesnot

meanthatanindepthscholarlystudyisnotrelevant.Inaddition,scholarlywork

                                                            20Schwartz,13.21Clendinnen,55,60,76.22TomaszewskiandSmith,22,26.;Soustelle,40.23Lockhart,1992,94.24Lockhart,1992,429.

 

 

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specificallyfocusingonMexicaroyalty,courtlifeandsocialstructureisvirtually

non‐existent.IhopetocontributenotonlyananalysisofthesetopicsinMexican

societybutalsoadirectcomparisontotheircounterpartsinSpain.Inaddition,Iwill

showhowthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwotranslatedtothepost‐conquestdecades,

theintegrationofthetwocultures,andtheformationofsocietywhichisasmuch

indigenousasitisEuropean.Thisstudywilladdtothenewscholarlyapproachof

historyfromanindigenousperspective,rejectingtheideaofacompleteconquest.It

willalsoaddtothehistoriographyofcontacteraMesoamericanaswellasEarly

ModernEuropeansocietiesandwillberelevanttoscholarsinterestedinthesociety

ofmodernMexicoandhowthecurrentsocietyandcultureemerged.

AnIntroductiontothePrimarySourcesExamined

Thefirstgroupofprimarysourcesthatwillbeexaminedcanbelumped

togetherunderthecategoryofSpanishchronicles.Theleaderoftheconquistadors,

HernánCortés,wroteoneofthemoredetailedaccountsoftheconquestofMexicoin

theformofletterstothekingofSpain,CharlesV.Theseletters,knownastheCartas

deRelación,wereusedtojustifyCortés’continuedexplorationofMexico,the

overthrowofMoctezumaandthesubsequentmassacreofthepeopleof

Tenochtitlan.25BernalDíazDelCastilloalsodescribesthejourneyoftheSpanish

ConquistadorsandtheirfirstencounterwiththepeopleofMexicoinhisworkThe

TrueHistoryoftheConquestofNewSpain.Writtenthirtyyearsaftercontact,the

                                                            25HernánCortés,LettersfromMexico,trans.A.R.Pagden(NewYork:GrossmanPublishers,1971).

 

 

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workisafirsthandperspectiveofwhattheSpaniardsperceivedwhentheycame

intocontactwiththeMexicaforthefirsttime.26TheHistoryoftheIndiesofNewSpain

byDiegoDuránisalsoanimportantsourcetoexamine.BorninSpainin1537,

DuránmovedtoMexicoatayoungageandgrewupinTenochtitlan’sneighbor,

Texcoco.Asanadult,hebecameanauthorandwroteaboutthehistoryofthe

Mexicabasedondocumentshehadaccesstoaswellasoralhistories.27These

sourcesareamongthemanyavailableSpanishprimarysourcesthatwillbe

evaluated.28

Ontheotherhand,therearemanyindigenousaccountsthatwillbe

consideredincludingtheaccountbyFrayBernardinodeSahagúnwhichisoneofthe

mostcompletehistoriesoftheMexicaEmpirebeforecontact.ArrivingintheNew

Worldin1529,SahagúnwithateamofeliteNahua29mensetouttointerviewand

recordtestimoniesfromvariousMexicaindividuals.Thisledtothecreationofthe

GeneralHistoryoftheThingsofNewSpain,whichincludestheoriginalNahuatl

alongsideSahagún’sSpanishtranslation.30Anotherimportantindigenoussourceis

                                                            26BernalDíazDelCastillo,TheDiscoveryandConquestofMexico,ed.GenaroGarcía,trans.A.P.Maudslay(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandCudahy,1956).27Schwartz,34.;Durán,1994.28Otheraccountsinclude:ThechroniclesofAndrésdeTapia,FranciscodeAguilar,andtheAnnonymousConquistadorwhichcanbefoundinPatriciadeFuentes,ed.,TheConquistadors:First‐PersonAccountsoftheConquestofMexico(Norman,Oklahoma:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1993);ToribioMotolinía,Motolinía’sHistoryoftheIndiansofNewSpain,ed.andtrans.ElizabethAndrosFoster(Berkeley:TheCortésSociety,1950).29NahuatlwasthelanguagethemajorityofpeopleinMesoamericaspokeduringthetimeofcontact.ItwasthelanguageusedbytheMexicaandwasalsousedasortof“universallanguage”forpeoplewithintheempireandthosetheydidbusinesswith.Theword“nahua”isgenerallyused,andisusedhere,todescribepeoplewhowereNahuatlspeakers.30BernardinodeSahagún,GeneralHistoryoftheThingsofNewSpain:FlorentineCodex,Volumes1‐12,trans.ArthurJ.O.AndersonandCharlesE.Dibble(SantaFe:SchoolofAmericanResearch,1970).;

 

 

13

TheCodexMendozawhichisacollectionofMexicapictographsdepictingthehistory

oftheirpeople.Composedtwentyyearsaftertheconquest,itincludestraditional

AztecpictographseachwithSpanishexplanations.31TheCodexChimalpahin,Códice

deTlatelolco,andtheCódiceCozcatzinareamongmanyotherprimarysources,

whichtellusaboutthepre‐conquesterathroughanativepointofview.32Although

mymainfocusforthisstudywillbeonMexicasociety,theirsocialstructureand

hierarchy,royaltyandcourtlife,thecomparativecontextofusingaEuropeanlens

willnecessarilyincludeadescriptionofSpanishsocietyaswell.33

AnalyticalapproachestothetopicofSpanish‐indigenouscontactandcolonial

societyinNewSpainhaveproceededinphaseswhichIdiscussedinthe

historiographysection.ThefirstwavefocusedsolelyonSpanishsourcestotella

one‐sidedstoryandthesecondgroupbegantointegratenowcommonindigenous

sourcesbutstilldepicteditasacomplete“conquest”andatriumphofEuropean

culture.Thenewestapproach,andtheoneIwilltake,istoconsiderallavailable

sourcesincludingtheSpanishchroniclesandpreviouslytranslatedindigenous

                                                                                                                                                                                 KevinTerraciano,“ThreeTextsinOne:BookXIIoftheFlorentineCodex,”Ethnohistory57,1(Winter2010):58‐60,64‐65.31KurtRoss,ed.,CodexMendoza:AztecManuscript(London:RegentBooks,1984).32ChimalpahinQuauhtlehuanitzin,donDiegodeSanAntónMuñón.CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1&2.EditedandtranslatedbyArthurJ.O.AndersonandSusanSchroeder.Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1997.);JamesLockhart,ed.andtrans.,WePeopleHere:NahautlAccountsoftheConquestofMexico(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1993).;AnaRitaValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandRafaelTena,CódiceCozcatzin(MexicoCity:InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologíaeHistoria&BeneméritaUniversidadAutónomodePuebla,1994).;PerlaValle,CódicedeTlatelolco(MexicoCity:InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologíaeHistoria&BeneméritaUniversidadAutónomodePuebla,1994.);33JohnEdwards,FerdinandandIsabella(NewYork:Pearson/Longman,2004).;Mariéjol,Jean‐Hippolyte,TheSpainofFerdinandandIsabella,trans.BenjaminKeen(NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,1961.)

 

 

14

sources.Thesesourcescanbelookedatinanentirelynewwaybyconsideringhow

theyarewrittenandwhatthatcantellusaboutcolonialsociety,inasense“reading

betweenthelines”.Forexample,whentheindigenouspeopledescribetheir

interactionswiththeSpanishandtheimplementationofSpanishinstitutions,itis

clearlyconveyedthattheyarenotoverawedbytheSpanishoroverwhelmedbythe

newstructures.Infact,theyusuallyfindaparallelintheirownsocietyinorderto

explainthenewphenomenon.Thesetypesofdiscoursesinindigenousdocuments

tellusalotmoreabouttheindigenousperspectivethanwhatisseenwhenonly

takenatfacevalue.IwillalsofollowinthefootstepsofscholarssuchasJames

Lockhart,StephanieWood,andMatthewRestallwhoseekoutsourcesnotas

commonlyusedandwhichmayseemmundanetosomebutwhichprovide

importantobservationsofpre‐andpost‐conquestsociety.

AnIntroductiontotheContextofthisManuscript

AsIsaidbefore,thefocusofthebodyofthisworkisontheideaofroyalty,

royalculture,courtlife,andtheimportanceofsocialdistinction.However,when

workingwithatopicsuchasthis,itisnecessarytoincludedescriptionsofother

aspectsofMexicasocietyinordertosupplementthemaintheme.Forthisreason,

thefirstandlastchaptersdonotconcentratestrictlyonroyalculturein

MesoamericaandSpain.Thefirstchapterservesasanindepthbackgroundtoboth

ofthesesocieties.Iinclude,inadditiontoadescriptionofroyalsociety,explanations

ofotheraspectsofSpanishandMexicasocietywhichwerestrikinglysimilar.This

 

 

15

chapterrevealsthatbothsocietieswereconquerors,withstrongwarrior

characteristics.Thisconqueringmentalitywasonereasonwhythetwosocieties

cametogether,andoftenworkedtogetherduringconquestexpeditions,intheyears

followingtheConquest.NotonlydidtheMexicaandothernativesofcentralMexico

wanttocontinuetheirconqueringexpeditionstoincreasetheirterritory,the

Spaniardswantedtotakepartinconquestsaswellsotheycouldimplementtheir

controlovermorepeopleoftheNewWorld.Thiscommoninteresthadmany

interestingrepercussionsinthepost‐Conquestyears.

Chapter1alsodescribeshowthereligionsofSpainandTenochtitlanmay

havehadsomedifferences,butthattheimportanceofreligionineachsocietywas

extremelycomparable.TheSpaniardsmayhavethoughtthattheywereconverting

thenatives,butreally,theindigenouspeopleofMesoamericaweresimply

incorporatingsomeaspectsofChristianityintotheirownpracticesbecausethey

recognizedthemashavingparallelsintheirownreligion.Theirmethodsofimperial

controlwerealsoverysimilarinthesetwosocieties.BoththeMexicaandthe

Spaniardshighlyrespectedandidolizedtheirroyalty,butthegovernmentalcontrol

outsideofthemajorcitieswasveryindirect.MostpeopleinMesoamericawhowere

undercontroloftheMexicaEmpirestillhadtheirownrulersandmaintainedalotof

theirowncontrol.ThiswasareproductionofthesituationinSpainandthis

similaritybetweenthesetwosocietieswouldliveontobepracticedintheColonial

years.ThismeantthatalthoughtheSpaniardsclaimedtheyhadjurisdictionintheir

 

 

16

colonyofNewSpain,atthelocallevel,indigenoushereditaryrulerswerestillin

power.ThesearebutafewexamplesofwhatwillbediscussedinChapter1,butthe

overallargumentisthatthesepre‐contactsimilaritiesgreatlyaffectedthewaythe

SpaniardsandMexicareactedtooneanother.Bothgroupsrecognizedrelationships

betweenthetwosocietiesandreadilyincorporatedcertainaspectsofoneanother’s

society.ThisledtoaninterestingColonialperiodinNewSpainandhasalottodo

withthecultureweseeinMexicotoday.

Chapter2and3bothfocusontheimportanceofroyalcultureinbothSpain

andMesoamerica,butusedifferentsourcestodoso.Chapter2focuseson

indigenoussourcematerial,whichtendstohighlightlocaldynasties,royal

intermarriages,thesuccessofroyalchildren,andterritorialconquests.Through

thesesourceswelearnthathereditarynobilitywasextremelyimportanttothe

peopleofcentralMexico.ThelastemperoroftheMexicabeforetheConquest,

Cuauhtemoc,wasadirectdescendentofthefirstemperor,Acamapichtli.Thelineof

rulerspassedflawlesslyfromfathertoson,brothertobrother,uncletonephew,or

cousintocousin.TheMexicaalsousedmarriageasatooltocementalliances.

Daughterswereoftenmarriedofftotherulersorheirsofothercity‐states,and

emperorsandheirstotheMexicathronealwaysmarriedwomenofroyalbirth.

Often,thewomenthatMexicaemperorsmarriedweremembersoftheirown

extendedfamily.Royalchildrenweregivenprominentposts.Malesoftenbecame

partoftheroyalcouncilorheldotherhigh‐rankingpostsinTenochtitlan.Ifthispath

 

 

17

wasnotpossibletheyweresetupasarulerofacity‐stateundertheruleofthe

Mexica.Allofthesepracticesregardingroyalculturearealmostexactreplicasofthe

waythingsworkedinSpainduringthistime.

Chapter3discussessimilarconcepts,butfocusesinsteadonSpanishsource

materialincludingthewritingsofconquistadorsandearlySpanishhistorians.From

thesesourceswegettoseetheamazementtheSpaniardsexperiencedwhenthey

encounteredthecultureoftheMexica.TheMexicaheldincredibleswayovermost

oftheterritoriestheSpaniardshadtopassthrough,andthefearofMoctezumaII’s

subjectswasverycleartoCortésandhismen.ThecityofTenochtitlanitselfwas

moreincrediblethananycityinEuropeatthattime.Thearchitectureandthe

civilizednatureofthepeopleamazedtheSpanishconquistadors.TheSpanish

sourcesalsoshedalotoflightontheceremonialpracticessurroundingtheemperor

onadailybasisandtherespectshowntohimbyeverysinglepersoninthecity.He

heldcourtlikeaEuropeanking,wascarriedfromplacetoplaceinanelaborate

litter,andnoonewasallowedtolookhimintheeyeonpainofdeath.Manyofthese

practicesrecordedintheSpanishdialoguesareverysimilartopracticesseeninthe

royalcourtsofEurope.EventheSpanishchroniclesacknowledgedmanytimes

duringthecourseoftheirwritinghowimpressedtheywerewiththissophisticated

cityanditspeople,andnotedhowremarkablyfamiliarmanyofthesepracticeswere

tothem.

 

 

18

ThepurposeofChapter4istoconsideralltheinformationprovidedinthe

otherchaptersandwhatallofitmeansfortheColonialsocietyinNewSpainafter

theConquest.Hereitisarguedthattheculturethatemergedintheyearsfollowing

theConquestwasonethatwasneithercompletelyEuropeannorcompletely

indigenous.ItwasamiraculousblendofbothSpanishandnativeculturalelements.

Sincethesetwosocietiesweresosimilartooneanothertheyreadilyborrowed

ideas,adaptedtheirownpracticestofitthenewColonialorder,andcametogether

inawaythatwasveryrareforColonialprojectsintheNewWorld.Thischapter,like

Chapter1,hasabroaderfocus.RoyalcultureanditscontinuationintotheColonial

periodare,ofcourse,discussed.Otheraspectsofnativeculturalsurvival,suchas

religion,indigenousconquistadors,andgovernment,arealsoincludedinthispartof

themanuscript.Insum,thischapterfocusesontheearlypost‐Conquestyearsand

theinstitutionsthataroseduringthistime.Muchofnativeculturesurvivedthe

Conquest,andthisisclearlyshowninthesocietyofsixteenthcenturyNewSpain.In

whatwaysweretheculturesofSpainandcentralMexicosimilartooneanother?

Whatisthesignificanceofexaminingrelationshipsbetweentheconquerorsandthe

conquered?HowisthisimportanttotheColonialperiodinNewSpain?Andwhat

doesthishavetodowiththecultureofMexicotoday?Thesearesomeofthe

questionsIintendtoanswerindetailintheremainderofthismanuscript.

 

 

19

CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTIONTOEARLYSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETIES

BeforeIgetintothepurposeofthiswork,whichistofocusonthe

significanceofroyaltyinbothSpanishandMexicasociety,Ifirstwanttogiveabrief

backgroundonthesetwocultures.Inadditiontohavingmanysimilaritieswith

regardstoroyalculture,thesetwosocietiesalsohadmanyothershared

characteristics.Theywerebothwarriorandconquerorsocieties,considered

religiontobethemostimportantfactorintheirdailylives,andbroughtthesetwo

ideastogethertocreateadivinerighteousnessoftheirconquests.Assimilaras

thesetwosocietieswereatthemomentofcontact,theirhistoriesinthepreceding

centuriessharemanysimilaritiesaswell.Theearlybeginningofthecountriesthat

wenowknowasSpainandMexicoisthefocusofthischapter.

Thetimelineforthispartoftheanalysisbeginswiththeturnofthenew

millennium.TheeleventhcenturyinMesoamericamarkedthebeginningofa

declineofthereigningdominantgroupincentralMexico,theToltecs.InSpain,the

poweroftheMuslimMoorshadpasseditspeakandwasalsobeginningtodeclinein

power.Thisleftavoidinbothoftheseareasthatwouldleaveroomfornewpowers

tocomeintoplay.InMesoamerica,theMexicabegantheirpushsouthwardand

withinafewcenturieshadestablishedthemselvesasaforcetobereckonedwith.In

theIberianPeninsula,thedividedChristiannationsalsobeganapushsouthward.

ThefamousReconquista(reconquest),whichcontinueduntil1492,re‐established

 

 

20

ChristiandominanceintheIberianPeninsulaandformedtheframeworkfor

modernSpain.

TheMexicaintheeleventhcenturywereanomadic,warriortribeinwhatis

nowtheSouthwesternUnitedStates.Theirearlyoriginsareknownbecauseoftheir

closerelationswiththeTarahumaranativeswhostillresideinnorthernMexicoand

theHopitribesinpresentdayNewMexicoandArizona.Theiroralhistoriesclaim

thattheirhomelandwascalledAztlán,whichiswherethepopularnickname‘Aztec’

originates.TherewereanumberofsmalltribessimilartotheMexicainthese

northernregionsduringtheperiodofToltecdominance,butafterthissocietybegan

itscollapse,manyofthesesmallnomadictribesbegantheirmarchtowardtheBasin

ofMexico.AccordingtoChimalpahin,theyleftAztlánin1064;othersourcesplace

thebeginningoftheirmigrationabitlater.Regardlessoftheirinitialdeparture,the

MexicawereoneofthelatecomerstotheValleyofMexicoandwereatfirst

subjugatedbytheirmorepowerfulneighbors.TheyfinallyreachedtheedgeofLake

Texcocoin1299wheretheysettledforatimeinCulhuacanandwerevassalsand

subjectsofthisearlypowerhouse.1

                                                            1GordonBrotherston,ImageoftheNewWorld:TheAmericanContinentPortrayedinNativeTexts,translatedincollaborationwithEdDorn(London:ThamesandHudson,1979),24.;DonaldE.Chipman,Moctezuma’sChildren:AztecRoyaltyUnderSpanishRule,1520‐1700(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2005),6‐7.;ChimalpahinCodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,29,67,69,181.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,19.;DiegoDurán,TheAztecs:TheHistoryoftheIndiesofNewSpainbyFrayDiegoDurán.translatedbyDorisHeydenandFernandoHorcasitas(NewYork:OrionPress,1964),9.;DonDiegodeSanAntónMuñónChimalpahinQuauhtlehuanitzin,AnnalsofHisTime,editedandtranslatedbyJamesLockhart,SusanSchroeder,andDorisNamala(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,2006),117,119.;Martínez,92‐92.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,4.;Schwartz,5.;Townsend,14‐15.

 

 

21

Theirmovesouthwardwasslow,andtheystoppedandbrieflysettledin

varioustownsalongtheway.Fromthesesettledindigenouspeoplesthattheycame

intocontactwith,theylearnedmanythingsthattheywouldadoptandmakepartof

theirowncultureincludingagriculture,religiousbeliefs,warriortactics,and

architecture.Beforetheirarrival,theareaofcentralMexicowasextremely

advancedandwellcivilizedandtheMexicaquicklyincorporatedaspectsofthese

othersuccessfulcivilizations,includingtheMayaandthepeopleofTeotihuacan,into

theirownsociety.TheyespeciallyrespectedandidolizedthesocietyoftheToltecs,

whosecultureinfluencedmanynewlyarrivedpeoplesintheValleyofMexico,so

muchsothatmanyethnicgroups,includingtheMexica,claimedtobetheir

descendants.2

TheMexicacontinuedtobebuffetedaroundtheBasinofMexicoformany

yearsaftertheirarrivalintheValleyofMexico.Theybecamevassalsand

mercenariesofestablishedcity‐statesincludingColhuacanandAtzcapotzalcoand

remainedsubjugatedfordecades.Finally,in1325theysettledonsomeswampy

islandsinthemiddleofLakeTexcocoandbeganbuildingwhatwouldbecometheir

                                                            2Chipman,3‐6,8.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,77,85,89,91,185‐209,221‐227.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,19‐31,69‐73.;Durán,9.;EloisQuiñonesKeber,CodexTellerianoRemensis:RitualDivinationandHistoryinaPictorialAztecManuscript(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1995),201‐209,270‐271,295‐302.;Chimalpahin,Annals,119‐125.;Martínez,92‐93.;Schwartz,4.;Townsend,14‐15.;AlonsodeZorita,LifeandLaborinAncientMexico:TheBriefandSummaryRelationoftheLordsofNewSpain,translatedbyBenjaminKeen(NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,1963),3.

 

 

22

capitalcity,Tenochtitlan.3Duringthetimewhentheyweresubjectsofneighboring

city‐states,theymaintainedtheirownidentityastheMexica.Althoughthey

incorporatedmanyideasofthesemoreestablishedcommunities,theyremained

loyaltotheirowncultureandpeople.Theideaofloyaltytoone’sowncommunity

andpeopleisapopularpatternseenthroughoutMesoamericaduringthisperiod.

EvenwhentheMexicagrewinpowerandconqueredalargeareaofterritory,the

peopletheyconqueredretainedtheirowncommunalidentity.Becauseofthis,war

wasadominantfactorincentralMexicointheyearsbeforecontact.Each

community,whetheradominantpowerorasubjectstate,owedtheirloyaltyand

allegiancefirstandforemosttotheirownlocalrulers.4Thesecommunitiesoften

rebelledagainstthecontroloftheiroverlordsandfoughtamongstthemselvesfor

landandwealth.Thisinstabilityduetolocalautonomyandcommunityloyaltyis

mirroredintheIberianPeninsuladuringthepre‐contactperiod.

TheideaofaMesoamericancity‐stateisextremelyimportantandsoitis

necessarytoexplainthisconceptabitfurtherbeforemovingontoSpanishculture

andsocietyduringthisperiod.ThecenteroforganizationinMesoamericaduring

thistimewasknownasthealtepetl,whichreferstoanethnicstateorcommunity.

Eachaltepetlconsistedofacentralcommunity,orcity,surroundedbyaterritoryof

whichitheldsomeswayover.Everyoneinthisarealookedfirsttotheirlocalruler,

                                                            3Chipman,8.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,31,71,103,105,211,227.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,107.;Ross,18.;Durán,22.;Chimalpahin,Annals,29,125.;Motolinia,27‐28.;Shwartz,5.;Townsend,14‐15.;Zorita,4.4Chipman,6.;Lockhart,1992,1.;Zorita,73.

 

 

23

althoughmanyaltepetlwereunderthecontrolofother,morepowerfulcity‐states.

Followingthisthread,centralMexicobeforethecontactperiodwasa

conglomerationofvariousethnicstatesthatwererelatedtooneanotherthrough

tributeagreements.Inthisarea,variousdominantgroupshadcomeandwent,but

manyaltepetlsurvivedthevariouschangesinoverlordship.EvenwhentheSpanish

cametothearea,mostpre‐Conquestaltepetlsurvivedandbecamethebasisof

pueblos(towns)inColonialNewSpain.Thesevariouscity‐stateswererelatedvia

ethnictiesbecauseofeconomicneedandsocialandpoliticalfactors,butwereinno

wayaunifiedwhole.5

IntheIberianPeninsuladuringthisperiod,therewerealsogroupsmoving

southandconqueringnewterritories.TheseSpanishkingdomswereunitedby

similarlanguage,culture,andreligion,butwerenotunitedwithoneanother.Infact,

Spainasweknowittodaywasnotactuallyuniteduntilmanycenturieslater.Even

undertheCatholicMonarchs,FerdinandandIsabel,theIberianPeninsularemained

primarilyunderthecontroloflocalnobles,whoroseupagainstthecrownoften,

andfoughtamongstoneanotherconstantly.Localruleandautonomymadethepre‐

contactperiodinSpainextremelysimilartoMesoamericawithcontinuouswarfare

andtheabsenceofanytruecentralpower.AlthoughcommunitiesintheIberian

Peninsulaweretechnicallyunderthecontrolofthemonarchy,theycontinuedto

givetheirloyaltyfirstandforemosttotheirlocalrulers.Thisdisunityledtoa

                                                            5Lockhart,1992,14.;Lockhart,1993,14.;Martínez,92‐93.;MatthewandOudijk,14,49.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,4‐6,24.;Schwartz,4.;Townsend,3,13‐14,43.;Wood,106.

 

 

24

continuationoflocalcontrolandthepersistenceoflocallydistinctcultures.This

diversitycanstillbeexperiencedinSpaintodaywhereeachregionmaintainsits

ownlocalhistory,language,andculturalpractices.6

OfthecountiesthatmakeupEurope,thoselocatedontheIberianPeninsula

haveoneofthemostdiverseanduniqueculturalhistories.ThevariousSpanish

kingdomsduringtheturnofthemillenniumwerenotverycloselytiedtoEuropean

culturesincethePyreneesMountainchainseparatesIberiafromtherestofWestern

Europe.However,thesouthernmostpointoftheIberianPeninsulaislocatedonly

fifteenkilometersfromthecoastofAfrica.Becauseofthis,Iberiansocietywas

heavilyinfluencedbytheculturesoftheMoorishpeoplewhoconqueredthe

majorityofthepeninsulaandmaintainedcontroluntiltheeleventhcentury.7When

Islamicpowerandcontrolbegantodecline,thesmallChristiankingdomsbegan

theirpushsouthward.ItisimportanttonotethattheseSpanishkingdomswerenot

unitedintheirconquest.DuringthecenturiesofIslamicdominance,theChristian

statesremainedisolatedfromoneanotheranddevelopeduniqueculturalpractices.

TheyhadacommongoalofreestablishingChristiandominance,butremained

separateentitiesformanyyearstocome.8

Overthenextcoupleofcenturies,theCatholickingdomsslowlybegantoally

withoneanother.Castile,León,andPortugalunitedin1230;soonaftersodidthe

                                                            6J.N.Hilgarth,TheSpanishKingdoms:1250‐1516(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1976),Vol.1,vii.;Mariéjol,3,329..7Hilgarth,Vol.1,3‐4.;Mariéjol,3.8Hilgarth,Vol.1,4‐5.;Mariéjol,4.

 

 

25

kingdomsofCataloniaandAragon.Evenwhenkingdomsunited,eachpolity

retaineditsownseparateinstitutions.Despitebeingpoliticallyunited,the

populationsofCastileandLeón,forexample,didnothaveanoverallsenseofunity,

andwhatmatteredmosttothepeoplewastheirowncity.Thiswasapatternthat

wouldcontinueforcenturiesalloverthepeninsula.9

Althoughalliancesbegantoemerge,thegeographicallocationofeachmajor

kingdomheavilyinfluenceditsculturalpractices.Castiliansociety,forexample,

maintainedstrongtieswiththeIslamicstateofGranadaandcontinuedtobe

influencedculturallybytheMuslimMoors.TheconquestofAndalusiaandSevilleby

theCastiliansmeantthatmanyofCastile’smajorcitieshadastrongIslamicpastand

largeMoorishpopulations.ThekingdomsofCataloniaandAragonturnedtheir

focustotheMediterraneanandthereforebegantomakeculturaltieswiththerest

ofEurope.Twooftheirmajorcities,BarcelonaandValenciawerelocatedonthe

coastoftheMediterraneanandweremajorportsofEuropeantrade.Workingtheir

wayEasttosecuretraderoutes,theCrownofAragonconqueredtheMediterranean

islandofMajorca,andspreadtheirconquesttoItalybyacquiringSicilyandSardinia.

ThisdividebetweenCastileandAragonwouldcontinuepoliticallyuntilthefifteenth

century.Culturally,thesetwokingdomswouldremainuniquefromoneanotherfor

muchlonger.10EvenaftertheCastilian‐Aragonesealliance,whichdominateda

majorityofthelandinIberia,thepeninsulawasnotcompletelyunited.Thekingdom

                                                            9Hilgarth,Vol.1,299.10Hilgarth,Vol.1,4‐5,11,18,233.

 

 

26

ofPortugalremainedseparate,asdidtheFrenchsatelliteofNavarre,andthe

MuslimkingdomofGranada,whichwasnotconquereduntil1492.11Thediversityin

theIberianPeninsulawentverydeepandwasexpressednotonlyinpolitics,but

alsoinculturalpracticessuchasliterature,language,andart.12

Thefabricofsocietyduringtheyearsbeforethecontactperiodin

MesoamericaandtheIberianPeninsulawasmarkedbydisunityandlocalconflict.

Theimportanceoflocalcommunitiesandthelackofcentralcontrolwasakey

similaritybetweenthetwocultures.WhentheSpanishconqueredTenochtitlan,it

waseasyforthemtocontinuetorecognizetheautonomyoftheMesoamericancity‐

statesbecauseitwasafamiliarsituationtothem.TheSpaniardsweretheperfect

newoverlordsformanyindigenouscommunitiesbecausetheyexercisedtheir

controlinmuchthesamewayastheMexicahad.Thismeantthatlocal

Mesoamericancommunitieswereabletomaintaintheirownculture,localrulers,

andsenseofcommunalidentity.Thisissimplyoneexampleofthewayinwhichthe

SpaniardsandthepeopleofMesoamericarecognizedcommonalitiesinoneanother.

ThisrespectandunderstandingledtoauniqueearlyColonialculture,whichwillbe

discussedindetailinChapter4.

                                                            11Hilgarth,Vol.1,18.;Mariéjol,59.12Hilgarth,Vol.1,14‐15.

 

 

27

TerritorialExpansionintheIberianPeninsulaandMesoamerica

AnotherimportantsimilaritybetweenMexicaandSpanishsocietywastheir

conqueringmentality.Bothculturesbeganassmall,ineffectualcommunitiesthat

usedtheirsuccessfulwarriortacticstoslowlyconquerlargeareasofland.Bythe

timethetwoculturescameintocontactwithoneanother,theywerebothimperial

powersthatexercisedaformofindirectcontrol.Theirpatternofconquestwas

similar;boththeSpaniardsandtheMexicamovedslowlysouthward,incorporating

newlyconqueredterritoriesintotheirpoliticalauthorityastheywentalongand

leavinglocalcommunitieswithsubstantialautonomy.

TheMexicaconquestdidnotbegintheminutetheysettledinTenochtitlan.

Althoughtheyhadtheirowncityandland,theywerestillsubjugatedbytheir

neighbors.However,theydiddecideatthispointtoelecttheirownlocalrulerand

begintheirowndynasty.Thepositionastheirfirstkingfelltoamanfrom

ColhuacannamedAcamapichtli.Colhuacanwasoneofthedominantpowersin

MesoamericaatthistimeandtheywereoneoftheremainingremnantsoftheToltec

Empire,ofwhomtheMexicaclaimeddescent.DuringtheirmigrationtoLake

Texcoco,theMexicahadstayedinColhuacanforafewdecadesandmanyoftheir

peoplehadsettledandintermarriedthere.Anexampleofthiswasamannamed

OpochtliIztahuatzin,whowasaMexicawarriorandcaptain.Hemarrieda

Colhuacanprincess,adaughteroftheking,andfromthisunioncameasonnamed

Acamapichtli.TheMexicadecidedtomakeAcamapichtlitheirfirstkingandthe

 

 

28

Mexicadynastybegan.TofurthercementtheirlegitimacyviaToltecblood,

AcamapichtlialsomarriedintotheColhuacanroyalfamilybymarryingthesisterof

theking.13ThroughouttheperiodofMexicadominancethatfollowed,allrulers

weredirectdescendantsofAcamapichtli.

However,Acamapichtli,alongwiththenexttwokings,Huitzilihuitland

Chimalpopoca,didnotdomuchconquering.Duringthesethreereigns,theMexica

werestillestablishingthemselvesintheirnewcityandpayingtributeto

neighboringcommunities.Mexicaimperialexpansionreallybeganwiththefourth

king,Itzcoatl,whowasanillegitimatesonofAcamapichtli.Duringhisreign,the

MexicaroseupagainsttheiroverlordsfromAzcapotzalcoandalsobegan

conqueringnearbycitiesintheValleyofMexicoincludingTlacopan,Coyoacan,

Cuernavaca,Tepequacuilco,Huexotzinco,Xochimilco,andCuitlahuac,.14After

Itzcoatl’sdeathin1440,MoctezumaI,asonofthesecondking,Huitzilihuitl,was

electedasthenextemperor.15Duringhisreign,theMexicabegantosettheirsights

onareasoutsideoftheBasinofMexico.DuringMoctzuma’sreign,theyconquered

theprovincesofChalco,Tehuantepec,Xolotla,Toluca,Xiquipilco,tonameafew,and

areasasfarawayasthepresentdaystateofOaxaca.16

                                                            13Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,35‐37,113‐115.;Durán,33‐34.;Keber,214.14Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,41,131,213.;Durán,58,62,68,73,78,81,83,84.;Ross,24.;Keber,215‐216.;Chimalpahin,Annals,129.15Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,43.16Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,51,213.;Durán,98‐100,105,117‐118,128.;Keber,306.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,129‐131.

 

 

29

ThenextthreerulersoftheMexicawerebrothers,bornfromtheunionof

MoctezumaI’sdaughterandItzcoatl’sson.ThefirstofthesewasAxayacatl,the

youngestofthebrothers,whoconqueredmanyterritoriesincludingTlatelolco,

Tzinacantépec,Tlacotépec,Teotenanco,Tecalco,Tototlan,andMixtlan.Thisspread

theMexicadominancefurthernorthinMesoamericaandalsooutwardstowards

bothcoastlines.Axaycatl’solderbrother,Tizoc,thenextruler,alsoexpandedthe

reachoftheempire,butwasnotawarrioratheartandsohisconquestswerenotas

vastormemorable.17However,thethirdofthesebrothers,Ahuitzotl,wasan

extremelysuccessfulwarrior.Duringhisreign,overfortyprovincescameunder

Mexicacontrol.TheseincludedTeloloapan,Acatépec,Huehuetlan,Mazatlan,

Chiapan,Acapulco,andMiahuatlan.Mexicarulewasnowfirmlyentrenchedonboth

coastsandhadpenetratedasfarsouthasthenorthernareasofpresentday

Guatemala.18

Thefinalpre‐contactruler,MoctezumaII,wasthereigningemperorwhen

theSpanisharrived.HewasasonofAxayacatlandduringhisreigntheMexica

conqueredtheprovincesofHuilotépec,Tlachinollan,Amatlan,Tiltépec,Caltépec,

andCihuatlan.19Theseconquestsbuiltuponpreviouslysubjugatedterritoriesand

expandedtheMexicadominanceevenfuther.Althoughthesecity‐stateswere

                                                            17RafaelTena,trans.,AnalesdeTlatelolco(MexicoCity:DirecciónGeneraldePublicaciones,2004),43.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,51,139.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,51.;Durán,157.;Chimalpahin,Annals,131.18Tena,43‐45.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,53,215.;Ross,32‐33.;Durán,200,202,216.;Keber,306‐307.19Tena,45.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,55.;Ross,33.;Durán,226.;Keber,307.

 

 

30

conquereditdidnotmeanthattheMexica’sworkwasover.Manynative

communitiesrebelledagainsttheMexica,sometimesmultipletimesasisseeninthe

caseofChalcowheretheMexicahadtoputdownarebelliononfourseparate

occasions.20ThesuccessofMoctezumaII’sruleshowsthattheMexicahadnotyet

reachedtheirfullpotentialwhentheSpaniardsarrived.Theempirewasstill

expanding,establishingcontrol,andlearningfrompastmistakesinordertocement

theirimperialpower.TheconqueringmentalityoftheMexicawasstillwell

entrenchedandnotyetsatisfiedwhenthesetwoculturesfinallycameintocontact

withoneanother.

TheconqueringmentalitywasasmuchaspartoflifeintheIberianPeninsula

asitwasinMesoamerica.AsImentionedbefore,theSpanishKingdomsatthistime

werenotaunifiedwhole.Attimes,however,theydidallywithoneanotheragainsta

commonenemy.UsuallythisinvolvedanalliancebetweenthevariousChristian

kingdomsandhadareligiousundertone,butthiswasnotalwaysthecase.For

example,inthe1270s,GranadaandCastilejoinedforcesinordertokeeptherulers

ofMoroccofromconqueringanylandintheIberianPeninsula.Sotherewere

instancesofrulersofdifferentreligiousbeliefsjoininguptoprotectthecommon

homelandofIberia.21

AstheChristianReconquistaslowlymovedsouthtoconquermoreandmore

ofthePeninsula,citieswerethemajortarget.TheChristianstendedtosettleand

                                                            20Ross,23.21Hilgarth,Vol.1,20‐21.

 

 

31

occupyfortifiedcitiesastheywentalongandtheyclaimedthesurrounding

countrysideastheirsalso.However,evenwhenterritoriesweretakennominally

underChristiancontrol,themajorityofthecountrysideremainedpopulatedby

Muslims.AnexampleofthisistheterritoryofValencia,whichwasconquered

between1232and1245bythekingdomofAragon.ForcenturiesaftertheChristian

conquest,thepopulationofValenciaremainedmostlyMuslim.22FromtheirMuslim

subjects,therulersoftheChristiankingdomslearnedmanynewtechniques,suchas

irrigation,whichaidedintheprosperityoftheevergrowingChristiankingdoms.23

TotrytopromoteChristiansettlement,newinhabitantsofconquered

territoriesweregivenhouses,land,andfarms.Theamountofpropertyreceived

obviouslydependeduponone’srankinsocietysothatleadingnobles,menofthe

church,andmembersoftheroyalcourtweregiventhelargestproportionof

conqueredterritories,whereassoldiersfromtheReconquistaweregivenanamount

oflandbasedontheirmilitaryrank.However,byfailingtoattractmanyChristian

commonerstosettlethesenewlyconqueredareas,thegrowingChristiankingdoms

wereheavilyreliantontheirMuslimsubjects.ManyMuslimcommonersremained

intheirhomesaftertheReconquistaassemi‐freelaborersworkingthelandsforthe

Christiannobility.OtherMuslimsdecidedinsteadtomigrateandeitherendedupin

theMuslimstrongholdofGranada,ormadetheirwaytoNorthAfrica.24Oftenduring

theReconquista,conqueredterritorieswerethereforeabletomaintainsomeformof

                                                            22Hilgarth,Vol.1,28.23Hilgarth,Vol.1,33.24Hilgarth,Vol.1,22,24,27.;Mariéjol,278‐280.

 

 

32

autonomy.Forexample,whenCastileconqueredtheMuslimcityofMurica,the

Moorishkingremainedincharge,butbecameavassaloftheCastilianKingdom.25

BecauseofthelackofcentralcontrolandSpanishpresence,manynewly

conqueredterritoriesretainedtheirtraditionalculturalpractices.Evensomething

asbasicasthecharacterofdifferentcitieswascompletelyuniquetoeachareaofthe

IberianPeninsula.Inthenorth,citiesweremoreChristianizedsincenorthern

territorieshadremainedChristianstrongholdsduringIslamicdominance.These

citieshadmoreorganizedstreetplansandthehousesemphasizedthefaçadesince

itwasimportanttoimpresspeoplewhowerepassingby.Thesoutherncitieswere

extremelyMuslimincharacterandwereknownfortheirdisorganizedstreetplan.

Thehouseswerealternativelybuiltfortheinhabitantsratherthantoimpress

passers‐by.Entranceswerehidden,andthefaçadewasplainwhiletheinteriorwas

whereonecouldshowoffhisfamily’swealthandprestige.Thesecharacteristics

remainedinplacelongaftertheReconquistaandlocalcharacterandculturenever

completelyfadedaway.26Thismeantthatinthepre‐Contactera,theIberian

Peninsula,muchlikeMesoamerica,wasaterritoryofimmenselocaldiversity.

CitiesduringthisperiodintheIberianPeninsulaweremuchlikethecity‐

statesofMesoamerica.Theywereself‐sufficient,hadtheirownorganizationand

wayofsupportingandprovisioningthemselves,andretainedtheirownrulers,

whichwerechosenbythepeopleoftheterritoryratherthantheimperialmonarch.

                                                            25Hilgarth,Vol.1,25.26Hilgarth,Vol.1,66‐67.

 

 

33

Barcelona,asanexample,hadtherighttolevyitsowntaxesandwasvirtuallynon‐

reliantonthecrown.Themonarchy,however,washeavilyreliantonitsmajorcities,

suchasBarcelona,forrevenue.27Thisisamirrorofthecity‐statesetupin

MesoamericawhereTenochtitlantechnicallyhadcontrolovervastareasofland,but

eachcity‐statemaintaineditsownautonomyandprovidedmoreforthecapitalcity

thanitreceivedinprotectionorrewards.

OnefundamentalaspectofIberiansocietythatemergedduringtheChristian

conquestswastheideaofacitybeingastatewithinastate.Theoverwhelming

trendofcontrolintheperiodfollowingtheReconquistaisthedominanceandpower

ofthelocalnobility.Lackofcontrolbythekingofaterritoryledtoeachcitybeing

runbyitsownlocalrulerswhomaintainedalotofpowerovertheirownterritory.

Theyalsohadsomepoweroverthemonarchbecausemostofthemoneyinthe

economywascenteredinthemajorcities.Thismeantthatwhenthemonarchwasin

needoffundsforthecrown,theyoftenmadedealswithlocalrulersinorderto

securefinances.Inexchangeformoneyandloyaltyfromacertaincity,themonarch

wouldrecognizetheautonomyandpowerofthecityandnotinterfereinlocal

government.28Citiesduringthisperiodalsohadastrongmedievalcharacterthat

wasbasedonmilitarystrategy,meaningthatmanycitiesoftheIberianPeninsula

werewalledoffandwellguarded.Eachlocalcity‐statewastrulyprotectedfrom

                                                            27Hilgarth,Vol.2,65.28Hilgarth,Vol.1,69,288.;Mariéjol,280.

 

 

34

outsiders,welldefendedfromimperialmeddling,andabletoretainanindependent

characterundertheblanketofanimperialkingdom.29

Agooddescriptionofpeninsularsocietyinthefourteenthcenturycomes

fromacitizenofBarcelonanamedRamonSavall.

Helamentsthedisintegrationofsociety.Noblesdislikegoodgovernment.Alltheywantiswar.Theleadingbourgeois…‘behaveasiftheywerekings’.Merchantsparadetheirwealthonhorseback.Artisansspendtheirtimeineatingandblasphemy.Peasantsuniteinbands,readytomassacreanyonewhoprovokesthem.Abovethisscenethereroseamonarchy…whichhadceasedtosummontheCortsGeneralssince1389,violatedtheprivilegesofcities,andwasswayedbyacliqueofcorruptcourtiers.30

Thisworldthathedescribesisoneofupstartsandmarkedbysocialandpolitical

upheaval.Everythinginsociety,includingpositionsandtitles,wasforsale.31

ThesedescriptionsofMexicaandSpanishsocietiesintheyearsbefore

contactshowustwodifferentworldsthatwerestrikinglysimilarincharacter.The

ideaofcommunalloyaltywasverystrong,andlocalrulersorgovernorsusuallyhad

alotofpowernotonlyovertheirownterritory,butalsooverthemonarch.

Monarchsusuallyreliedheavilyontheselocalrulersforfundsandmilitarysupport

whenneeded,butlocallordscouldbefickleandwouldriseupagainstthemonarch

inamomentifitsuitedtheirinterests.Thisledtoacultureofinternalstrugglesand

warasthesekingdomsexpanded.BoththeSpanishandMexicaconqueredlarge

areasoflandduringthepre‐contactperiod,buttheircontrolwasfarfromfirm.This                                                            29Hilgarth,Vol.1,70.30Hilgarth,Vol.2,46.31Hilgarth,Vol.2,46.

 

 

35

setthestageforeachofthesetwogroupsofpeopletorecognizesimilaritiesinone

anotherandeasedthemergeofthesetwosocietiesinNewSpainduringtheearly

ColonialPeriod.

TributeDemands:ThePriceofAutonomy

InbothMesoamericaandtheIberianPeninsula,thedominantstatesrelied

heavilyongoodsfromsurroundingareasforsustenanceandeconomicprosperity.

InMexico,thesegoodscameintheformoftrade,butalsointributedemandsfrom

conqueredprovinces.Tenochtitlanwasanisolatedislandinthemiddleofalakeand

didnotproducemuchofitsowngoods.Thepeopleoftheislandhadtorelyon

goodsproducedinoutlyingterritoriesfortheirdailyneeds.Themonarchsadorned

themselveswithfinejewels,feathers,preciousmetals,anddecorativecloths,which

theydemandedfromareaswherethesethingswerelocallycollectedorproduced.In

theIberianPeninsula,theSpanishkingdomsreliedheavilyontradewithothersin

thepeninsula,buttheyalsotradedwiththerestofEuropeandwerehighlyinvolved

inMediterraneantradenetworks.Theeconomicsuccessofaterritorydepended

uponthesuccessofthetradeagreementsthatpolityhadmade.Thismadeforan

extremelymaterialisticsocietyinbothSpainandMexico.Especiallyamongstthe

upperandroyalclass,theimportanceofrichanddecorativethingstoshowone’s

rankwasakeyfactorofroyalculture.

BythetimetheSpaniardsarrivedinMesoamerica,theMexicawere

collectingtributefromovertwohundredandseventytownsacrosscentralMexico.

 

 

36

AlthoughtheMexicahadsubduedalloftheseprovinces,therestillwasnotmuch

directcontrol.Instead,Moctezumaruledbyinstillingfearinhisconqueredsubjects.

Manyofhisnewlyacquiredcity‐stateschafedunderhisstricttributedemandsbut

fearedgoingagainsthimbecausehewouldthreatenthemwithmilitaryviolence.Ifa

city‐stateresistedconquestorrebelledafterbeingconquered,theyoftenlosttheir

autonomy.TheMexicawouldsometimeswipeoutentiretowns,repopulatethem

withpeoplefromthecentralvalley,andinstalltheirowngovernorstorulethese

rebelliousterritories.Ontheotherhand,manycity‐statesmaintainedsomeformof

autonomybecausetheycooperatedwiththeMexicaandmettheirtributedemands

withoutresistance.Iftheydidnotrebelorresist,theywereusuallyabletokeep

theirowndynasticrulersandlivetheirlivesinmuchthesamewayastheyalways

had.ThismeantthatalthoughtheMexicacontrolledmuchofcentralMexico,

individualculturesstillsurvived.32

AsImentionedbefore,tributedemandsweightedheavilyonthegeneral

populousofMesoamerica.Commonersalreadyhadtopaysomesortoftributeto

theirlocalrulersinordertosupporttheeconomyoftheircommunity.Whentheir

citywasconqueredbytheMexica,itputanevenheavierburdenonlocalworkers

andfarmers.33BecauseofthelocationoftheMexicacapitalcity,inthemiddleofa

lakelocatedinavalleysurroundedbymountains,Tenochtitlanitselfdidnot

producemuchofitsownfoodstuffsandothergoods.TheMexicareliedontribute

                                                            32Ross,104.;Díaz,78‐79,88‐89,102,117,156‐157.;Zorita,6,112.33Zorita,73.

 

 

37

fromtheirvastterritoriestogivethemahugevarietyofeverythingproducedin

Mesoamerica.However,tributewasnotonlylimitedtofoodandothergoods;

peoplewerealsoapartofthetributedemands.Accordingtoonelocalrulerofa

conqueredprovince,“alltheprovincespaidtributeofgoldandsilver,feathers,

stones,clothandcotton,andIndianmenandwomenforsacrificeandothersfor

servants.”Moctezumawas“suchagreatprincethathepossessedeverythinghe

coulddesire…thehouseswherehedweltwerefullofriches…allthewealthofthe

countrywasinhishands.”34

ThevarietyofgoodsreceivedbytherulersofMexicowasrecordedingreat

detailintheCodexMendoza.Thislistincludeslargemantles,loin‐cloths,smaller

coloredmantles,tunics,skirts,honey,planks,wood,copal,copper,war‐dresses,

shields,grain,gold,turquoise,cacao,maize‐flour,beans,bowls,incense,rushmatts,

rushseatswithbacks,standards,headdresses,bagsoflime,livebirds,salt,sage,

copperaxeheads,ornamentalstones,redseashells,cotton,varnish,canes,deer

skins,perfumes,cochineal,diadems,headbands,necklaces,bracelets,lipornaments,

amber,rubberballs,tiger‐skins,cups,andchilipeppers.35Thetributerequiredfrom

eachcommunitydependedonthegoodsproducedinthatspecificareaofthe

empire.Withtheirvastcontroloversuchalargeareaofland,theMexicarulershad

accesstoeverygoodproducedinMesoamerica.Tributewasalsopaidintheformof

laborinwhichsubjectswouldservethecapitalbyconstructingandmaintaining

                                                            34Díaz,157.35Ross,37,41,42‐44,46‐47,51,53,58‐60,62‐63.

 

 

38

royalresidences,publicbuildings,temples,dikes,andotherfortifications.Atthe

locallevel,commonerswereresponsibleforservingintheirlord’shouseholdby

providingfuel,water,fieldlabor,andmilitaryservice.Inreturn,therulerwould

providehishouseholdservantswithlodgings,meals,andwages,andpromisedto

defendandprotectthem.36Thisisremarkablysimilartothefeudalsystem,which

existedinEuropeandwasjustbeginningtodecreaseinprevalenceduringthepre‐

contactperiod.

ThecommonersofTenochtitlanhadtheirowntributetopayaswell.Ona

rotatingbasis,twoneighborhoodsofthecapitalcitywereresponsibleforproviding

woodforfiresburneddailytohonorthegods.Thisdemandwasaheavyburdenfor

theneighborhoodsthatwerechosen,butafterayearthisresponsibilitymovedonto

anothertwoneighborhoods.37Soatanygiventime,theaveragepersonwas

responsibleforpayingatributetotheirownlocalcommunityingoodsorservices,

aswellasprovidingaformoftributetothecapital.Thiswasaprecarioussituation

formostandmeantthatthehardworkingcommonfolkwereverypoorandlived

simplelives.Whennaturaldisasterstruck,itrockedthisdemandingbalancetoits

core.Commonerswhowerenotabletomeettributedemandsbecauseofcrop

failureoftenhadtosellthemselvesortheirchildrenintoslaverytopaytheir

debts.38

                                                            36Zorita,73,74,105.37Zorita,73.38Zorita,75.

 

 

39

IntheIberianPeninsula,theabundanceandvarietyofgoodswasalsovery

importanttotheeconomicsituation.EachkingdomofSpainestablisheditsown

traderouteswithpolitiesoutsideofthePeninsula,whichmeantthatgoodswere

broughtinfromallovertheknownworld.Castiletradedmostlywithother

EuropeankingdomssuchasFlanders,IrelandandItaly.Portugalbroughtingoods

suchascloth,grains,minerals,silks,andspicesfromItalyandcountriesinthe

easternMediterranean.Aragonhadthemostadvancedanddiversetraderouteand

establishedtradingpartnershipswithSicily,Sardinia,Italy,France,NorthAfrica,

Alexandria,Cyprus,Constantinople,Morocco,England,Beirut,andFlanders.39In

general,thekingdomsofSpainexportedrawmaterialsandreceivedmanufactured

goodsfromplacessuchasnorthernEurope.SoSpainitselfwasnotveryindustrial,

anditsruralandurbaneconomieswereheavilyreliantontradenetworks.40The

monarchyalsoreliedheavilyontradeforitswealth.Thecrownleviedtaxeson

tradeandthiswasamajorsourceofrevenuefortheroyalfamilyandtheir

government.41Becauseoftheimportanceoftradetothewealthandsuccessofthe

Spanishkingdoms,theIberianPeninsulaatthistimeisbestdescribedasavast

seriesofinterwovenmini‐economiesthatwerehighlyreliantononeanotherfor

goodsandwealth.42

                                                            39Hilgarth,Vol.1,41.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,20‐27.40Hilgarth,Vol.2,36‐40.41Hilgarth,Vol.1,293.42Hilgarth,Vol.2,32.

 

 

40

Inadditiontorevenuemadethroughcustomsdues,therewasalsoaformof

tributepaymentinthekingdomsofSpain.Themajorityofthepopulationlivednot

withinthewalledcities,butinthecountrysideandmadetheirlivingoffoffarming

andlabor.Usually,theyfarmedsomeCrownlandsasaformoftributetothe

monarchy,butalsohadobligationstotheirowncityorcommunity.Onefarmer

oftenhadvaryingobligationstodifferentgovernmentalentitiesandwasoftena

subjectofmorethanonelayorecclesiasticallord.Inaddition,everysevenyearsall

individualsnotbelongingtothenobilityorhigherclergywererequiredtopaya

regulartaxtothemonarchy.TheCrownalsocollectedtributefromconquered

provincesthatwerenotyetundertheircontrol.Forexample,thekingdomofCastile

collectedtributefromGranadabeforeitfellin1492.Thiswasinadditiontothetax

revenuesfromtaxingthepopulace,andmoneyrequiredintributefromtheChurch

andfromtheJews.Duringaperiodofwar,subjectsalsoowedastributetheir

serviceinthemilitary;sotributewasvaried,andessentialtothemaintenanceof

Iberiansociety.43

Theimportanceoftradeandtributetoeconomicandgovernmentalsuccess

wasvitalinboththeIberianPeninsulaandMesoamerica.Thisisjustanother

exampleofsomethingthatthetwoculturescouldeasilyrelatetooneanotherwith.

WhensettingupthecolonialgovernmentinNewSpain,Spanishofficialsdidnot

havetoimplementtheirownpolicies.Traderoutesgenerallyremainedinplaceand

tributerelationshipscontinuedastheyhadbefore.Theonlydifferencewasnow                                                            43Hilgarth,Vol.1,83,292.

 

 

41

mostoftherevenuewenttoSpanishofficialsratherthanindigenousnobles.Some

nativesoftheroyalfamilydidretainquiteabitofwealthandprivilege,butthepost‐

Conquestperiodwillbediscussedinmoredetailinthefourthchapter.

TheImportanceofReligioninSpanishandMexicaSociety

ItisvirtuallyimpossibletotalkaboutthesocietiesofSpainandMexico

withoutincludingatleastabriefdiscussionoftheimportanceofreligion.Although

thereligiouspracticesdiddifferbetweenthetwoinmanyways,theyareactually

moresimilarthanmostpeoplerealize.Oneofthemoststrikingsimilaritiesissimply

theimportancereligionheldineachofthesecultures.Eventhoughspecificaspects

ofChristianityandreligioninMesoamericadiffered,theimpactofreligiononthe

dailylifeofsocietywasverysimilar.EachculturebelievedthattheirGod(orgods)

controlledeveryaspectoflifebeginningwithone’sbirth,andtopleasethesegods

worship,penance,andofferingswerenecessary.Therewereobviouslysome

differencesinthepracticesoftheMexicaandtheSpaniards.Thepeopleof

Mesoamericabelievedinmultiplegodsandpracticedhumansacrifice.Buteven

thesepracticescanberelatedtosimilaronesseeninEuropeanChristianity.

Inadditiontheoverallsignificanceofreligioninbothcultures,thereare

somespecificsimilarities,whichIwillnowdiscussbriefly.ThegodHuitzilopochtli,

whotheMexicahonoredwiththeirlargesttempleinTenochtitlan,hadhislegendary

beginningsinawaywhichmirrorsthebirthofJesusintheChristiantradition.

AccordingtoMexicalegend,HuitzilopochtliwasborntoawomannamedCoatlicue

 

 

42

inatownnearTula(thecapitalofthefallenToltecEmpire).Oneday,Coatlicuewas

performingpenancetothegodsbysweepingwhensuddenlysomefeathersbeganto

fallaroundher.Shepickedthesefeathersupandputtheminherclothingnearher

waist.Whenshehadfinishedsweeping,shewasgoingtotakethefeathersbackout

andrealizedthattheywerenolongerthere.Insteadoffeathers,Coatlicuewasnow

carryingachild,Huitzilipochtli.44Thislegenddoesnotrequiremuchexplainingto

seethesimilaritieswiththeChristianbeliefsoftheVirginMary.Immaculate

conceptionofaprinciplepersontoworshipwasakeyfeatureofbothMexicaculture

andChristianity.

TheMexicaalsohadideasconcerningtheafterlifeandwhatpeoplewere

requiredtodoonearthinordertoreachtheirversionofHeaven.InMesoamerican

religion,therewerethreeplacesthatonecouldgoaftertheydied.Ifsomeonedied

ofsomesortofillness,theywenttotheplaceofthedead.Itwassaidthatinthis

placetherewereobsidianbladedwindsthatlastedforfouryears.Becauseofthis

belief,thedeadbodywasburnedalongwithmanyofhisorherbelongingsincluding

shields,swords,capes,andclothing.Theseitemswouldbeusedbythedeadperson

intheafterlifetoprotectthemselvesagainsttheobsidianbladedwinds.Afterthe

fouryearshadpassed,theywenttotheplaceofthedeadandcrossedthebroad

riverwiththehelpofadog,whichwasalsoburnedwiththedeceasedperson.When

theymadeitacrosstheriver,theymetwiththegodMictlantecutliwithwhomthey

wouldspendtherestoftheireternity.Becauseofthesebeliefs,theMexicatook                                                            44Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.3,1‐2.

 

 

43

greatprideindogbreedingsotheycouldprovidedeceasedpeoplewithguidancein

theafterlife.Thisbeliefalsoencouragedpeopletobesuccessful;formenthismeant

goingtowarandtakingcaptivesandforwomenthismeantlearningtoweave,sow,

andmakecloths.Themoreworldlygoodsapersonhad,themoreprotectionthey

wouldhaveduringthefouryearsofdangerouswinds.45Soitwasimportanttobe

successfulinlife,nomatterwhatone’spositioninsocietymightbe.

ThesecondplacethatsomeonecouldgotointheafterlifeiscalledTlalocan.

Thisistheplacewheretheraingods,theTlalocs,dweltanditwasaplaceofgreat

wealthandnosuffering.Thisistheplacewherepeoplewouldgoiftheydiedfrom

skinsores,festering,gout,dropsy,drowning,oriftheywerestruckbylightning.

Whenthesepeoplediedtheywerenotburned,butwereinsteadburiedwithgreat

ceremony;theirbodieswerepaintedandimageswereburiedwiththem.46

Thethirdandmostprestigiousplacesomeonecouldgointheafterlifewas

theplaceofthesun,whichwastheclosestequivalenttoheaven.Thisultimate,

eternalparadisewasreservedforthosewhohaddiedawarrior’sdeath.This

includedmenwhodiedinwar,weretakencaptive,orweresacrificed.Thisisalso

wherewomenwhodiedinchildbirthwouldgo.InMexicasociety,givingbirthtoa

childwasasprestigiousastakingacaptiveinwar.Ifawomandiedwhilegiving

birth,shewasconsideredtohavediedawarrior’sdeath.Hereeveryonelivedina

                                                            45Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.3,41‐44.46Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.3,47.

 

 

44

placelikeadesertforfouryearsandthentheyeachbecamepreciousbirdsandlived

foreverinthehomeofthesun.47

Ofcourse,therearesomedifferencesbetweenthepracticesofMexicaand

Christianity.InChristiantraditiontherewasaheavenandhell,andinCatholic

traditionthereisalsoapurgatorythatsomepeoplehadtopassthroughontheway

toheaven.Whenlookedatinabroadway,thesetworeligiouscultureswerevery

similarinthisbelief.Theybothbelievedthattherewasaneternalrestingplacefor

thedeadandwhereadeceasedpersonwentdependedonhisorherachievements

onearth.ThepathtothemostdesiredrestingplacedifferedabitinMexicaand

Spanishculturebuttheconceptbehindthesebeliefsisverysimilar.Bothcultures

believedinasortofintermediaterestingplace,likeapurgatory,whereonemay

sufferforabitbeforereachinghisorherfinalrestingplace.Funeralpracticeswere

highlyceremonialandprayersforthedeadwereimportanttohonorthedeceased

person’ssoulandhelpthemreachtheultimateeternalparadise.

InSpain,religionwasalsocentraltotheeverydaylivesofitspeople.One

descriptionfrom1407describesagoodChristianassomeonewho“frequented

churches,heardtheDivineOffice,gavealms,confessedonceayear,andreceived

friarsinhishouse.”48Similartohowreligiousdeedsdefinedanindividualin

Mesoamericansociety,intheIberianPeninsula,goodChristiansweredefinedby

                                                            47FlorentineCodex,Vol.3,48.48Hilgarth,Vol.2,112.

 

 

45

theirexternalactivities.49Onemajorpointatwhichmanypeoplefinddiscrepancies

betweenreligiouspracticesinSpainandMesoamericaisthepracticeofpolytheism

bytheindigenouspeopleoftheNewWorld.However,aparallelcanbefound

betweenthemanygodsworshipedbythepeopleofMexicoandthelonglistof

saintsworshipedbyIberianCatholics.IntheSpanishkingdomsdifferentgroups

favoreddifferentsaintsanda“cultofsaints”wasextremelyapparentinChristian

tradition.ItistruethatChristiandoctrinepreachedthatthereisonlyoneGod,but

mostMesoamericansocietiesalsohadoneprimarygodwhowasaboveallthe

others.50

OneaspectofMexicasocietythattrulyterrifiedtheSpaniardsandmade

themjudgethepeopleofMesoamericaasbarbaricanduncivilizedwastheir

practiceofhumansacrifice.TheMexicabelievedthattohonortheirgods,theymust

feedthembyofferingthebloodofhumans.TohonortheTlalocgods,theysacrificed

manychildren,believingthatbydoingthisthegodswouldgivethemrain.51War

captiveswerealsoregularlysacrificedinthetemples.Theirheartswereusuallycut

outwhiletheywerestillaliveandtheirbloodwasofferedtothegods.Sometimes

themanwhohadtakenthecaptivewouldweartheflayedskinofthedeceasedfora

whileaftertheceremony.Othertimes,thebodywasdismemberedandthefleshof

thecaptivewaseaten.52Oneofthemostimportantcelebrationswasthatwhich

                                                            49Hilgarth,Vol.2,112.50Hilgarth,Vol.2,113.51Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.2,1.52Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.2,3‐4.

 

 

46

honoredthegodnamedTitlacauanwhowasconsideredthegodofallgods.“Inhis

honor,theyslew,inthisfeast,achosenyouthwhomighthavenoblemishedupon

hisbody,[whowas]rearedinallluxuriesforthespaceofayear,[and]trainedinthe

playing[ofmusicalinstruments],andinsinging,andinspeaking.”Oncethey

sacrificedthisyoungman,

“theyatonceproducedanother,whowastodieafteroneyear.Hewalkedeverywhereinthetownfinelyarrayedwithflowersinhishand,andwithpeoplewhoaccompaniedhim.Hegreetedwithgoodgracethosewhomhemet.AllknewthatthisonewasthelikenessofTezcatlipoca,andtheybowedbeforehimandworshipedhimwherevertheymethim…Twentydaysbeforethisfeastcame,theygavethisyoungmanfourcomelyyoungwomenrearedfor[thepart],withwhomforallthetwentydays,hehadcarnalrelations…Fivedaysbeforehewastodie,theycelebratedfeastsforhimandbanquets…Manyoftheleadingmenaccompaniedhim.Onthearrivalofthedayhewastodie,theytookhimtoapyramidorsanctuary.…Thewomenwithdrewandlefthim…heascendedthestepshimself;oneachofthemheshatteredoneofthefluteswhichhehadplayedashewalked,allduringtheyear…theythrewhimuponthesacrificialstone;theytoreouthisheart;theybroughtdownthebody,carryingitintheirhands;below,theycuttheheadandranthroughit[thecrosspieceoftheskullrack].”53

ThisisjustoneexampleofthewaytheMexicahonoredtheirgods.Onthesurface,it

mayseemthatthepracticeofhumansacrificemakesreligioninMexicoandSpain

completelydifferentfromoneanother.

However,whenexaminingtheconceptofsacrifice,andthereasonsbehindit,

itisindeednottoodifferentfromsomeSpanishbeliefs.Thebloodofsacrificial

victimswasconsideredthemostsacredthingthatcouldbeofferedtothegods.

However,theMexicaalsoofferedtheirgodsthebloodofanimals,food,incense,and

                                                            53Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.2,9‐10.

 

 

47

flowers.Theirofferingswerealsoaccompaniedbycelebrationsmarkedbydancing,

singing,andfeasting.Prayerandpenancewerealsoessentialtoreligiouswell‐being

inMesoamerica,asitwasintheIberianPeninsula.54InIberia,thereareexamples,

especiallyaftertheBlackDeathof1348ofsimilarlymacabrepracticesbyChristian

devotees.Forexample,inPortugalin1466,Christianswereobservedduringa

funeraltobeburningbreadandwine,aswellaslivinganimals.55

IntheSpanishkingdoms,appointmentstohighpositionsinthechurchwere

usuallyreservedformembersoftheroyalfamilywhoweretoofarremovedfrom

thesuccessiontohavemuchhopeofsuccessingovernment.Theseroyalappointees

weregivenlandandjurisdictionoveracertainarea,buthardlyeverresidedintheir

territoriessincetheywerestillforthemostpartattachedtotheroyalcourt.Because

thehigherclergywasgenerallydrawnfromthepoolofroyalornoblegentlemen,it

wasnaturalthatthechurchidentifiedwiththeroyalty.56Thiswasalsoseenin

Mesoamericawhereroyalchildrenwereraisedwithinthereligiousprecinct,in

housesoverseenbypriestsandpriestessesofthetemple.Ifaroyalsonwasnot

chosenasemperor,hecouldalwaysfindahighpositioninreligioussociety,which

gavehimimmenseprivilegesandwealth.

Specificaspectsofreligioninthesetwoculturesmayhavediffered,butthe

rolethatreligiouspracticesplayedinthedailylivesofpeopleinbothMesoamerica

                                                            54Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.2,2,5,7,14‐16,36‐38.55Hilgarth,Vol.2,114‐115.56Hilgarth,Vol.1,93,108.

 

 

48

andtheIberianPeninsulawasextremelysimilar.Inthisway,althoughsomeofthese

differencesmayhavebeenpointsofconcernfortheSpaniards,manyindigenous

peoplewereeasilyabletoadoptChristianitybecauseofitssimilaritywiththeirown

religiousbeliefs.ThisactuallyledtoanewformofChristianitybeingdevelopedin

NewSpain,whichincorporatedmanyindigenouselements.ThechurchinNew

SpainwasquitedifferentfromtheofficialchurchinEuropebecauseitwasablend

ofthesetwocultures.ThisconceptwillbeexaminedfurtherinChapter.4.

OtherRemarkableFeaturesofMexicaSociety

ThelargecivilizationsinMesoamericawererenownedfortheirhighsenseof

cultureandloveofbeauty.TheNahuatllanguageitselfwascomplex,ornate,and

wasdescribedashavingamusicalqualityaboutit.ThepeopleofcentralMexico

wrotepoetryandcomposedsongsandenjoyedmusicanddancing.Likesocietiesin

Europe,thecityofTenochtitlanwasknownasmuchforitsbeautyandcultureasfor

itswarriormentality.InTenochtitlan’sneighboringcity,Texcoco,King

Nezahualcoyotl(1418‐1472)wasahugepatronofthearts.Hewouldinvitethe

mostrenownedartistsandcraftsmentohiscityandestablishedcompetitionsthat

wouldregularlyjudgevariouspiecesofartandawardprizestothemost

outstanding.57ThisideaofahighlycivilizedandculturedsocietyincentralMexico

wasechoedintheconquistador’sownaccountsoftheearlycontactperiod.These

willbeexploredmoreindepthinChapter3,butitisworthnotingbrieflythatthe

                                                            57Zorita,5.

 

 

49

SpaniardswhoaccompaniedCortésonhisexpeditionwereblownawaybythe

peopleofcentralMexicoandhighlyimpressedatwhatthesenativeshad

accomplished.

TheMexicaalsohadaformofwritingandtheyusedfigbarkastheirwriting

surfaceasasortofpapersubstitute.Thistraditionofwritingwaswelldevelopedin

MesoamericabeforetheMexicaarrived,buttheyuseditfortheirownpurposesand

keptrecordsoftributeandjurisdiction.58Theyalsokeptrecordsoftheirconquests,

theirhereditarynobility,andothermajoreventssuchasnaturaldisasters.Using

thissystemofwriting,theMexicacreatedaverycomplexcalendar,whichdictated

almosteveryaspectoftheirdailylives.59

AlloftheserecordswerepictorialinnaturesincetheMexicadidnotyethave

aformofalphabeticwriting.Becauseofthis,therewasahighpositioninindigenous

societythatwasheldbyanextremelyintelligentindividualwhowasinchargeof

learningandmemorizingthehistoryoftheirpeople.Theyusedthepictographic

descriptionsasasortofpromptforthemtoelaborateonintheformofanoral

tradition.Thesewisemenwerealsoinchargeofinstructingyoungintellectualswho

wouldalsodedicatetheirlivestolearningabouttheirhistoryandmemorizingit.

Theywereinasense,walkinghistorybooks,andweregreatlyrespectedbyearly

                                                            58Brotherston,10.59Motolinía,25,29.

 

 

50

colonialSpaniardswhowereinterestedinlearningaboutpre‐Conquestcultureand

society.60

TheMexicacalendar,likemanyotheraspectsoftheirculture,wasborrowed

frompreviouslyestablishedpowersinMesoamericasuchastheToltecsandthe

Maya.Thiscalendarwasa260‐day“bookofdays”anditwasextremelyimportant

forreligionbecauseitdictatedthespecificdayforeachceremony.Therewere

twentydaysigns(Crocodile,Wind,House,Lizard,Serpent,Death,Deer,Rabbit,

Water,Dog,Monkey,Grass,Reed,Flower,Eagle,Vulture,FlintKnife,Rain,Motion,

andOcelot)whichwereeachrepresentedbyaspecificimage.Thesedaysignswere

combinedwithanumericalcoefficientfromonetothirteenrepresentedbydots.61

EachdayhaditsownsignificanceinMexicaculture.Thedaydeterminedfeasts,

rituals,ceremonies,fasting,andsacrifices.62

Eachdaywasbelievedtobecontrolledbyacertaingodorgroupofgodsand

thismadesomedaysluckyandothersunlucky.Theluckofacertaindaysignwas

alwayscarefullyconsideredwhendecidingonadayforawedding,coronation,or

thebeginningofawar.Whenababywasborn,thedaysignofhisbirthwastaken

intogreatconsiderationbecauseitwasthoughttodeterminethecourseoftheirlife.

Ifachildwasbornonanunluckydaysign,hisbathingceremony(whichresembled

aChristianbaptism)wasusuallyputoffuntiladaywithabetterfortuneassociated

                                                            60Motolinía,25,29.61Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.4&5,1‐2,5.;Keber,133.62Keber,135.

 

 

51

withit.Ifachildwasbornonadayfullofluck,heorshewasbathedandnamed

immediatelysothattheluckoftheirdaysignwouldfollowthemfortheirwholelife.

However,itwasstillimportantintheMexicaculturetodopenancetothegodsand

tobehaveinarespectablemanner.Ifsomeonewasbornonaluckydaysign,butdid

nothonortheirgodsoractedinaninappropriateway,thentheycouldtainttheir

daysignandwouldnotbeprosperous.Likewise,ifsomeonewasbornonanunlucky

daysign,butalwaysdidtheirpenanceandbehavedthewaysocietyexpectedthem

to,theycouldinsomewayschangethefateoftheirdaysignintosomethingmore

beneficial.63

Marriagesandinheritancewerealsoimportantpartsofpre‐Colonial

Mesoamericanculture.Royalmarriageswereofcourseimportantandusedto

cementalliances.But,marriagesingeneralwereanimportanttraditionandhad

strictceremonialpracticesassociatedwiththem.Eachpartnerbroughtinhisorher

ownpropertytothemarriageagreement.Iftwopartnersseparated,theyeach

simplytooktheirownpropertybackforthemselvesandthemarriagewasended.

DivorcewasamoreacceptablepracticeincentralMexicothanitwasinSpain.

PolygamywasalsopracticedinMesoamerica,butitwasapracticeonlyallowedifa

manwaspartofthehighestechelonofsociety.Ifamandidhavemorethanone

wife,therewasusuallyonewomanwhowashisprimarywife.Shewasthemost

                                                            63FlorentineCodex,Vol.4&5,2,5‐7,19,30,34.;Keber,153‐154.

 

 

52

well‐breadofhiswivesandsothechildrenbornbyherweretheman’sprinciple

heirs.64

InMesoamerica,weddingsweredonewithastrictadherencetocultural

practicesandtraditions.Whenparentssawthattheirsonwasoldandmature

enoughformarriage,theytookhimawayfromtheschoolforyoungmenand

decidedamongsttherelativeswhichwomanhewouldmarry.Afterchoosinga

bride,theparentssummonedsomeold,wisewomenwhowereknownasthe

marriage‐makersandtoldthemoftheirwish.Themarriage‐makerswouldthengo

speaktotheparentsoftheyoungwomanandrequestherhandinmarriage.Once

bothpartiesagreed,thenadatewaspickedoutbythemarriage‐makerswhowould

chooseadaythathadgoodluckassociatedwithit.Theceremonyitselffirstinvolved

feastingatbothhouseholds.Thentheyoungwomanwascarriedinasolemn

processiontothehouseoftheparentsofhergroom.Thebrideandgroomwere

seatedbythehearthandthemothers‐in‐lawbothinturncoveredthebrideand

groomwithclothingandtiedthecornerofthegroom’scapetothecornerofthe

bride’sshift.Thisconcludedthemarriage,andcelebrationscontinuedwithfeasting,

drinking,anddancing.65

Althoughthespecificpracticesmayhavedifferedabit,inbothSpainand

Mesoamericatheinstituteofmarriagewasanextremelyimportantpartofthe

culture.Inbothsocieties,itwasdecidedbytheparentswhenandwhomtheirchild

                                                            64Brotherston,53.65Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.2,40‐41.

 

 

53

wouldmarry.AlsoinbothSpainandMexicothereweretraditionalpractices

associatedwithmarriagethatmustbecompletedinorderforthemarriagetobe

legitimate.Bothsocietieshadasystemofwritingandareligiousandceremonial

calendarthatdeterminedeventsforeachday.AlthoughtheSpanishsystemof

writingwasmoreadvanced,thepeopleofMesoamericadidhaveanexceptionally

sophisticatedculture.ThisculturewassoremarkablethattheSpanishchroniclers

couldnothelpbutcommentonitingreatdetailandexpresstheiradmiration.Their

accountswillbethefocusofChapter3,wherethiswillbediscussedinmoredetail.

Conclusions

Thischapterfocusedongivingabroadoverviewofthepre‐Colonialsocieties

inbothMesoamericainSpain.Theemphasisofcourseisonthesharedsimilarities,

ofwhichthereweremany.Bothbeganassmallkingdoms,orgroupsofindividuals,

andextendedtheirpowertoencompasslargeareasoflandbythefifteenthcentury.

Despitetheideaofimperialdominance,monarchsofboththeSpanishKingdoms

andtheMexicaEmpireexercisedaveryindirectformofcontrol.Mostlocalpower

wasgiventoindividualrulersandgovernorsandtheselocalleaderswereoftenat

oddswithoneanother.Thiscreatedanunstableanddangeroussocietyintheyears

precedingcontactforbothoftheseregions.Alongwiththeirconquerormentality

andwarriorethos,bothSpainandMesoamericansocietiesputmuchemphasison

theirreligion.Religiondictatedalmosteveryaspectoflifeandwasusedasa

justificationforwar.Anideaofdivinerightofkingsandadivinerighttoconquer

 

 

54

waspopularinbothMexicaandSpanishculture.Thesesimilaritieshaveoftenbeen

overlooked,buttheyaresoveryimportantfortheunderstandingoftheemergence

ofcultureincolonialNewSpain.

WhatIhopetoaccomplishwiththisworkistopromoteanewdialogueon

thehistoryoftheMexicathatreexaminestheirlevelofcivilizationand

sophisticationwhencomparedwiththeircontemporarySpaniards.Thesetwo

societiesarepopularlybelievedtohavebeenextremelydifferent,butinmanyways,

theywereactuallyquitesimilar.Bylookingatsomeofthesepopulardifferences

throughanewperspective,manysimilaritiescanbefoundthatshowthatthesetwo

culturesonawholesharedmanyideasandculturalconceptswhichIbelievehelped

themmergeafterthecontactperiod.Withoutthesesimilarities,colonialNewSpain

mayhaveturnedoutinmuchthesamewayasothercolonialprojects.Most

Europeanandindigenoussocietiesdidnotcometogetherinsuchawayasdidthe

SpanishandtheMexica.Ibelievethismergeofculturesisduetothefactthateach

grouprecognizedmanysimilaritiesinoneanother.Indigenouspeoplewereeasily

abletoincorporatemanySpanishpracticesbecausetheywerenottoounliketheir

own.Ontheotherside,Spanishcolonialofficialskeptmanyindigenousinstitutions

inplaceaftertheConquestbecausetheyweresimilarenoughtowhatwasdonein

Spain.TheMexicahadaprettygoodsystemofdominance,tributecollection,and

warriorethos,andtheSpanishrespectedthisandincorporateditintotheirnew

colonialstructure.Thefinalchapterwilltalkmoreaboutthispost‐Conquestmerge

 

 

55

ingreatdetail.Leavingthebroadframeworkofthischapter’sanalysis,thenexttwo

chapterswilldigmoredeeplyintotheprimarysourcematerials.Thefocusofthese

chapterswillbetheimportanceofroyalcultureinbothSpanishandMexica

societies.

 

 

56

CHAPTER2

INDIGENOUSSOURCEDESCRIPTIONSOFPRE‐CONQUESTMEXICAROYALTY

BeforetheConquest,thepeopleofMesoamericahadsophisticatedpictorial

writingsystemsinplace.Thepictographswerenotoverlydescriptiveorelaborate

butthereweremembersofthenobilitywhoweretrainedinreadingand

interpretingtheseimages.Theywerechosenfromamongtheeliteandweretrained

fromaveryyoungageattheschoolforthenobility,whichwasrunbypriestsin

Tenochtitlan.Bymemorizingthehistoryoftheirpeople,theywereabletousethese

pictographsasasortofprompttoelaborateonwhatwasbeingsaid.Whenthe

Spanisharrived,theytaughtindigenousnoblemenhowtowriteNahuatlin

alphabeticform.Thesenobleindigenousscholarsbegantoproducedocumentssuch

ascodices,whichwerepictorialandbasedonpre‐Conquesttradition,butwere

accompaniedbyglossesinSpanishorNahuatlsotheywouldbemoreeasily

interpreted.Spanishfriarsalsoproducedanumberofdocumentsbyinterviewing

peoplefromthecommunitiesintheearlypost‐Conquestyearsandwritingdown

theirhistory.Eventually,indigenouscommunitiesbegantoproducetheirown

manuscriptsandlocalhistories,awayfromthepryingeyesofanySpanishofficials.

Allofthesedocuments,althoughproducedaftertheConquest,focusonpre‐

Conquestyearsandrelyonoraltraditionoflocalhistoryandpre‐Conquest

documents.Throughthemwegetasenseoflifeandsocietybeforethesetwo

culturescollided.Itisimportanttounderstandthateventhoughthedocuments

 

 

57

examinedinthisstudywereproducedaftertheConquest,theycanstilllendinsight

intocertaininstitutionsthatexistedbeforethesetwosocietiesevercameinto

contactwithoneanother.Eachdocumentisbrieflydescribedbelowinorderto

demonstrateitsrelevancetothepre‐Conquestyearsanditsusefulnessasasource

fortheperioddirectlyprecedingcontact.

ThefirstsourceexaminedisbyDiegoDurán,aSpaniardwhotraveledtothe

NewWorldatayoungageandgrewupinoneofTenochtitlan’sneighboringcities,

Texcoco.ThroughouthischildhoodDuránwassurroundedbyindigenouspeople,

becamefluentinNahuatl,anddevelopedaninterestinthehistoryoftheMexica.In

the1570shebeganwritinghisseminalwork,HistoriadelasIndiasdeNuevaEspaña

eIslasdeTierraFirme,byrelyingonpre‐Conquestdocuments,oralhistoryand

interviewswithpeoplewhohadresidedintheareabeforetheSpanisharrived.1

AlthoughhewasentirelySpanishbyblood,Duránwasraisedinthecentralvalleyof

MexicointheearlyyearsaftertheConquest.Henotonlyknewthepeoplehe

interviewed,buthecareddeeplyforthemandwasveryinterestedinpreserving

theirhistoryandpresentingtheirculture.Hisworkisnotbyanindigenousperson,

butitpresentsanarrativebasedonindigenoussources,whichiswhyitisincluded

inthispartofthemanuscript.

AnotherSpaniardwhotookituponhimselftowriteaboutthehistoryofthe

indigenouspeopleoftheNewWorldwasFrayToribioMotolinía.HewasaSpanish

                                                            1Durán,xxiii–xxvi.

 

 

58

friaroftheFranciscanorderandwasoneofthefirsttwelvetobesenttoNewSpain

in1524.HetraveledalloverMesoamericaforhismissionaryworkandwasvery

interestedintheindigenouspeople,theirhistory,andthecountryinwhichthey

lived.Hebeganwritinghisdetailedmanuscriptin1536andmostofhisaccount

focusesonhisownobservationsandthusisapost‐Conquestnarrative.However,he

doesincludesomebriefsectionsonthepre‐Conquestyearsandthisinformation

likelycamefrompeoplehewasinteractingwithonaday‐to‐daybasisthathadlived

inpre‐Colonialtimes.2This,again,isaSpanishpost‐Conquestnarrative,butbased

onthesourcesutilizedforthesectionsonthepre‐Colonialyears,Ihaveplacedit

withtheotherindigenoussources.Motoliníahadnothimselfexperiencedlifeinpre‐

ConquestMesoamerica,butduringhistravelsasafriar,heundoubtedlymetmany

peoplewhohad.Theirvoiceistoldthroughhismanuscript.

TheCodexChimalpahinisanotherimportantsourceforinformationonthe

pre‐Conquestyears.Theauthor,donDomingodeSanAntónMuñónChimalpahin

Quauhtlehuanitzin,wasanindigenousNahuaannalistwhowroteonthehistoryof

MexicoCityandthesurroundingareasinthelatesixteenthandearlyseventeenth

centuries.Hecollectedandcopiedmanydocumentsbyotherauthorssohiswork

containswritingsofhisownaswellasvariousindividualaltepetl(Mexicacity‐state)

histories.Heutilizedmyriadsourcessuchaspictorialmanuscripts,oralinterviews,

andhisownobservations,andcoversthepre‐Conquestperiodaswellaseventsin

                                                            2Motolinía,1‐2,7‐10,13‐18.

 

 

59

hisowntime.3Thiswork,likethatbyDuránwasproducedmanyyearsafterthe

conquest.However,thesourcesitreferencesforinformationarepre‐Conquest

sourcesthatarenolongerextant.Thisworkisararelookintothepre‐Conquest

years,andalsothetimeimmediatelyfollowingtheConquest.Itisalsoindicativeas

towhataspectsofMexicasocietywereimportanttoindigenousintellectualsduring

theearlyColonialperiod.TheamountofnarrativeontherulersofTenochtitlanand

othercities,theirroyalfamilies,intermarriages,andconquestsshowsthatrespect

andadmirationforindigenousroyalswasstillveryimportanttonativepeoples

livinginthenewSpanishcolonialsociety.

Oneofthemostwell‐knownsourcesofindigenousMesoamericanhistory

beforetheConquestistheworkknownastheFlorentineCodexbyFrayBernardino

deSahagún.HearrivedinNewSpainin1529asamemberoftheFranciscanorder,

learnedNahuatl,andtrainedyoungMexicanoblemeninSpanish,Latinandwritten

Nahuatl.Hebeganworkingonhisfamousmanuscriptinthe1540sandcontinuedto

writeandedititforthenextthreedecades.Itthoroughlycoversthehistoryand

cultureofthepeopleoftheBasinofMexicointhepre‐Conquestyears.Sahagún

interviewednative“informants”whohadlivedbeforetheConquestandhadhis

youngindigenousscholarswritedowntheiranswersinNahuatl,whichhelater

translatedintoSpanish.4Thisworkisinterestingandrelevantforanumberof

reasons.Itwasofcourse,ultimatelyeditedbyaSpaniard,buttheoriginalwritings

                                                            3Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,5‐10.4Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,IntroductoryBook,9‐19.

 

 

60

inNahuatlarethoughttobequiteauthentic.Thescholarswhoweretrainedtowrite

thismanuscriptwereprobablyveryyounganddidnotremembertheConquestfirst

hand,buttheywerestillbornintoindigenousculture,andhadalotofknowledgeon

pre‐Conquesttimes.ByinterviewingacquaintancesthathadresidedinTenochtitlan

beforetheConquest,thesemencomposedanincomparableandheavilydetailed

pieceofliteratureonthesociety,culture,andpracticesofpre‐Conquestindigenous

peoples.

CodexTellerianoRemensisisanotherindigenouswork,whichconsistsof

MexicapictorialdrawingsaccompaniedbydescriptionsinSpanish.Theartistswere

clearlyindigenousandthemenannotatingtheworkarethoughttobebothnative

andSpanish.Theonlyknownannotator,PedrodelosRíos,wasoftheDominican

orderanditislikelythattheotherannotatorswerehiscolleagues.Thecodexwas

finishedintheearly1560sandconsistsofthreesections:anindigenousceremonial

calendar,aritualhandbook,andahistoricalchroniclewhichcoversthemigrationof

theMexicatotheBasinofMexicoandthepre‐Hispanicreignsofkingsbeginning

withAcamapichtliandendingwithMoctezumaII.Thedrawingsinthecodexare

believedtobebaseduponpre‐Conquestdocumentsthatarenolongerextant.5This

isanotherexampleofapre‐ConquestworkthatwascompiledbyamixofSpanish

andindigenousscholars.Thedrawingsinthecodexareextremelyindigenousin

nature,andareentirelypictorial.Thewritingsthataccompanythepictographsare

inSpanishandgivesomeexplanationastowhatthedocumentistryingtosay.                                                            5Keber,115‐116,121‐129.

 

 

61

However,byinterpretingtheactualpictographsthemselves,thewealthof

knowledgeinthismanuscriptisrevealed.Itisanincredibleworknotonlyfor

learningaboutpre‐ConquestcentralMexico,butitisalsovaluableforstudying

indigenouspictorialwritingbeforeitwastooheavilyinfluencedbySpanishculture

andpractices.

Thenextsource,theCodexMendoza,isapictographicmanuscriptnamedfor

themanwhocommissionedit,thefirstViceroyinNewSpain,AntoniodeMendoza.

HehadthishistoryoftheMexicapreparedsohecouldsendittotheKingofSpain,

CharlesV.ItwaspaintedbyMexicaartists,usingtheirownformofpictographic

writing.InorderforCharlesVtounderstandthenativedrawings,aSpanishpriest

whounderstoodNahuatlandtheMexicawritingsystemaddedexplanationsofeach

pictureinSpanish.Itcontainsthreesectionsbeginningwithacopyofapre‐Hispanic

chroniclethatnolongerexistswhichdepictsalltheMexicankingsandthetowns

theyconqueredfrom1325to1521.ThesecondpartistheTributeRoll,alsoacopy

ofapre‐Hispanicdocument,whichshowsthetypeoftributepaid,theamount,and

howfrequentlyitwasdeliveredtoTenochtitlan.Thethirdpartofthecodex

describesday‐to‐daylifeeventsoftheMexicapeople.6Thisdocumentisusefulfora

numberofdifferentthings,andgivesinformationonthepre‐Conquesteraandthe

peopleofTenochtitlan.ItalsogivesthemostdetaileddescriptionoftheMexica

tributecollectionsystem,thegoodsavailableinMesoamerica,andthenumberof

citiesunderthecontrolofMoctezumaII.                                                            6Ross,11‐12.

 

 

62

AfinalmanuscriptexaminedforthisstudyistheCozcatzinCodex.This

documentwascomposedinthelatesixteenth‐century,mostlikelybymultiple

indigenousscribes.ItbeginswithalistoflandgiventoindigenouspeoplebyItzcoatl

in1439andisthoughttobepartofalanddisputethatoccurredin1572.Thesecond

part,andthepartrelevanttothisstudy,iscomprisedofportraitsoftherulersof

TenochtitlanandTlatelolcofromthepre‐HispanicperioduntilwellintotheColonial

years.Becauseitispartofanindigenouslanddispute,thisdocumentwasmost

likelycompiledbyindigenousauthorsonly.AlthoughtheyusedLatinalphabetic

scriptandtheirartworkisclearlyinfluencedbyEuropeanstyles,thisismorethan

anythingatrueindigenoussource.Itrepresentsalocalhistoryofthecentralregions

oftheBasinofMexico.7Unlikemostofthedocumentsusedforthismanuscript,the

CozcatzinCodexwaslikelynotdoneunderthescrutinyofSpanishgovernmentalor

churchofficials.Itisoneofthemostauthenticindigenoussourcesthatscholarshave

accessto.

Thesesourcesrepresentavarietyofindigenoushistoricaldocuments.Some

arebasedonpre‐Conquestpictorialsthatarenolongerextant,andothersrely

heavilyonlocaloraltraditions.Thoseproducedintheyearsimmediatelyfollowing

theConquestutilizeinterviewswithpeoplewholivedintheBasinofMexicobefore

theSpanisharrived.Althoughproducedinthepost‐Conquestyears,Ibelievetheyall

offerextremelyimportantinsightintothesocietyoftheMexicaEmpireintheyears

precedingcontact.Conceptsofroyalty,suchastheimportanceofhereditary                                                            7ValerodeGarcıaLascurainandTena,33.

 

 

63

nobility,royalintermarriages,andceremonialpracticesareclearlyillustratedin

theseindigenousdocuments.

HereditaryNobility

MexicansocietywasverysophisticatedwhentheSpanisharrivedonthe

scene.Theyhadaroyalfamilyfromwhichalltheirkingswereselected.Unlikein

Spain,whereprimogeniturewasthedominatingpractice,theMexicaheldelections.

However,theelectionswereheldbythehighest‐rankingnoblesandtherewereonly

fourmentochoosefrom,thosewhomadeuptheroyalcounciloffour.Thesefour

menwerealwayscloserelativesofthecurrentemperor,usuallybrothers,sons,or

nephews,andweregiventhetitles,Tlacochcalcatl,Tlacatecal,Ezhuahuacatl,and

Tlilancalqui.8Ofthesefour,theonewhohaddistinguishedhimselfthemostwas

chosenasthenextruler.Throughouttheirshorthistoryasanempire,theMexica

hadelevenrulersandtheyallweredirectdescendantsofthefirstking,

Acamapichtli.

AcamapichtliwasthesonofaMexicanlordandawomanfromtheroyal

familyofColhuacan.Hisreignisestimatedtohavebegunbetween1364and1384

andendedbetween1387and1404.Afterhisdeathhewasfollowedonthethrone

byhisson,Huitzilihuitl,whoruleduntilapproximately1415.Huitzilihuitlhadmany

sons,themostprominentofwhichwereChimalpopoca,Tlacaelel(futurecihuacoatl

orsupremecouncilor),andthefutureruler,MoctezumaI.Ofhissons,Chimalpopoca

                                                            8Durán,72.

 

 

64

waschosentosucceedonthethrone,buthisreignwascutshortwhenhewaskilled

bytheTecpanecpeopleofAzcapotzalco.Thenextkingwaselectedin1424‐28.This

wasItzcoatl,anillegitimatesonofAcamapichtli.Itzcoatlruledonlyfourteenyears,

butduringthistimehesubjugatedtheentireareasurroundingLakeTexcocowith

thehelpofhisnephewTlacaelel,whowasgiventhetitle,cihuacoatl.Itzcoatldiedin

1440andwassucceededbyhiscousinMoctezumaI.Itzcoatldidhaveason,

Tezozomoctzin,whodidnotfollowhimonthethrone.Heisdescribedasaprince,

whichprobablymeansthathewasoneoftheroyalcounciloffour.Hemarried

Moctezuma’sdaughter,Atotoztli,andfromthatunioncamethreeMexicakings,

Axayacatl,Tizoc,andAhuitzotl.9

DuringthereignofMoctezumaI(1440‐1469)theMexicaEmpireexpanded

outsidethebasinofMexicoinalldirections.Moctezuma’sson,Iquehuatzin,was

captaingeneralandamemberoftheroyalcounciloffour,averyprestigious

positioninMexicasociety.However,Moctezumawasinsteadfollowedonthethrone

byhisgrandson,Axayacatl(1469‐1481).Hisshortreignlastedonlythirteenyears

andisrememberedbecauseofhissubjugationofthepeopleofTlatelolco,

Tenochtitlan’sclosestneighbor.Hehadmanychildrenincludingthefuture

emperors,MoctezumaIIandCuitlahuac.Axayacatl’sgrandson,donDiegoHuanitzin,

alsobecamearulerinTenochtitlaninthepost‐Conquestyears.AfterAxayacatl’s

                                                            9Ross,19,22,25.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,35‐43,113‐115,119,123‐125,129‐133,211‐213,229‐233.;Durán,33‐34,38,41‐49,51‐53,60,84,91.;Keber,61‐64,66,211‐214,216,271‐272;Motolinía,28.;Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.8,1,15.;ValerodeGarcıaLascurainandTena,45‐46,97.

 

 

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deathin1480,hisbrotherTizocwaselectedasthenextemperor.Rumorsofhis

deathclaimthathewaspoisonedbyhisownnoblemenbecauseofhislackof

ambitionandwarriorattitude,sohisquickreignendedin1486.Hewasfollowedon

thethronebyanotherbrother,Ahuitzotl.Duringhisreign,theempireexpanded

evenmoretoreachbothcoasts,andextendedsouthallthewayintothesouthern

regionsofpresentdayMexicoandnorthernGuatemala.AlsoduringAhuitzotl’s

reign,Tlacaeleldied.Hehadbeenthesecondmostimportantmanintheempire

sincethereignofItzcoatl.HiseldestsonCacamatzinhadthetitle,tlacochcalcatl,one

oftheroyalcounciloffour,andanotherson,Tlilpotonqui,becamethenext

cihuacoatl.Tlacaelel’sgrandson,Tlacotzinwasalsocihuacoatlduringthetimeofthe

Spanishandwasthelastonetoholdthatposition.Hewaseventuallybaptizedand

renamedJuanVelásquezandbecamerulerofTenochtitlanintheColonialperiod.10

In1503Ahuitzotldiedandleftmanychildren.Ofhissons,Chimalpilliwasthe

rulerofEcatepec,Atlixcatzinwastlacateccatlandcaptaingeneral,andCuauhtemoc

wouldbecomethelastpre‐ConquestruleroftheMexica.Ahuitzotlwassucceeded

byhisnephewMoctezumaII.Althoughhewasasuccessfulruler,heisprimarily

rememberedbecauseduringhisreigntheSpanishcame.Hewaskilledin1520

whilebeingheldprisonerbutmanyofhischildrensurvivedtheConquestandlived

amongtheSpaniardsinMexicoandSpain.TheyintermarriedwiththeSpanishand

enjoyedmanybenefitsduetotheirroyalblood.MoctezumaII’sbrother,Cuitlahuac,

                                                            10Ross,25,28,29.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,47‐53,57,133‐135,141,149‐155,169,213‐215,235.;Durán,150‐151,159,178‐180,183,208,222.;Keber,72,76,80‐82,220‐222,224‐227,273‐274;Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.8,2.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,46,97.

 

 

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waschosenasthenextemperorbutruledforonlyeightydaysbeforedyingofthe

smallpoxepidemic,whichhitTenochtitlanin1520.Hewasfollowedonthethrone

byCuauhtémoc,whowasinpowerwhenTenochtitlanfelltotheSpanishin1521.He

continuedtoreignaftertheSpanishtookoverbutwaskilledonlyacoupleyears

laterbyCortésbecauseofhissupposedinvolvementinarebellionplot.11Thereign

ofthisMexicadynastylastedalmosttwohundredyearsandthereisadirectline

fromthefirstking,Acamapichtli,tothelastemperor,Cuauhtémoc.

WhenlookingatSpanishroyaltyduringthistime,somesimilaritiescanbe

found.Spanishsocietypracticedprimogeniture,whichmeansthattheeldestmale

heirinheriteduponthedeathofhisfather.However,therewasasysteminplace

whereagroupofpeople,knownasthecortes,neededtoapprovethenextruler.So,

liketheMexica,theSpanishhadawayofcontrollingthesuccession.Whenthe

SpaniardsfirstbeganexploringtheNewWorld,Spainwasnotyetanationbut

brokenupintoanumberofterritories.Themostimportantoftheseterritorieswas

CastileandthemonarchatthistimewasIsabella.ShewasmarriedtoFerdinand,the

KingofaneighboringterritorycalledAragon.Aftertheirdeaths,theirtwokingdoms

unitedformingthebasisforwhatisnowmoderndaySpain.

IsabellawaspartofthehouseofTrastámaraandtheirruleinCastilehad

startedaroundthesametimeAcamapichtlibecamethefirstkingoftheMexica.

                                                            11Ross,33.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,53‐57,157‐159,165‐167,217,235.;Durán,218,220,224,301,322‐323.;Keber,85,227‐228,274.;Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.8,2,4.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,46‐47,97‐98.

 

 

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DuringthestartofAcamapichtli’sreign,therewasastruggleforthecrownanda

majorcivilwarhappeninginCastile.Theking,AlfonsoXI,haddiedin1350andhis

son,Pedro,wasthenewking.However,in1369,Alfonso’sillegitimateson,Enrique

ofTrastámara,killedhishalf‐brotherandtookthethrone,beginningtheTrastámara

dynasty.RulingasEnriqueIIuntil1379,hewasfollowedasKingofCastilebyhis

sonJuanI(1379‐1390).Juan’ssonEnriqueIII(1390‐1406)becamethenextking

followedbyhissonJuanII(1406‐1454).JuanIIhadthreechildren:theeldestson

becameEnriqueIV(1454‐1474),thesecondsondiedwhenhewasonlyfifteen,and

thethirdchild,Isabella,becameQueenofCastilein1474.WhentheSpanish

conqueredTenochtitlan,Isabella’sgrandsonCharlesVwasontheSpanishthrone.

Withthebeginningofhisreignin1516,theTrastámaradynastyendedandthatof

theHapsburgsbegan.12

ThesystemofhereditarynobilitywasfirmlyentrenchedinbothMexicoand

SpainbeforetheConquest.TheSpanishfollowedprimogeniture;however,aruler

couldnottakethethronewithoutthepermissionofthecortes.InMexico,theeldest

sondidnotnecessarilyinheritbuttheheirwasalwaysacloserelativeofthe

emperorwhohaddistinguishedhimselfabovetheothercandidates.Likethecortes

inSpain,theroyalcounciloffourinMexicohadtoapprovethenextruler.The

                                                            12PeggyK.Liss,IsabeltheQueen:LifeandTimes(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2004),xv,10.;AngusMacKay,SpainintheMiddleAges:FromFrontiertoEmpire,1000–1500(NewYork:St.Martin’sPress,1977),121‐122,133,141.;TownsendMiller,TheCastlesandtheCrown:Spain:1451‐1555(NewYork:Coward‐McCann,1963),22.;GlynRedworth,GovernmentandSocietyinLateMedievalSpain:FromtheAccessionoftheHouseofTrastámaratoFerdinandandIsabella(London:TheHistoricalAssociation,1993),24‐25.;ChristopherStorrs,TheResilienceoftheSpanishMonarchy,1665‐1700(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2006),11.

 

 

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dynastyofAcamapichtliandhisheirsparallelsalmostdirectlytheTrastámara

dynastyinSpain.Therewasaclearroyalfamilyinbothsocietiesandfromthis

familyalltherulerswereselected.Thus,heimportancegiventoahereditaryruler

wasstrikinglysimilarinbothcultures.

StrategicRoyalMarriages

AnotherimportantelementofMexicasocietythatwasparalleledinEuropeis

theimportanceofintermarriageswithotherstatesinordertocementalliances.The

Mexicaintermarriedwithotherindigenousroyalfamiliesfromneighboring

domainsthewaythattheSpanishmarriedintotheroyalfamiliesofPortugal,

France,andEngland.TheMexicaroyalsalsomarriedverycloserelatives,whichwas

commonlypracticedthroughoutEurope.OnemajordifferenceisthatMexican

noblemenwereallowedtohavemultiplewives.Thismakestheirwebofroyal

intermarriagesevenmorecomplex.

InMexicothisbeganwithAcamapichtliwhowasmarriedtoanoblewoman

fromColhuacan,namedIlancueitl.ChimalpahinclaimsthatAcamapichtli’swifewas

sterile,sohewasgiventhedaughtersofmanyhighrankingmenintheareato

produceoffspringwhowerefittorule,sincetheydidnotconsiderhisfirstson

Itzcoatlalegitimateheir.Ofthesechildren,onewasthesecondking,Huitzilihuitl,

onemarriedthedaughterofthekingofTlacopan,andanothermarriedtherulerof

Chalco.HuitzilihuitlmarriedadaughteroftherulerofTlacopan,Miyahuaxochtzin,

whowasthemotherofChimalpopoca.Healsomarriedthedaughterofthekingof

 

 

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Quauhnahuac,apparentlytosecuretheimportofcotton.OneofHuitzilihuitl’s

childrenmarriedtherulerofItztapalapaandhadadaughter.ThisItzapalapan

princesseventuallycamebacktoMexicotomarryherfirstcousin,theEmperor

Axayacatl.HuitzilihuitlalsohadadaughterwhomarriedtherulerofCoatlIchanand

anotherwhomarriedthekingofTexcoco.MoctezumaI’sdaughterwasmarriedto

hercousin,asonofItzcoatl.AnotherdaughtermarriedanoblemanfromTepexic

MixtlanandbecausehemarriedaMexicanprincess,Moctezumaconfirmedthis

noblemanasthenextrulerofTepexicMixtlan.13

AxayacatlhadchildrenwithanoblewomanfromTollan.Oneofhissonswith

herwenttoruleinTollansincehismotherwasthedaughterofthepreviousruler.

AxayacatlalsohadchildrenwithCuetlaxxochitzin,thedaughteroftherulerofTicic

Cuitlahuac.OneofhisdaughtersmarriedtherulerofTecamachalcoandherson

eventuallybecametherulerofthatcity.DuringthetimewhenTlatelolcowas

conqueredbyTenochtitlan,theTlatelolcanruler,MoquihuixwasmarriedtoKing

Axayacatl’ssister.Thenextruler,MoctezumaII,marriedhisfirstcousin,the

daughterofAhuitzotl.HealsohadasecondwifewhowasthedaughterofTlacaelel,

anothercloserelation.WhenMoctezumaIIconqueredthecityofTehuantepecinthe

areaofpresentdayOaxaca,hegaveoneofhisdaughterstobemarriedtotheheirof

thatkingdomtohelpcementthenewalliance.Cuitlahuacmarriedagranddaughter

ofNezahualpilli,rulerofTexcoco.ThesonfromthisunionalsomarriedaTexcocan

                                                            13Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,37‐39,43‐51,119,123‐125,133.;Durán,34,37,41‐42.

 

 

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noblewoman,anothergranddaughterofNezahualpilli.14Cuiltahuacwasalso

marriedtoMoctezumaII’sdaughter,doñaIsabel.AfterCuitlahuac’sdeath,she

marriedthenextruler,Cuauhtemoc.So,shefirstmarriedherfather’sbrother,and

thenherfather’scousin.15

Theconfusingwebofintermarriageswithintheroyalfamilyandwithrulers

ofotherstatesisseeninSpanishsocietyaswell.EnriqueIII,thethirdKingofCastile,

wasmarriedtoCatherine,sisterofHenryIVofEngland.Theirson,JuanIIwas

Isabel’sfather.Hisfirstwife,MaríaofAragonwashisfirstcousin,andhissecond

wifewasaprincessofPortugal.IsabelwouldeventuallymarryFerdinand,whose

fatherwasthebrotherofJuanII’sfirstwifeMaría.EnriqueIV’sfirstwifewasa

princessofNavarre.TheydivorcedwithouthavinganychildrenandEnrique

subsequentlymarriedthesisteroftheKingofPortugal,PrincessJuana.Asachild,

IsabelwaspromisedtotheheirofthekingdomofNavarreandonhisdeathin1461,

shewasproposedasawifefortheKingofPortugal,AlfonsoV.Isabelwasalso

covetedbytheKingofFranceLouisXIwhowantedtomarryhertohisbrotherand

heir,theDukeofBerri,andwasproposedasawifeforthefutureRichardIIIof

England.However,shetookmattersintoherownhandsandonOctober19,1469,

shemarriedFerdinandofAragon.16

                                                            14Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,55,135,149,151,165,167.;Durán,152,154,228.;Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.8,7.15Chipman,40‐41.16Hillgarth,Vol.2,350.;Liss,xv,57.;MacKay,123.;Miller,24,28,44‐45,55,63.

 

 

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OfIsabellaandFerdinand’schildren,allofthemhadroyalmarriages.Their

eldestson,Juan,marriedthedaughterofMaximilianI,HolyRomanEmperor.Their

daughterJuanamarriedPhilip,alsoachildofMaximilianI.Anotherdaughter,Isabel,

firstmarriedAlfonso,aprinceofPortugal.Uponhisdeathshewasforcedtomarry

hisuncle,Manuel,whobecameKingofPortugal.Isabeldiedsoonafterandhersister

MaríamarriedManuel.Finally,theyoungestdaughter,Catherine,marriedArthur,

heirtotheEnglishthrone.However,whenhediedshemarriedhisbrother,Henry,

whobecametheinfamousHenryVIII.HenryandCatherine’sdaughterMarywould

eventuallymarrybackintotheroyalfamilyofSpainwhenshewedKingPhilipII.He

wasthesonofCharlesV(sonofJuanaandPhilip)andIsabel(daughterofMaríaand

Manuel).PhilipII’sparentswerefirstcousins,hisgrandmothersMaríaandJuana

weresisters,andtheirsisterCatherinewasthemotherofhiswifeMary.17

Thesewebsofintermarriagesareconfusingatbestyetverysignificant.They

showtheimportanceofroyaltyinbothcultures.Marryingacommonerwasnot

somethingeithersocietypracticed.Theyheldroyaltytoadifferentstandardanda

verydistinctbarrierseparatedtheroyalfamilyfromeveryoneelseinsociety.In

bothSpainandMexico,marriageallianceswithotherstateswereextremely

common.Thissuggeststhatbothoftheseculturesrecognizedthedivinerightofall

rulers,notjustthoseoftheirownsociety.Thesimilarityinthissensebetweenthe

MexicaandtheSpaniardsexplainstherespectshowntoindigenousnobilitybythe

SpanishbothduringandaftertheConquest.                                                             17Hillgarth,Vol.2,350.;Liss,xv,248‐249,378,380,387.;Miller,68,106.

 

 

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InaLeagueoftheirOwn:DistinguishingRoyalty

AnothersimilaraspectofbothMexicaandSpanishsocietywasthe

importanceofdistinguishingthenobilityfromthecommoners.Notonlywasit

importanttomarryandreproducewithothernoblestocontinueapurebloodline,it

wasalsoimportanttodistinguishtheroyalclassfromeveryoneelse.Thisincluded

specialprivilegesforroyalrelatives,includingland,titles,andotherhonors.In

additiontothisseparationofclasses,itwasalsoimportantfortheKing(orQueen)

tobeevenonestephigher.Inbothsocieties,theultimateroyalindividualwastobe

inaclassofhisorherown,distinguishedfromnotonlythelowerclasses,butfrom

thelowerrankingroyals.KingsandQueenswerelookedonasgod‐like,evenGod’s

representativeonearth.IntheMexicasociety,thesedistinctionsaredescribedin

manytexts.HereIwillpresentthewayindigenoussourcesdescribedtheseroyal

privilegesandinthenextchapterIwillshowhowthesedistinctionsaredescribed

inSpanishcolonialtextsaswell.

AsIhavepreviouslydescribed,theroyalfamilyincentralMexicowasvast.

Theyintermarriedwithothercity‐statesalloverMesoamericatoformacomplex

webofnobility.However,becauseofthisandthepracticeofpolygamy,therewas

oftenaplethoraofroyalmentochoosefromasthenextheir.Ofcourse,onlyoneof

thesemencouldbechosenastheEmperoroftheMexica.OtherMexicanoblemen

werethuspresentedwithothertitlesandhonors.Forexample,duringtheinitial

andaggressivelysuccessfulexpansionperiodunderKingItzcoatl,thetitleofcaptain

 

 

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forthevariousconquestexpeditionswasgiventoItzcoatl’snephewsandbrothers.

Whenlandsweresuccessfullyconquered,thebestlandwasdistributedamongst

theseroyalrelatives.Thisnewlyacquiredlandcamewithanimportanteconomic

prizeaswell:tribute.Thesecousins,brothers,andnephewsofItzcoatlweregiven

land,peasantstoworkthatland,andtributepaymentsfromtheirnewlyacquired

city‐states.18Alongwithlandandtribute,thesemenweregiventitles.Durán

describesthetitlesassimilartohow“theKingofSpaingivestitlestohisgreatmen,

suchasthatofDuke,Count,Marquis,Viscount,Archduke,MasterofaMilitaryOrder

andGovernorofaConqueredProvince.”19

OneoftheprovincesthatwasconqueredduringItzcoatl’stimewasthe

neighboringlakesidecityofXochimilco.SincetheXochimilcanrulerdecidedto

surrender,Itzcoatlgrantedhimtheprivilegeofbecomingoneofhiscouncilors,

whichallowedhimtoattendtheEmperor’smealsandeatinhispresence.Itzcoatl

alsoproclaimedthattherulersofTexcocoandTacuba(Tlacopan)weretobethe

secondandthirdrankingmonarchsinthearea,respectively.Thiswasthebirthof

theTripleAlliancebetweenthesethreecities.EachofthemembersoftheTriple

allianceruledovertheirowndomain,buttheMexicawereultimatelythemost

powerfulandthustheywereincharge.ThemonarchsofTexcocoandTacubawere

alsograntedtheprivilegeoftakingpartintheelectionofanewMexicaruler.Itis

believedthatItzcoatlmarriedhissistertotherulerofTexcocoduringthistime.

                                                            18Durán,58‐60,70,72.19Durán,70.

 

 

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Theyhadason,Nezahualcoyotl,whowouldbecomethenextTexcocanking.His

descendentsruledinTexcocountilthepost‐Conquestperiod,thusensuringMexica

bloodonmultiplethrones.20

DuringthereignofMoctezumaI,astrongernotionofclass‐consciousness

androyaldistinctionwasdeveloped.Everymemberofsocietywastohavehisorher

ownspecificrankandeveryonewastobetreatedinawaythatwasappropriateto

thatstatus.Thesedistinctionswererigorouslyenforcedanddescribedindetailby

Durán.

…inthepalaceswerespecialroomsforpeopleofdifferentrank,andwhenonevisitedthepalaceoneknewhisplaceandwenttheredirectly.Thecommonpeoplehadnobusinessenteringtheroyalbuildingsandneverdidsounlessitwastheirturntorenderpersonalservicessuchasscrubbing,sweepingandothermenialtasks.Onlythelords,noblemenandchiefwarriorsworesandalsontheirfeet.Therestofthepeopledidnotdreamofdoingsosincethereweregravepenaltiesinvolved.21

Moctezumaevendeclaredanewsetoflawsinordertothoroughlydescribethese

distinctionssotheywereclearandenforceable.Includedamongthesenewlawsare

thefollowing:

1.Thekingmustneverappearinpublicunlesstheoccasionisextremelyimportant

2.Onlythekingmaywearagoldendiademinthecity,thoughinwarallthegreatlordsandbravecaptainsmaywearsuch.Itisconsideredthatthosewhogotowarrepresenttheroyalperson.

                                                            20Durán,80,84,90.21Durán,122.

 

 

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3.OnlythekingandthePrimeMinisterTlacaelelmaywearsandalswithinthepalace.Nogreatchieftainmayenterthepalaceshod,underpainofdeath.Thegreatnoblemenaretheonlyonesallowedtowearsandalsinthecityandnooneelse,withtheexceptionofmenwhohaveperformedsomegreatdeedinwar.Butthesesandalsmustbecheapandcommon;thegilded,paintedonesaretobeusedonlybynoblemen.

4.Onlythekingistowearfinemantlesofcottonembroideredwithdesignsandthreadsofdifferentcolorsandfeatherwork.Heistodecidewhichtypeofcloakmaybeusedbytheroyalpersontodistinguishhimfromtherest.

5.Thegreatlords,whoaretwelve,maywearcertainmantles,andtheminorlordswearothers.

6.Thecommonsoldiermaywearonlythesimplesttypeofmantleandisprohibitedfromusinganyspecialdesignsorfineembroiderythatmightsethimofffromtherest.

7.Thecommonpeoplewillnotbeallowedtowearcottonclothing,underpainofdeath,butonlygarmentsofmagueyfiber.Themantlemustnotbewornbelow

thekneeandifanyoneallowsittoreachtheankle,hewillbekilled,unlesshehaswoundsofwaronhislegs.

8.Noonebutthegreatnoblemenandchieftainsistobuildahousewithasecondstory,underpainofdeath.Nooneistoputpeakedorroundgablesuponhishouse.Thisprivilegehasbeengrantedbythegodsonlytothegreat.

9.Onlythegreatlordsaretowearlip‐plugs,ear‐plugsandnose‐plugsofgoldandpreciousstones,exceptstrongmen,bravecaptainsandsoldiers,buttheirornamentsmustbeofbone,woodorotherinferiormaterials.

10.Onlythekingandthesovereignsoftheprovincesandothergreatlordsaretoweargoldarm‐bands,anklets,andgoldenrattlesontheirfeetatthedances.…Theyalonemayadornthemselveswithchainsofgoldaroundtheirnecks,withjewelryofthismetalandofpreciousstones,suchasjade.Theothervaliantwarriorsmaywearcommongarlandsandeagleandmacawfeathersontheirheads.Theymayputonbonenecklacesandthoseofsmallsnails…andsmallcheapstones.

11.Intheroyalpalacetherearetobediverseroomswheredifferentclassesofpeoplearetobereceived,andunderpainofdeathnooneistoenterthat

 

 

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ofthegreatlords.22

Inadditiontothis,thekingwastoeatalone.Hewastoeatfirstandafterhefinished,

otherroyalsweregiventheplatesthatwereleftover.Itwasconsideredanhonorto

eatfromplatesthatwere“remaindersfromtheroyalmouth.”23

MoctezumaIIfollowedinhisnamesake’sfootstepsandinstitutedanumber

ofhisownreforms.Whenhewaselectedhedismissedallofthehouseholdservants

whohadservedtheformerking,hisuncleAhuitzotl.Ahuitzotlhadputpeoplewho

werenotofnoblerankinhishousehold,somethingthatMoctezumadidnotagree

with.Hedeclaredthatthiswasundignifiedandwouldonlybeservedbymenwho

werehighranking,likehimself.Hedidthisinpartbecausehefoundhisuncle’s

servantsunworthy,butalsobecausehewishedtoteachhisyoungroyalrelatives

courtlypracticesandmanners.Healsowishedfortheseyoungmentolearntheart

ofrulingtheempireincaseoneofthemwaschosenasthenextking.Theseyoung

noblemenweretobedrawnfromthevastpoolofroyalnephews,cousins,and

brothers,buthisservantsalsoincludedthesonsofrulersfromconquered

provinces.NosonsofillegitimateunionswereallowedtoserveMoctezuma,evenif

theywerehisownbrotherssinceheconsideredbastardsunworthytobeinhis

presence.Moctezumaalsohadstrictrulesastohowpeopleweretoshowtheir

respectandreverence.Nocommonerwastolookathim.Ifheappearedinpublic,

thepeopleweretolowertheireyestothegroundinrespectandprostrate

                                                            22Durán,131‐132.23Durán,142.

 

 

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themselveswhilehepassed.Ifsomeonedisobeyedthisruleofetiquette,theywould

bekilled.Duránclaimstohaveinterviewedamanwhohadlivedduringthereignof

Moctezuma.HeaskedthismanwhatMoctezumahadlookedlikeandtheman

responded,“Father,IwillnotlietoyouortellyouaboutthingswhichIdonotknow.

Ineversawhisface!”24

LikeexcessMexicanoblemen,SpanishandotherEuropeanroyalswhowere

notdestinedtoinheritthethroneweregivenotherpositionsofpowerandprestige.

Forexample,oneofFerdinand’sillegitimatesons,Alonso,wasmadeArchbishopof

Zaragozaattheearlyageofsix.Theheirtothethrone,Juan,wasofcourseprepared

forhisroleasfutureking.Hewasgivenhisownminiaturecourt,whichwas

comprisedofnoblechildrenclosetohisagewhosharedhiseducationandhelped

himpracticeforhisfuturerole.Theroyaldaughters,asdiscussedintheprevious

section,weremarriedofftoheirsofotherkingdomstocementalliances.Ferdinand

andIsabella’sdaughtersMaríaandCatherineeventuallybecamethequeensof

PortugalandEngland,respectively.WhenFerdinandmarriedIsabella,hisfather

wasstillaliveandKingofAragon.Becauseofthis,Ferdinandwasgivenother

positionsuntilheinheritedthethroneincludingthetitleofKingofSicilyandNaples.

OtherEuropeancountriesgavesimilartitlestoheirsandotherroyalfamily

members.FerdinandandIsabella’sdaughterJuanamarriedthesonandheirof

Maximilian,HolyRomanEmperor.Thiscouple,asheirstotheAustrianthrone,had

thetitlesDukeandDuchessofFlanders.InEngland,Catherinewasmarriedtothe                                                            24Durán,233,224

 

 

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PrinceofWales,heirtotheEnglishthrone.Shewaslikewisegiventhetitleof

PrincessofWales.25

SimilartoMexicasociety,Spanishsocietywashighlystratified.TheKingand

Queenwereofcourseatthetop,inaclassoftheirown.Therewerethenvarious

groupsofrankednobilitywhousuallyownedanddominatedlargetractsoflandin

theIberianPeninsula.Thesenoblesweregenerallyrelativesofthemonarchsand

hadbeengivenlandbecauseoftheirstatus.Undertheroyalclasswas,ofcourse,

variouslevelssocietytowhichthecommonersbelonged.InSpain,high‐ranking

nobleswereoftenexemptedfromcertaintaxesthesamewaythatMexicanobles

wereexcludedfromtributepayments.Thesenobleswhoownedlandandwere

exemptfromtaxeswerealso,inaway,“given”thepeopleofthelandsthey

controlled.TheyweresimilartoMexicanoblemenwhoweregivengovernorshipsof

recentlyconqueredlandsinMesoamerica.Theirlandswereworkedforthem,they

collectedtaxes,whichgavethemahugesourceofincome,andtheyhadsemi‐

autonomouscontrolovertheirownmini‐kingdom.Thesenoblesweresubjecttothe

KingorQueen,inthesamewaythatrulersofalliedorsubjectcity‐statesincentral

MexicoweresubjecttotheMexicanEmperor.26

RoyalprivilegeandprestigewasextremelyimportanttobothMexicaand

Spanishsocieties.Theirrulerswerealwaysatthetopofthesocialhierarchy,above

everyoneelseintherealm.Kings,Queens,andEmperorswereconsideredgod‐like,

                                                            25Miller,56,153,159,160,173.26Redworth,6,10,11.

 

 

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chosenbyGod,andthegods’representativesonearth.Othermembersoftheroyal

familyalsoheldprestigioustitles,whichusuallyincludedgiftsofland,tribute,tax

exemption,andcontroloversmallareasofthekingdomorempire.Butofupmost

importancewasthatthesenobleswerestillsubjecttothecrown.Thesesocial

distinctionsbetweenclassesmadeiteasierforthesetwoculturestomergewhen

theycameincontactwithoneanother.Spanishofficialsrecognizedtheprestigeof

theMexicaroyalsandoftengrantedthemspecialprivilegesinthepost‐Conquest

society.ThisintegrationofMexicanroyaltyintoNewSpain’scolonialsocietywillbe

discussedmoreinChapter4.

‘PompandCircumstance’:RoyalCelebrations

Foranymajorevent,suchasafuneralorcoronation,anelaboratecelebration

washeldwhosepurposewastoshowoffroyalgrandeurandpower.Thiswas

commonlypracticedinboththeMexicaEmpireandinSpain.Notonlydiditgivethe

royalsachancetoshowoff,italsogavethecommonersareasontocelebratetheir

royalfamilyandevencatchaglimpseoftheirelusiverulers.Thesecelebrations

wereoftenbasedontraditionalpracticesandwereaveryimportantpartofeachof

thesepre‐Conquestcultures.Someoftheactualpracticesduringthesecelebrations

differedbetweentheMexicaandSpaniards,buttheimportanceofcelebrationwas

clearinbothsocieties.Someofthepractices,suchascoronations,wereactually

strikinglysimilarbetweenthetwo.

 

 

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Mexicacoronationceremoniesevolvedovertimetobecomemoreelaborate,

butevenwiththefirstking,Acamapichtli,therewassomeformofcelebration.

Whenhemarriedhiswife,Ilancuitl,thecouplewasbroughttoTenochtitlan.They

werewelcomedbyallthepeopleofthetownandwerecarriedthroughthecityto

theirroyalapartmentswheretheywereseateduponaMexicanvariationathrone

anddeclaredrulersofMexico.Thepeopleofthecityvowedloyaltyandobedience

anddiademswereplacedupontheirheads.Whenthesecondking,Huitzilihuitl,was

elected,hewaslikewisetakentotheroyalpalace,seated,andcrownedwitha

diadem.Hewasalsoanointedwithoil,whichwasusedbytheMexicatoanointthe

statueoftheirgodHuitzilopochtli.Thiswasnotonlyasimilarpracticetooneseenin

Europeancoronationceremonies,buttheuseofthesameoiltoanointboththenew

kingandtheirprimarygodshowcasesthebeliefthattheirrulersweregod‐like

creaturesandaboveeveryoneelse.Whenthethirdruler,Chimalpopoca,was

elected,similarceremonialpracticeswereheld.Inaddition,onehewasseated,

crowned,andanointed,hewasgivenashieldandaswordtohold.Theseweapons

representedaspecificgod,whichtheMexicahopedwouldberepresentedthrough

theirking.27

WhenMoctezumaIbecameruler,alltheusualceremonieswereobserved.

Followingthemourningoftherecentlydepartedking,thecitybegantorejoiceand

celebratetheirnewkingwithdancingandsinging.Atthispoint,theempirehad

beguntoexpandandsoalsopresentattheseceremoniesweretherulersofsubject                                                            27Durán,34,35,40,47.

 

 

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andalliedcity‐statessuchasNezahualcoyotl,thekingofTexcoco.Thesekingscame

toacknowledgethenewrulerandhispreeminenceoverthelandandpeopleof

centralMexicoandbroughthimgiftstocelebrate.Coronationswerealsousedasan

economicstrategy.WhenAxayacatlwaselected,heinvitedrulersfromcoastal

townsthathadnotyetbeenconquered.Thiswasdonebecauseiftherulersrefused

theinvitation,theMexicawouldhavereasontowagewaronthoselandsand

conquerthem.ThesecoastallandshadresourcestheMexicadidnotyethaveaccess

tosotheywerelookingforareasontosubjugatetheseareas.Duringthecoronation

ofthenextking,Tizoc,therulerofTexcocobegantotakeamoreprominentrolein

theceremony.Hewastheonewhocrownedthenewkingandalsoceremoniously

piercedhisnoseandearswithgoldandjadejewelry.Tizocwasledtohisthrone,

whichwasdecoratedinjaguarskinsandeaglefeathers.ThekingofTexcocoand

othernoblemenpickedupthethroneandcarriedthekingtothemainpyramid.At

thepyramid,Tizocprickedhimselfwithaknifemadeofjaguarboneandofferedhis

ownbloodaspenancetothegods.Atthispoint,self‐sacrificeandthesacrificeof

warcaptivesbecameanimportantpartofcoronationceremonies.AfterTizoc

offeredhisownbloodtothegods,theMexicawagedwaronMetztitlaninorderto

obtaincaptivestoofferassacrificesforthecoronationceremony.Rulersofallied

andsubjectprovinceswereinvitedtothesefestivitiesandthiscoronationpractice

continueduntilthereignofthelastpre‐Conquestking,MoctezumaII.28Infuture

                                                            28Durán,87,163,178,179.

 

 

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coronationceremonies,neighboringprovinceswereaskedtoprovidetheirown

victimsfortheMexicatosacrificeinordertocelebratetheirnewking.

Althoughcoronationsaretheceremoniesdescribedinthemostdetailin

indigenousaccounts,itisclearwhilereadingthesesourcesthatotherroyalevents,

suchasfuneralsandthebirthofroyalchildrenwerealsocelebratedwithgreat

pomp.InMexicaculture,thesecelebrationsoftenincludedfeasts,dancing,and

humansacrifice.ItwasimportantthatallMexicanoblesbepresent,butitwasalso

imperativethatnoblesofalliedandsubjectstatesbepresentaswell.Theserulers

wereoftenexpectedtobringgiftsandthissometimesincludedtheirown

individualstoofferassacrifice.29Thispracticeshowstheimportanceoftheir

religioninalltheirroyalceremonies.Religionwasapartofeveryevent,andwas

incorporatedintoeachmajorroyalfestivity.

ThisblendingofreligionintoroyalceremonieswasalsoseeninSpain.When

EnriqueIVdied,hissisterandheirIsabellaarrangedandattendedafuneralmass.

Changingquicklyoutofhermourningclothesshechangedintohercoronation

robestogetreadyforthenextceremony.Inherjeweledcoronationgown,she

processedthroughthestreetsofSegoviafollowedbytheentireclergyofthatcity.

Shewaspresentedwithaswordinthetownplazaandthenclimbedupaplatform

thathadbeenpreparedandseatedherselfontheroyalthroneforallofthecityto

see.Shewascrownedandthenledanotherprocessiontothecathedralfortherest

                                                            29Durán,43,47,150,174‐178,218.

 

 

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ofthecoronationceremony.Followingthecoronation,anewroyalcourthadtobe

formed.SimilartohowMoctezumaIIreplacedhispredecessor’sentouragewithhis

own,Isabellasurroundedherselfwithservantsthatshehandpickedandknewshe

couldtrust.AreligiousbasedceremonywasalsoseenwiththebirthofFerdinand

andIsabella’sfirstandonlyson,Juan.InIberianculture,abaptismwasheldafter

thebirthofachild.Foraroyalbabyandheir,highrankingchurchofficialsandother

membersoftheroyaltyservedasgodparents.ForJuan,thisincludedthePapal

ambassadorandtheDuchessofMedinaSidonia.Therewasanotherprocession

throughthecitytothecathedraltocontinuethecelebrationandgivethankstothe

ChristianGodfollowedbyabullfighttoentertainthemassesofthecity.30

Juan’sweddingtoMargaret,thedaughteroftheHolyRomanEmperor,was

likewisecelebratedwithtremendoussplendor.ThewholetownofBurgoswas

prepared.Streetswerecarpetedandbalconiesweredecorated;therewere

fountainsofwine,fireworksandjouststocelebrate.Followingtheweddingwasa

grandbanquetwitharoyalfeastanddancing.Solemnevents,suchasfunerals,also

calledforelaborateceremonies.WhenQueenIsabelladiedinMedinaSpainin1504,

shewasrichlydressedbeforebeingplacedinhercoffin.Theroyalcourtthen

undertookathree‐weekprocessionthroughSpain,visitingcitiesimportantto

variouseventsinIsabella’slife,beforereachingGranadawherethefuneral

ceremonytookplaceandIsabellawasfinallylaidtorest.Isabella’sheirwasher

daughterJuana,whowasmarriedtothesonandheirofMaximilian,HolyRoman                                                            30Miller,81,82,85,104,105.

 

 

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Emperor.WhenJuana’shusbandPhilipdied,therewasalsoagrandceremony

practicebeginningwithaprocessionwherethebodywascarriedthroughthecityto

thereligiouscenteroftown.SincehewasheirtotheAustrianthrone,hisfuneral

ceremoniesweredoneintheAustrianfashion.Hisbrainwasremovedfollowedby

hisheart,whichwassentinagoldboxtoFlanders,wherePhilipandJuanahadbeen

dukeandduchess.31

TherearesomesimilaritiesbetweentheMexicaandSpanishwithregardsto

ceremonialpractices.Mostobviously,ceremonieswereofgreatimportancetoboth

culturesandcelebratedwheneveraroyaleventtookplace.Bothsocietiescelebrated

theirroyalfamily’smarriages,royalbirths,andfuneralsinagrandfashion.Religion

wasalsooftheupmostimportancetobothcultures,soitwasacentraltotheseroyal

celebrations.Althoughtheirreligiousbeliefsdifferedinmanyways,mostnotably

theMexica’spracticeofpolytheismandhumansacrifice,bothsocietieslookedto

religionandreverencetotheirgod(s)asthesinglemostimportantthing.

Processionsthroughthecitytoshowofftheroyalperson’sprestigeandimportance

werepracticedbyMexicaandSpanishroyals.Thiswasoftenfollowedbylavish

feastswithdancingandcelebration.WhiletheMexicapracticedhumansacrifice,the

Spaniardsalsocelebratedwithgrislypracticessuchasbullfights.Theseceremonies

werenotonlymeanttocelebratecertainroyallifeevents,butalsotogivethe

commonpeopleareasontocelebrateandshowtheirloyaltyandreverencetotheir

sovereigns.                                                             31Miller,172,234,264,265.

 

 

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Conclusion

TheideaofroyaltyinbothMexicaandSpanishculturewasfundamental.

Therewasastrictconceptofaroyalfamilyandthatfamilydominatednotonlythe

imperialcrownbutintegrateditselfintoneighboringstatesaswell.Inboth

societies,thiswebofnobilitywaswoventhroughthestrategicintermarriageswith

otherroyalfamilies.InSpain,thisincludedothercountriessuchasEngland,France

andPortugal.IntheBasinofMexico,theMexicaemperorsmarriedtheirchildrenoff

torulersalloverMesoamerica.Sometimesthiswastocementafriendshipwithan

alliedterritory.Othertimes,theMexicaconqueredanareaandeitherinstalledone

oftheirownnobilityasthenewrulerorlettheexistingrulerremainbutonlyon

conditionthathemarryaprinceorprincessofMexico.Instancesofmarryingclose

relativeswerealsoverycommoninbothcultures.Keepingtheroyalbloodlinepure

seemstohavebeenextremelyimportanttobothgroups.Thesesimilaritiesarewell

documentedinpost‐Conquestsources.Unfortunately,mostpre‐Conquest

documents,especiallyintheBasinofMexico,weredestroyedduringtheSpanish

Conquest.However,earlySpanishandindigenousscholarstookituponthemselves

topreservesomeofthishistory.Theyreliedonpre‐Conquestsourcesfortheir

writings,whichincludeddocumentsthatarenolongerextantandoralinterviews

withpeoplewholivedinpre‐Colonialtimes.Becauseofsourcessuchastheones

examinedforthischapter,weareabletocatchaglimpseintopre‐Conquestroyal

society,whichwasremarkablysimilartoitsEuropeancounterpart.Chapter3will

 

 

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continuethisdiscussionoftheideaofroyaltyinSpainandcentralMexico,butwill

insteadconcentrateonSpanishcolonialsources.

 

 

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CHAPTER3

DESCRIPTIONSOFMEXICASOCIETYBYSPANISHCHRONICLERS

Thepurposeofthisanalysisistoemphasizetheremarkablesimilarities

betweentheMexicaandSpanishculturesbeforeandduringthecontactperiod.The

previouschapteremphasizedtheinformationwecangetfromindigenoussources,

andcomparedaspectssuchashereditarynobility,royalintermarriages,andthe

importanceofcelebration.Thischaptercontinuestofocusonroyalty,butfocuses

insteadoninformationgainedfromsourceswrittenbySpanishconquistadors.

ThesesourcesareextremelyimportantbecausethemenofCortés’expeditionwere

abletoseeMexicasocietybeforeitwaseverinfluencedbyEuropeanculture.Itisa

rawlookatroyalculture,imperialcontrol,thecityofTenochtitlan,andtheEmperor

Moctezumahimself.Spanishsourcesalsohaveadifferentfocus.Forindigenous

historians,itwasimportanttoemphasizecertainaspectsoftheirhistory,especially

importanteventsandpastrulers.Spanishsourceshaveadifferentfocus,onethat

emphasizestheirownexperiencesandobservations.Theytellusmoreaboutthe

controltheMexicahadovertheirneighborsandgiveusmoredetailedaccountsof

thecityofTenochtitlan,itspeople,anditsruler.Theyshowusabitofeverydaylife

inTenochtitlanandhowthishighlyadvancedsocietyfunctioned.Thetwosidesof

thenarrativefocusondifferentaspectsofMexicasociety,andtogethertheygiveus

amorecompleteviewofthecultureofcentralMexico.FromtheseEuropean

accountswecanseethatfirstandforemosttheSpanishconquistadorshadfound

 

 

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somethingworthwritingabout.TheymarveledatTenochtitlan,atthefearand

respectinspiredbyMoctezuma,andthewayceremonyseemedtobeapartofevery

aspectoftheemperor’slife.ManyofthesethingswerealsoseeninSpanishsociety

andamoreindepthanalysisofthesesocietalaspectsshowsanevenclearerpicture

ofthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwocultures.

AnIntroductiontotheSourcesExamined

EachoftheSpanishsourcesusedforthispartoftheanalysiscomefrommen

whowerepartoftheCortésexpedition.Theywereabletoseethecontrolthe

Mexicaheldoverneighboringlandsastheymarchedtowardthecityof

Tenochtitlan.Theystayedformanymonthsinthecapitalcityanddescribedtheir

experiencesinbrilliantdetail.MostofthesemenmetMoctezumaandknewhim

personally.Morestrikingly,thesechroniclersseemedtoholdMoctezumaandthe

peopleofTenochtitlaninveryhighregard.Thesedescriptionsarenotfrommen

whowereunimpressedbytheirsurroundings.Theconquistadorswereamazedand

whattheysawandmarveledatthisculturethathaddevelopedinthisremotearea

oftheworld.IwillfirstintroduceeachofourSpanishauthorsbeforedivingintothe

first‐handdescriptionsofMexicasocietyandthesimilaritiesthatcanbefoundwith

contemporarySpain.

HernandoCortés,leaderoftheexpeditionthatwouldoverthrowtheMexica

capitalcityofTenochtitlaninAugustof1521,wroteanumberofletterstothe

Spanishmonarchsduringthedifferentstagesofcontactwiththepeopleof

 

 

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Mesoamerica.KnownastheCartasdeRelación,thesearepoliticaldocumentsthat

detailCortés’sinterpretationofevents.However,hisnarrativeoftheConquestis

oftenembellishedormanipulatedinordertojustifyhimselfandhisexpeditionto

theSpanishmonarchs.Heexaggeratesthewealthofthecountrytoshowthathis

effortsarelucrativeandoveremphasizesthestrangepracticesofthenativepeoples

inordertojustifyhistreatmentofthem.Despitethis,hislettersclearlyshowahigh

degreeofappreciationandamazementatthisrichandsophisticatedculture.

NumeroustimesinhisletterstoSpain,CortéscomparesaspectsofMexicaculture

andsocietytotheirparallelsinSpain,andthispracticewascommonamongstmost

SpanishChroniclerswhowerepartoftheCortésexpedition.1

Spanishchronicler,BernalDíazdelCastillo,suppliesanothernarrativeofthe

periodofcontactwiththepeopleofMexico.Hearrivedin1514,likemany

conquistadorswiththehopeofgettingrich,andwaspartoftheCortésexpeditionin

1519.Hiswork,theTrueHistoryoftheConquestofMexico,waswrittensomeforty

yearsaftertheeventsitdescribes,itisstillausefulworkforscholarsbecauseitis

oneofthemostcompleteaccountsoftheConquest.WithlesstoprovethanCortés,

Díaz’saccountmaybeconsideredabitmoretrustworthy.2

AndrésdeTapiawasanotheroneofCortés’militarycaptainswhorecorded

hisexperience.Hewastwenty‐fourwhenhesetoutonhisfirstexpedition,andwas

oneofCortés’mosttrustedmen,givinghimaccesstosomeofthemostimportant

                                                            1Cortés,xxi‐xl.2Díaz,xiii,xv,xvii,xix‐xx,xxiv‐xxvi.

 

 

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eventsthatoccurred.AlthoughhisaccountstopsabruptlybeforetheSpanish

expulsionfromTenochtitlanin1520,itstillgivesaclearanddetailedaccountofthe

Spaniards’firstexperienceswiththepeopleofcentralMexicoandtheirawe‐

inspiringcity.3

AnotherimportantSpanishchroniclewehaveaccesstoisbyFrayFrancisco

deAguilar.HecametothenewworldasaconquistadorandwaspartoftheCortés

expedition.Bydistinguishinghimself,hewasprivytotheinnermostaspectsofthe

conquestanditsevents.OneofhisassignmentswasguardingtheMexicaemperor,

Moctezuma,sohehadfirst‐handknowledgeoftheMexicancourtanditspractices.4

OneofthemostintriguingSpanishaccountsisthatofthemanknownas“the

anonymousconquistador.”Althoughhenevergiveshisname,itiswidelybelieved

thathewasanimportantfigureduringCortés’expedition.Hedescribesthingsthat

areoverlookedinotheraccountsandseemstoknowtheMexicapre‐Conquest

cultureandpracticesquitewell.Hegivesvividdescriptionsoftheland,cities,

people,andpractices,whichsuggestafirst‐handexperience.Thelackof

identificationontheauthor’spartmakesthisauniqueConquestnarrative.Asstated

before,conquistadorsgenerallyusedthechroniclegenreasawaytogainfameand

                                                            3AndrésdeTapia,“ChronicleofAndrésdeTapia,”inTheConquistadors:First‐PersonAccountsoftheConquestofMexico,editedandtranslatedbyPatriciadeFuentes(NewYork:TheOrionPress,1963),17‐18.4FrayFranciscodeAguilar,“TheChronicleofFrayFranciscodeAguilar,”inTheConquistadors:First‐PersonAccountsoftheConquestofMexico,editedandtranslatedbyPatriciadeFuentes(NewYork:TheOrionPress,1963),134.

 

 

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prestige.Thatbeingsaid,thisaccountlacksalotofthebiasthatisinevitablyfound

intheotherSpanishaccounts.5

‘Whocantherebewhoisnotavassalofthatlord?’:

Pre‐ContactDescriptionsandMoctezuma’sImperialControl

BeforeCortésandhismenevermarcheddownthatcauseway,camefaceto

facewithMoctezuma,orbeheldTenochtitlanforthefirsttime,theywerealready

describingthecityanditspeopleinamazement.Thefascinationisobviousinthe

numeroustimesCortésquestionedthepeoplehecameintocontactwith.Whether

theywereallies,enemies,orscaredtributaries,theotherindigenousgroupsheld

MoctezumaandthepowerofTenochtitlaninhighregard.Inadditiontoshowingthe

controlwieldedbytheMexicaking,thetimetheSpaniardsspentinMesoamerica

beforeenteringthecapitalcityoftheMexicaalsoshowsushowMoctezumawent

aboutobservingandtryingtounderstandthesenewcomers.Itisclearfromhis

behaviorthathedidindeedperceivethemassomesortofthreat,butthathealso

viewedthemthesamewayhewouldhaveanyothergroupofoutsiders.Withoutthe

contextofknowinganothercontinent,thewaytheSpaniardshadknowntheNew

Worldforalmostthirtyyears,Moctezumahadnochoicebuttotrytofitthe

Spaniardsintotheonlyworldheknew.Tohim,theywerejustsimplyanothergroup

                                                            5AnnonymousConquistador,“TheAnonymousConquistador,”inTheConquistadors:First‐PersonAccountsoftheConquestofMexico,editedandtranslatedbyPatriciadeFuentes(NewYork:TheOrionPress,1963),165‐166.

 

 

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offoreignersandtheMexicahadplentyofexperiencedealingwiththistypeof

situation.

Inhisletters,Cortésdescribesthebeautifulcountryhepassesthroughand

thepeopleheencountersonhismarchtowardTenochtitlan.6Díazdescribesthe

peopleofthispartasintelligent,withsophisticatedarchitecture,andsimply

superiortotheotherindigenousgroupstheyhadencounteredbefore.7Tapia

focusesonthecontroltheMexicaseemedtohaveoverothercity‐states.Thewayhe

describedit,eachindigenouscommunityhaditsownlordorgovernor,butthatthey

wereallvassalsofMoctezuma.8Onelordhequestionedrepliedbysaying,“Andwho

cantherebewhoisnotavassalofthatlord?”9Anotherdescribedtherespectand

fearMoctezumainspiredbysaying,“Heislikeourgods,whoknowall;thereisno

usedenyingittohim.”10Aguilar,inhisaccount,emphasizesthefeelingoffearfeltby

indigenouspeopleandSpaniardsalikebecauseofMoctezumaandthecityof

Tenochtitlan.Whetheritwasfearfeltbythepeopleofsurroundingareasthatwas

passedontotheSpaniardsorafearthatAguilardevelopedduringhisyearsof

participatingintheconquest,thepowerfulemotioninstilledbythepowerofthe

Mexicawasformidable.TheSpanishwerecautionedbytheirindigenousalliesmany

timestonotgotoTenochtitlansincethecitywassowellfortifiedandprotected,the

                                                            6Cortés,29.7Díaz,7.8Tapia,24.9Tapia,28.10Tapia,36.

 

 

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armysofierce,andthekingwily,vicious,andfearedbyall.11Becauseoftheirearly

interestinthecapitalcity,SpanishchroniclersdescribeTenochtitlan,withoutever

havingseenit,asacitybuiltwithremarkableskilluponagreatlakeandunderthe

controlofapowerful,feared,andrespectedlordandking.

Fromquestioninglordsofnearbycity‐states,theSpanishconquistadors

learnthatTenochtitlanisagreatfortressandcanonlybeenteredbyfourcauseways

thatconnectittothemainland.12Fromthiscity,theMexicacontrolledalargearea

ofMesoamericaviaintimidationandfear.TheSpanishnoticethiscontrolontheir

journeyfromthecoastandarewellreceivedinmanytownsbecauseMoctezuma

hasorderedthelordstofeedandsheltertheSpaniards.WhattheSpanishdonot

realizeisthesemenofMoctezumaarealsospiessenttolearnasmuchastheycan

aboutthesenewcomersandreportbacktohim.13Inthisway,Moctezumahadsetup

quitealargeintelligencesystemthroughouthisconqueredlandsbythetimeofthe

Spanisharrival.HehadinfactknownabouttheSpaniardssincetheyhadfirst

landedontheYucatanPeninsulayearsearlier.Hisagentswereimmediately

informedofCortés’arrivalandcametoobserveandpaintpicturesofthe

newcomersandbringthisinformationbacktoMoctezuma.14

BasedonnumerousSpanishnarrativesrecordingtheirmarchinland,

Moctezumabegantorealizethatdespitetheirsmallnumber(onlyafewhundred

                                                            11Aguilar,144‐145.12Cortés,47,Díaz,24,117.13Cortés,50,55‐56.;Díaz,69.14Díaz,72‐73.

 

 

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menaccompaniedCortés),theSpaniardswerecontinuingalongrelatively

unscathedandhaddefeatedanumberofMexicantributaries.Byanalyzinghis

behavior,itisclearthatMoctezumabegantoseetheSpaniardsasalegitimatethreat

thatneededtobedealtwith.Mexicamessengersemphaticallyencouragedthe

Spaniardstoturnaroundandgobacktowheretheycamefrom.15Moctezuma

offeredtheKingofSpainanannualtributeandagreedtobecomeoneofhisvassals,

butonlyiftheSpaniardsdidnotenterhiscity.16Manyscholars,andgenerationsof

indigenousMexicans,haveperceivedtheseactionsascowardlyandnotfitbehavior

forastrongrulerofanempire.However,placingtheseactionsinthecontextof

Mesoamericanhistory,whereconqueredpeopleoftenbecamevassalsandpaid

tribute,hisbehaviorisinfactveryappropriate.IntheworldoftheMexica(who

themselveswereusuallytheconquerorsandnottheconquered),ifagroupof

peoplegaveintoaconqueringforcewithoutafight,thelocalrulerswouldgetto

keeptheirownauthorityandwouldusuallyretainsomeautonomyinreturnforthe

paymentofayearlytribute.Iftheyputupafight,however,theMexicawould

slaughtertheirwarriors,takecaptivesandslaves,deposetherulers,anddesecrate

theirtemplesandhomes.17So,forMoctezuma,thiswasnotcowardicebutan

appropriatereactiontoathreatandanintelligentmoveofself‐preservation.

AsMoctezumacontinuedtostrugglewithhowbesttohandlethisnovel

situation,theSpaniardscontinuedtheirjourneytowardTenochtitlanand

                                                            15Díaz,75‐76.16Cortés,69.17Tapia,24.

 

 

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encounteredpeoplealongthewayfromnumerousMesoamericancity‐states.Some

oftheseareaswerealliesoftheMexicaandpaidanannualtribute,otherswere

subjectstatesthathadbeenbrutallyconquered,andanotherfewwereunconquered

regionsandfierceenemiesofthepeopleofTenochtitlan.Regardlessoftheir

relationshipwiththeMexica,otherindigenousgroupstheSpanishencountered

usuallydescribedMoctezumaassomeonetoberespected,albeitusuallygrudgingly.

WhilestayinginoneofMoctezuma’ssubjecttowns,Cortésaskedthelocallordifhe

wasMoctezuma’svassal.Themanwasapparentlyverytakenbackbythisquestion

“andaskedwhowasnotavassalofMutezuma,meaningthathereheiskingofthe

wholeworld.”18

However,notalltownstheSpaniardspassedthroughfeltthisway,andthis

wasoneofthemostcrucialaspectsofSpanishConquest:MoctezumaandtheMexica

hadenemies,andlotsofthem.EvenpeoplewhowerevassalsoftheMexica,people

fromCempoala,Cholula,Chalco,andmanyothers,complainedbitterlytothe

SpaniardsabouttheirtreatmentatthehandsofMoctezuma.Some,likethe

Cempoalans,hadrecentlybeenconquered;alltheirvaluablemetalsandjewelshad

beentaken,theirpeopleweredemandedforsacrificeinTenochtitlan,andthey

feareddoinganythingagainstMoctezuma’swishes.19Inadditiontotributaries

chafingunderimperialcontrol,theMexicaalsohadsomefierceenemies,most

notablytheTlaxcalans.TheMexicaandTlaxcalanshadalong,bitterhistoryand

                                                            18Cortés,56.19Cortés,50‐51.,Díaz,88,101.

 

 

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Cortésknewhowtomanipulatetheserivalries.BydoingsowiththeTlaxcalans,he

securedthemostvaluableassettheSpaniardswouldhaveintheconquestof

Tenochtitlan:thousandsandthousandsofindigenousallies.Cortés,throughoutthe

periodofinitialcontact,playedonthegrievancesandrivalriesabundantin

Mesoamericainordertogaintheupperhand.WithapromiseofSpanishprotection,

alargenumberofindigenouscity‐statesagreedtoallythemselveswithCortésashe

madehiswaytowardsTenochtitlan.20

FromtheseSpanishaccountswelearnthattheMexicadidnothavedirect

controlovertheirsubjectstatesandmanyoftheirterritoriesmaintainedsome

autonomyintheirowncommunities.Howevertherewassomeformofcontrol

whichwaswidespreadandcouldnotbeescaped,andthatwasfear.Whenanalyzing

thesesources,itiseasytocomparetheimperialnatureandadministrationofthe

MexicawiththatofthecontemporarySpaniards.Spain,before,during,andafterthe

Conquest,isnottheSpainwethinkabouttodayandwasdefinitelynotaltogether

united.Mostcitiesduringthisperiodwerepredominantlyself‐governingandself‐

sufficient.Acityhaditsownarmytodefendthesurroundingterritoriesit

controlled,itsownadministrationandorganization,anditsownrulerswhowere

electedeachyearbyacitycouncil.21Asanexample,thecityofBarcelonahadthe

powertolevytaxesonitssubjectpeoplewithoutthepermissionoftheking.22Local

governorswereabletokeepsomeorallofthetaxestheycollected,whichmade                                                            20 Cortés, 50, 51.; Díaz, 88, 101. 21Hilgarth,Vol.1,80.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,65.;Mariéjol,282.22Hilgarth,Vol.2,65.

 

 

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themextremelywealthy,andalsoallowedthemtopayforcityupkeep.Rulers

generallyrespectedtheprivilegestheybestowedupontheirgovernors,which

allowedthesenoblementohavealmostroyalhonorsincludingtheirowndomains

andvassals,inreturnforobediencetotheultimateseatofpower.23

OneofthemoststrikingsimilaritiesbetweentheSpanishandMexicawas

theirconqueringmentalityandhowtheyrewardedtheirloyal,noblesubjects.In

Mesoamerica,Mexicakingsgavenewlyconqueredlandstotheircloserelationsand

fiercestwarriors.InSpainduringtheReconquista,newlyacquiredlandswere

likewisegiventopeopleofhighrankwhohaddistinguishedthemselvesinwar.The

nobility,whohadtheirownminiroyalcourtsandjurisdictionovertheirsubject

landsandpeople,dominatedcityadministrationinbothsocieties.Theselocal

governorsweretreatedinawaythatfittheirpositionaspseudo‐rulersandwere

surroundedbypeoplewhoservedthemandtreatedthemwithappropriate

deference.24Thesenoblemenwerenotonlygivenlands,titles,andpower,butalso

manyotherprivilegesincludingtax‐exemption.Theyweregenerallynotjudgedas

harshlyforcrimesandwerenotallowedtobetortured.Inreturn,thesenobleswere

responsiblefortheupkeepoftheircityandweretaskedwithlookingafterthe

wellbeingoftheirsubjects.Theyhadtheirownprivatearmies,whichwereused

mainlyforlocalprotection,butwerealsoattheserviceofthecrowniftheywere

calledtowar.However,becausethesecitieswereruledastheirownmini‐states,

                                                            23Mariéjol,272,277.24Hilgarth,Vol.1,63.;Mariéjol,247,266,280.

 

 

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therewasalotofrivalrybetweencompetingnobilityforpowerandprivatewars

betweencitieswasseenasrelativelynormal.Thecitieswereunitedintheir

reverencetotheCrown,butnotunitedwithoneanother.25Sometimesthenobility

woulduniteinrebellionagainsttheCrownandthepeopleandsoldiersofthecities

generallyfollowedtheleadoftheirrespectiverulersratherthanmaintainingan

allegiancetotheSpanishmonarchs.26Whenexaminedinthisway,itseemsthatthe

Spanishrulersdidnothavedirectcontrolovertheirterritories,andruledindirectly

inawaysimilartothepracticesseeninMexico.RivalriesbetweenSpanishnobility

mimickedtherivalryseenbetweencity‐statesinMesoamerica.Inbothinstances

therewasalotoflocalautonomyandthefirstandmostimportantloyaltywasthat

toone’sowncommunity.

BothSpanishandMexicarulersdidnothavecomplete,centralizedcontrol

overtheirterritories.Theydesignatedmenofrankastheirgovernorstorulemany

oftheirterritoriesforthem.UnliketheMexica,whohadanestablishedroyalcapital

city,theSpanishdidnotyethaveacapitalbutmovedaroundbetweenmajorcities

throughouttheirland.Theroyalcourt,duringthisperiod,wasvirtuallyamoving

cityanditsceremoniesandgovernmentwereheldwherevertherulerhappenedto

beatthetime.ThiswasacommonmedievalpracticeofEuropeankingswhichhad

thepurposeofbringingtheroyalfamilyintocloserproximitywithmoreofits

                                                            25Hilgarth,Vol.1,60.26Hilgarth,Vol.2,73.

 

 

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subjectsinordertoquellrebellionsandmaintainloyalty.27Incomparison,the

Mexicausedfearofattack,whichtheirpowerfulmilitaryinstilled,astheirformof

controlandtherulerstayedmostlyinhiscapitalcityexceptwhenatwar.Whenthe

Spanishmovedcourttoanewlocation,theyestablishedtheroyalgovernment,fora

time,inthatcity,butwhentheylefttheresponsibilitiesandgovernmentfellbackto

thelocalnobilityandruler.28Insum,bothsocietiesexercisedarelativelyun‐

centralizedcontroloftheirterritories.Althoughtheyhadthegeneralobedienceof

eachcity,localgovernorsweretherulersoftheirownsmallerstatesandwere

lookedonasroyaltyandtheholdersofallthecontrolbythepeopleoftheir

community.

ARoyalWelcome:FirstImpressionsofLakeTexcocoandthecityofTenochtitlan

Inthissectionmorethananyother,itisdifficulttodoaside‐by‐side

comparisonoftheMexicaandtheSpaniards.TheSpanishdescriptionsoftheirfirst

glimpsesofTenochtitlanaredescribedindetailinalmostallofthechronicles.We

donothaveacounterpartofthesedescriptionsfromMesoamericanchroniclers

becauseofthefewMexicathatweretakentoSpainintheearlyyears,norecordof

theirfirstimpressionsofSpainandEuropeancitieshasbeenfound.Whatcanbe

usedinsteadasacomparisontoolforthispartofthechapterarethecomparisons

thataremadebytheSpanishchroniclersthemselvesthatdescribethesimilarities

betweenSpanishandMesoamericancities.Spanishconquistadorsreadilycompared

                                                            27Hilgarth,Vol.1,51.;Mariéjol,238,243.28Edwards,135.

 

 

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TenochtitlananditspeopletoSpainandotherEuropeancities.Cortéshimself

describedthecityinthefollowingway:

ThisgreatcityofTemixtitan[sic]isbuiltonthesaltlake…Therearefourartificialcausewaysleadingtoit…ThecityitselfisasbigasSevilleorCórdoba.Themainstreetsareverywideandverystraight;someoftheseareontheland,buttherestandallthesmalleronesarehalfonland,halfcanals…Allthestreetshaveopeningsinplacessothatthewatermaypassfromonecanaltoanother…Thecityhasmanysquareswheretradingisdoneandmarketsareheldcontinuously.ThereisalsoonesquaretwiceasbigasthatofSalamanca…morethansixtythousandpeoplecomeeachdaytobuyandsell,whereeverykindofmerchandiseproducedintheselandsisfound.29

HowtheMexicawouldhavereactedtoencounteringaSpanishcityinthesameway

issomethingwedonotknow.WouldtheyhaveregardedSpanishcitieswith

amazementthewaytheSpaniardsregardedTenochtitlan?Perhaps.ButtheSpanish

reactionsdosuggestahugeappreciationandanimpressiverespectforwhatthe

peopleofcentralMexicohadcreated.Itmusthaveindeedbeenamagnificentsight

tobeholdifmenwhohadseenConstantinople,Paris,Granada,andRomedescribed

itinthisway.

Ofallthechroniclers,BernalDíazdescribestheSpaniards’firstimpressions

inthemostdetailedandentertainingways.Whentheyfirstcamewithinsightof

LakeTexcocoandthecitiesbuiltuponitanditsshores,Díazsays,“wewereamazed

andsaidthatitwasliketheenchantmentstheytellofinthelegendofAmandis,on

accountofthegreattowersandcuesandbuildingsrisingfromthewater,andall

                                                            29Cortés,102‐103.

 

 

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builtofmasonry.Andsomeofsoldiersevenaskedwhetherthethingsthatwesaw

werenotadream.”30ThefirstcityonthelakethattheSpaniardsstayedinwas

Chalcowheretheywerehousedinanewlybuiltdwellingsolargethatitwasableto

comfortablyhousealltheSpaniardsplusthenativeallies,whichCortésestimatedto

bearoundfourthousandatthispoint.31Continuingtheirjourney,theyhaltednextat

Iztapalapa,alakesidecityruledbyMoctezuma’sbrotherCuitlahuac.Thiscitywas

ontheedgeofLakeTexcocowherehalfofitwasbuiltonlandandtheotherhalfon

water.TheSpanishwerelodgedinspaciousmulti‐storypalacesthatwerebuiltof

stoneandwood,anddecoratedwithstonecarvings,statues,paintings,and

elaboratecloths.InsidethepalaceofIztapalapawasasplendidgardenwithalarge

diversityoftreesandflowers,andapondthatwasconnectedtothelakebyan

openinginthebuildingsothatthepalacecouldbeenteredbywater.32

FromIztapalapa,theSpanishcontinuedtowardsMexicobycrossingalong

man‐madecausewaythatstretchedfromthelakeshoreallthewaytoTenochtitlan.

Díazagaingivesusafirst‐handaccountoftheawestruckSpanish:“Gazingonsuch

wonderfulsights,wedidnotknowwhattosay,orwhetherwhatappearedbeforeus

wasreal,forononeside,ontheland,thereweregreatcities,andinthelakeeverso

manymore…andinfrontofusstoodthegreatCityofMexico.”33Thefactthat

Tenochtitlanwasbuiltinthemiddleofthelakenotonlymadeitunique,

                                                            30Díaz,190‐191.31Cortés,79.32Cortés,82‐83.;Díaz,191.33Díaz,192.

 

 

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captivatinglybeautiful,andawe‐inspiring.Italsomadeitawell‐defendedfortress,

whichtheSpaniardsweresoontofindout.Alongthelongcausewaysweredeep,

widegapscoveredwithwoodenbridges.Duringanattack,thesebridgescouldbe

removedtokeepenemiesoutor,aswhathappenedtotheSpanish,toprevent

enemiesfromescaping.Enteringthisformidablecity,Aguilarclaimedthathecould

seeoveronehundredthousandhousesinthecity,andapopulationthishugewas

notonlyimpressivetotheSpaniards,itwasalsoterrifying.34

Reachingthelakesidecities,theareaunderdirectMexicacontrol,gavethe

SpaniardstheirfirstlookatthesplendorofMexicanceremonialpractices.These

menofhumblebirthinSpainwerenowthesubjectsofanelaborateroyalwelcome.

AlthoughtheymayhavewitnessedthistypeofroyalprocessionbytheSpanish

nobility,theconquistadorshaddefinitelynoteverbeenapartofsomethingso

grand.AstheSpaniardsapproachedthecityofTenochtitlan,thelakewasfilledwith

canoesofonlookersandtherooftopswerefullofeagercitizenshopingtowitness

thesemysteriousnewcomers.Twocolumnsofpeopleapproachedthe

conquistadors,onealongeachsideofthecauseway,andalldressedinawaythat

suggestedtheywerepartofthenobility.Betweenthecolumnsofrichlydressed

lordscameanelaboratelitterdrapedwithembroideredcottonmantlescarrying

Moctezuma.Supportedbythelordsofhiscity,Moctezuma’sroyallitterapproached,

andtheSpaniardsnoticedthatallthepeople,includingthenobility,avertedtheir

eyesinrespect.Precedingtheemperorcameamanwithalongstafftosignalto                                                            34Aguilar,146.

 

 

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everyonethatMoctezumawasapproachingandbehindthelittercameanother

entourageofgreatMexicanoblemen.WhenMoctezumadescendedfromhislitterto

greetCortés,thegroundwassweptinfrontofhimashewentalong.Hewaseasyto

pickoutinthecrowdashewasmorerichlydressedthananyother,andwasthe

onlyoneallowedtowearsandalsonhisfeet.Thetwomenexchangedgiftsamicably,

butwhenCortésleanedintoembraceMoctezuma,theMexicalordsstoppedhim

immediatelybecausetheybelievedthattouchingthebodyoftheiremperorwasa

greatindignity.35

AsIsaidbefore,itisimpossibleheretodoacomparisonoffirstimpressions

sincewedonothaveanypersonaldescriptionsbyMexicapeopleofSpanishcities.

However,somecomparisonmaybedoneabouttheactualcitiesthemselves.In

general,SpanishcitieswerenotquiteasgrandasthoseofcentralMexico.Therewas

definitelynotaSpanishcitythatwasasuniqueandremarkableasTenochtitlan.

ThiscanbewidelyattributedtothefactthatSpaindidnothaveacapital,butthe

rulersinsteadmovedaroundfromcitytocity.Thus,theirroyaltyandsplendorwas

displayedmorethroughclothinganddecoration,ratherthanthrougharchitecture.

Jewelsofgoldandpreciousstonesandextravagantclothingwerecommoninboth

societies,butfortheSpanishmonarchs,thiswastheirmainwaytoshowtheir

superiorityoverpeopleoflowerrank.36InSpain,theidealking“shouldbeGod’s

imageandrepresentativeonearth…Heshouldstandoutvisually…bybeingmore

                                                            35Aguilar,146.;Cortés,84.;Díaz,193.;Tapia,38.36Hilgarth,Vol.1,52.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,48.

 

 

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finelydressedthanhiscourtiers.”37AlthoughwrittenaboutSpanishmonarchs,this

quoteisequallyapplicabletothesocietyoftheMexicaandcouldeasilybeusedto

describetheideaofroyaltyinMesoamerica.

Withregardstocitylayout,theidealcityinSpainwastobesquare,with

straightstreetslaidoutinanorganized,efficientway.However,manySpanishcities,

especiallythoseconqueredfromtheMoors,werebuilthaphazardly,withno

organization,andcrookednarrowstreets.ThecityofTenochtitlan,incomparison,

wasbuiltonanislandandunlikeanycityintheSpanishterritories.Itwasnot

square,likeanidealSpanishcity,butwasextremelywelllaidoutandorganized,

withstraight,well‐kept,andcleanroads.AlthoughsomecitiesinSpain,suchas

BarcelonaandValencia,werevisuallystrikingtoforeigntravelersofthetime,the

awewithwhichtheSpanishconquistadorsdescribeTenochtitlanandothercentral

Mexicancitiesshowstheircomparability,ifnotexcellence,whencomparedwiththe

citiesinSpain.38

IntheSpanishterritories,townsandcitieswerenotextremelypopulous

duringthistimesincetheyhadaveryagriculturalandruralsocietythatwas

leftoverfromfeudaltimes.Houseswerenotbuiltinanyregularalignmentand

streetswerenotverywellkept,oftenmakingtraveldifficult.However,duringthe

reignoftheCatholicMonarchs,IsabellaandFerdinand,whowererulingatthetime

ofColumbus’discovery,architectureandcityplanningwerebecomingincreasingly

                                                            37Hilgarth,Vol.1,50.38Hilgarth,Vol.2,66,67.

 

 

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moreimportant.Themonarchsbuiltoversevenhundredbridgesduringtheirreign

andincreasinglyelaboratearchitecturebegantobeimportantforsecularbuildings,

whereasbeforethistimeitwasreservedmainlyforreligiousestablishments.39So

althoughcitieshadnotbeenanimportantpartofMedievalSpain,andastonishing

architecturalfeatswerestillanovelidea,thesethingswerebeginningtogain

importanceduringtheyearsbeforetheConquest.JustlikeinMexico,Spanish

societywasstillcomingtogetherandremarkablecitieswereahugepartofthisnew

process.

‘BeholdtheSplendor’:TheArchitecture,People,andCityofTenochtitlan

AfterbeingwelcomedintoTenochtitlan,theSpaniardswerelodged

magnificentlyinapalacethathadbelongedtoMoctezuma’sfather,Axayacatl,the6th

EmperoroftheMexica.Thenewcomerswereescortedtothepalacebytwoof

Moctezuma’snephews,theLordofTexcocoandtheLordofCoyoacan.Thepalace

waslargeenoughtohousetheentireSpanishentourageandwasdecoratedwith

elaborateclothcanopies.40Thiswelcomingofforeignleadersintothecapitalcity

wasnotanoveloccurrence.ManytimesintheMexica’shistory,foreignlords,both

alliesandenemies,hadbeenwelcomedintothecityandhousedinroyalpalacesfor

diplomaticandcelebratoryreasons.TheSpaniards,intheeyesoftheMexica,were

simplyanotherforeigngroupandweretreatedassuch.Theyclaimedthattheywere

                                                            39Mariéjol,227.40Aguilar,146.;Cortés,85.;Díaz,194.;Tapia,38.

 

 

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emissariesofagreatkingandsotheyweretreatedthewayforeignemissarieswere

customarilytreatedinthecityofTenochtitlan.

LikeEuropeankings,Moctezumahadmanypalacesandpersonalresidences

athisdisposalbothinsideandoutsidethecapitalcity.41Hehadpalacesin

Tenochtitlanwheremostofhisbusinesswasconductedandwherehereceived

foreignanddomesticentitiesandheldcourt.Hislandholdingsoutsidethecitywere

moreforpleasurepurposesincludingaprivateislandwhereonlyhewasallowedto

hunt.42Inthecityhehadahousewhereallofhistributerecordswerekeptand

anothertwothatwerefullofeverykindofweapon,manyelaboratelydecorated

withstonesandgold.43Healsohadapersonalaviarythathousedeagles,parrots,

ducks,andallothertypesofbirdsfoundinMesoamerica.Thesebirdswereusedfor

Moctezuma’spleasuresohecouldgovisitandenjoythemwheneverheliked,but

theywerealsokeptfortheirplumage,whichwasusedtodecorateroyalclothing.44

Anotherhousekeptmanyotherwildanimalsincludinglions,tigers,wolves,and

snakes,andwasusedasapersonalzooforMoctezumatovisit.Inordertocarefor

theseanimals,overthreehundredmenweregiventhisjobastheirofficialcourt

position.45Moctezumahadanotherhouseinwhichhekeptdeformedorunusual

                                                            41Cortés,91.42Cortés,91,Díaz,23843Díaz,211.44Díaz,212.;Tapia,40.45Cortés,110.;Díaz,213.;Tapia,40.

 

 

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menandwomenincludinghunchbacks,dwarfs,andalbinos,whichwerealsocared

forbyhundredsofindividualsandusedforentertainment.46

HisresidentialpalacesinsidethecityweresomagnificentthatCortéssaid

thatdescribingtheirgrandeurandexcellencewasimpossiblebutthat“inSpain

thereisnothingtocompare.”47Aguilarsaidthathehadwalkedaroundoneof

Moctezuma’spalacesfourdifferenttimes,simplytomarvelatit,andhadexploredit

forhoursbuthadneverbeenabletoseeitallbecauseofitsgrandsize.48Intheroyal

bedchambers,“therewerecanopiedbedswithmattressesmadeoflargemantles,

andpillowsofleatherandtreefiber;goodquilts,andadmirablewhitefurrobes;

alsoverywellmadewoodenseats,andfinematting.”49Mostofthesehouses

containedlavishgardenswithalltypesofflowersandtreesorganizedaround

walkways,andpondsfilledwithfishandsmallbirds.Balconiesandcorridors

surroundedtheseindoorparkssothatMoctezumacouldwalkaroundandenjoy

themathisleisure.50

Inadditiontotheroyalresidences,theMexicahadahugemarketplaceheld

dailyintheneighboringislandtownofTlatelolco,whichhadbeenincorporatedinto

thecapitalcityyearsbefore.BernalDíazwas“astoundedatthenumberofpeople

andthequantityofmerchandisethatitcontained,andatthegoodorderandcontrol

                                                            46Cortés,111.;Tapia,40‐41.47Cortés,109.48Aguilar,180.49Aguilar,147.50Cortés,110.;Díaz,214.

 

 

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thatwasmaintained,”fortheSpaniards“hadneverseensuchathingbefore.”51All

typesofgoodscouldbefoundatthismarket,asitwasacentraltradinghubforallof

Mesoamerica.TheSpaniardssawcloth,animalskins,vegetablesandanimalmeat

forconsumption,herbs,timber,paper,tobacco,preciousmetals,andpottery.Itwas

allwellcontrolledbyasmallgroupofleadingmenwhosawtothemaintenanceof

themarketplace.Localofficialspatrolledthemarket,inspectedthemerchandise,

andreportedanyilldoingtotheselocalmagistrateswhopresidedoverthe

marketplacefromabuildingsimilartoacourthouse.52

ThegreatpyramidandreligiouscomplexofTenochtitlanwasalsoasightto

behold.Themaintemplewasreachedbyclimbingoverahundredstonestepsand

wassurroundedbytwolarge,stonewalls.Insidethewallswasanimpressivepaved

courtarea,whichaccordingtoSpanishchronicleswaslargerthantheplazaof

SalamancainSpainandcouldfitinitsprecinctatownoffivehundredinhabitants.53

Inthiscomplexwereanumberoftallbeamswherehumanskullsfromsacrificial

victimsweredisplayed,whichofcoursedisturbedtheSpaniardsgreatly.Fromone

account,itisestimatedthattherewereover136,000skullsondisplayinthe

religiouscomplex.54Fromthetopofthetemple,thewholecityofTenochtitlancould

beseenandDíaz,inhisloquaciouswaydescribesthisexperience:

                                                            51Díaz,215.52Aguilar,178‐179.;Cortés,103‐105.;Díaz,216‐217.53Aguilar,179.;AnnonymousConquistador,168,175.;Cortés,105.;Díaz,217.;Tapia,41.54Tapia,41‐42.

 

 

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Sowestoodlookingaboutus,forthathugeandcursedtemplestoodsohighthatfromitonecouldseeovereverythingverywell,andwesawthethreecausewayswhichledintoMexico,thatisthecausewayofIztapalapabywhichwehadenteredfourdaysbefore,andthatofTacuba,andthatofTepeaquilla,andwesawthefreshwaterthatcomesfromChapultepecwhichsuppliesthecity,andwesawthebridgesonthethreecausewayswhichwerebuiltatcertaindistancesapartthroughwhichthewaterofthelakeflowedinandoutfromonesidetotheother,andwebeheldonthatgreatlakeagreatmultitudeofcanoes,somecomingwithsuppliesoffoodandothersreturningloadedwithcargoesofmerchandise;andwesawthatfromeveryhouseofthatgreatcityandofalltheothercitiesthatwerebuiltinthewateritwasimpossibletopassfromhousetohouse,exceptbydrawbridgeswhichweremadeofwoodorincanoes;andwesawinthosecitiesCuesandoratoriesliketowersandfortressesandallgleamingwhite,anditwasawonderfulthingtobehold.55

Aroundthelargepyramidandwithinthereligiousprecinctwereanumberof

beautifulbuildingswhichwereelegantandelaboratelydecoratedhousesforthe

religiousmentolivein.56AccordingtoTapia,overfivethousandmen,similarto

Spanishpriests,livedandservedinthistemplecomplexandwererankedinaway

thatmimickedtheClericalhierarchyinSpain,withthehighpriestbeingtheonethat

alltheothersobeyed.57

Inadditiontotheroyalandreligiousdwellings,therewerenumerousother

magnificentlivingquartersthatcaughttheeyeoftheSpaniards.Thesehouseswere

largerthanthatoftheaveragecitizen,hadmultiplestories,andbeautifulroomsand

gardens.ThesewerethepersonalhousesofnoblelordswhoservedMoctezuma.

BothlordswhopermanentlyresidedinTenochtitlanandthosewhogoverned

                                                            55Díaz,218.56Cortés,105.;Díaz,224.57Tapia,41.

 

 

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anotherterritory,suchastherulerofTexcoco,hadhousesinthecapitalwherethey

wererequiredtoresideforaperiodoftimeeachyear.Forcinghisleadingmento

spendpartoftheiryearnearhiscourtandinhiscapitalcitygaveMoctezumaa

betterrelationshipwithhisnobilityandalsolethimkeeptabsonsomeofthemost

powerfulandimportantmeninhisland.58ThiswassimilartoEuropeannoblemen

havingahouseinthecity,orroomsattheroyalcourt,wheretheystayedforpartof

theyearinadditiontoahomeinanothercityorthecountryside.Manysonsofthe

nobility,domesticandforeign,wereintheserviceofMoctezumaandlivedeitherin

theroyalpalaceorhadaresidencenearby.Thisagaingavetheemperorsome

controlofoutlyingterritories.Theseyoungmenwouldgrowuptobegovernorsor

lordsofsubjectdomainsandwouldalwayshaveaconnectiontothecapitalcityand

itsemperorsincetheywerebroughtupinhisservice.59Rulersofbothsocieties

usedthissystemofacentralroyalcourttoimposecontrolovertheirpowerfuland

dangerousnobility.

AnotheraspectofMexicasocietythattheSpanishchroniclersdescribedin

splendiddetailwerethepeoplethemselves.Cortéssaysitbeautifullyinoneofhis

letterstotheKingofSpain:

Thepeopleofthiscityaredressedwithmoreeleganceandaremorecourtlyintheirbearingthanthoseoftheothercitiesandprovinces,andbecauseMutezuma[sic]andallthosechieftains,hisvassals,arealwayscomingtothecity,thepeoplehavemoremannersandpoliteness…IwillsayonlythatthesepeoplelivealmostlikethoseinSpain…andconsideringthattheyare

                                                            58Aguilar,180.;Cortés,107.59Cortés,109.

 

 

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barbarousandsofarfromtheknowledgeofGodandcutofffromallcivilizednations,itistrulyremarkabletoseewhattheyhaveachieved.60

AguilarsaidthatthepeopleofTenochtitlanwerethemostcleverandskillfulpeople

intheworldandcouldpickupanytaskafteronlyobservingitonetime.Becauseof

thisthereweremanydifferenttradesthatthecommonpeoplecouldmakealiving

atandtherefore,therewerevariedgoodsandservicesavailablethecitiesand

everyoneseemedtohavetheirownspecificplaceinthiswell‐organizedsociety.61

MexicarulersandthemonarchsofSpainseemtohavehadsimilardesires

whenitcametotheirpalaces.Althoughtheirmovementsdiffered–themonarchsof

SpainmovedfrompalacetopalaceandtheMexicarulerstendedtostayin

Tenochtitlan–bothhadnumerousroyalresidencesthatwererichlydecoratedand

filledwiththingstopleaseanddivertthemonarchs.Royalpalacesinbothsocieties

wereusednotonlytohousetherulersbutalsotoentertainguestsandtakecareof

importantmattersofstate,suchasreceivingforeignembassies.Thesepalaceswere

usedinbothsocietiestobringupnoblechildrenandteachthempropercourt

etiquette.Moctezumadidthisbyusingsonsofnoblemenashisprimaryservants.

QueenIsabellainSpainraisedthedaughtersofnoblefamiliesinherownhousehold

andgavethemtheeducationthatwasrequiredofladiesofnoblebirth.Asnon‐

religiousarchitecturewasbecomingmoreimportanttotheSpanishmonarchsinthe

yearsprecedingtheConquest,thedecorationoftheirpalacesbecameasimportant

                                                            60Cortés,108.61Aguilar,181.

 

 

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asclothingforthemtodistinguishtheirrank.Bydecoratingthepalacesfromfloor

toceilingwithpaintingsandtapestries,arulercouldshowhisorherauthorityto

peoplewhoweredeemedimportantenoughtovisittheroyalresidence.62From

theirmanyrecentconquestsintheIberianPeninsula,theSpanishmonarchshad

alsoinheritedbeautifullybuiltandlavishlydecoratedMoorishpalaces,whichthey

happilyusedtoholdtheirroyalcourtandstageelaboratecelebrations.63

Havingpleasantdiversionsfrommattersofstatewereimportanttothe

rulersofbothsocieties.AmajorpasttimeofMoctezumawasalsothemostpopular

diversionoftheSpanishrulers.Spanishrulerslovedtohuntandwereraisedtodo

sofromaveryyoungagesincehunting,whichwasrelatedtotheartsofwarfare,

wasseenasoneofthekeypartsofanoble’seducation.64Otherroyaldiversions

includedthosefoundwithinthewallsoftheroyalpalaces.Similartotheroyal

residencesofTenochtitlan,theSpanishrulers’privatehousesincludedelaborate

gardenswithinitswallsandmanyofthemcontainedtheirownprivatezoos.The

Spaniardsimportedlions,leopards,wolves,camelsandotheranimalstofillthese

privatemenageries,manyofwhichcamefromAlexandria.65

Twootheraspectsofarchitectureandcityplanningarealsoremarkably

similarinthesocietiesoftheSpanishandtheMexica.Bothculturesputahuge

emphasisontradeandreligion,tokeeptheirterritoriesprosperousandtheirgods

                                                            62Hilgarth,Vol.1,51,56.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,50‐51.;Mariéjol,237.63Mariéjol,244‐245.64Hilgarth,Vol.1,51,56,62.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,51.65Díaz,205.

 

 

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happy.LiketheMexica,theSpanishalsohadregularlyheldandhighlyregulated

markets.AnofficialknownastheMustacafpresidedovertheSpanishmarketsand

madesuretheywererunlegallyandsmoothly.Heinspectedthegoodsforsale,

controlledtheprices,andmadesuretheguildswerefollowingCrownandcity

regulations.Mostofthetimethesemarketswereheldinlargesquaresorplazasin

thecenterofthemajorcities.Withthegrowthofcities,theseplazasbecameeven

moreimportant,andmanymore,largersquareswerecreatedduringthereignof

JuanII(1406‐1454),IsabellaofCastile’sfather.Theywereusednotonlyfor

markets,butalsoforprocessionsandotherentertainmentssuchasplaysand

tournaments.66

Thedominanceofreligionwasalsoveryapparentinthearchitectureofboth

SpanishandMesoamericancities.InTenochtitlan,themaintempleandsurrounding

religiouscomplexdominatedtheskylineandwasinthemostcentrallylocatedand

importantpartofthecity.InSpain,religiousbuildingswerethemostbeautifuland

elaborateuntilthefifteenthcenturywhenseculararchitecturebecameimportantas

well.IntheSpanishroyalcourt,religionwasthecenterofeverydaylife.Therewasa

RoyalChapelinmostpalacesthatwasusedfordailyactivitiessuchasMassand

Hours,whichwerecelebratedthroughouttheyear.Itwasalsothesceneofreligious

celebrations,includingChristmas,Easter,andHolyWeek.CelebrationsoftheVirgin

MaryandotherSaintsalsofilledupthereligiouscalendarsoftheCatholicmonarchs.

                                                            66Hilgarth,Vol.1,80.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,67,73.

 

 

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Attheseservices,offeringswerealwaysmade,usuallyintheformofmoneyorgifts

tothechurch.67

Withinthechurch,thereligiousmenmadeuptheirownsocietyandhadtheir

ownroyaltyandclasssystem.Therewasastricthierarchyinthechurch,which

resembledthesecularhierarchyofkings,nobles,andcommoners.TheArchbishop

ofToledowasthemostimportantchurchmaninSpainandrankedonlybelowthe

kingandqueeninhiswealthandpower.Belowhimwerethenoblemenofthe

church,thehighclergy.Thishigherechelonofreligioussocietywasgenerallymade

upofmenofnoblebirth.Forexample,KingFerdinand’sbastardsonAlonsowasthe

ArchbishopofZaragosa.Thesetitleswereofteninherited;inthecaseofAlonso,his

Archbishopricwaspassedtohisillegitimatesonafterhisdeath.Youngersonsof

kingsandothernobles,whowerelowerinthelineofsuccession,oftenenteredthe

churchastheirsourceofpowerandwealthandweregivenprioritywhenchurch

officeswererewarded.68

Overall,SpanishandMexicacitiessharedmanysimilarities.Thetwomost

importantthingsinbothsocietiesweretherulersandreligion.RulersinSpain

showedtheirgrandeurprimarilybywearingfancyclothing,butelaborately

decoratedpalacesalsobecameanimportantdistinguishingfactor.InMexico,the

emperoralsodressedinafashionthatdesignatedhisrankandmadesurethathis

palaceswerethemostexceptionalofalltheresidentialbuildingsinTenochtitlan.

                                                            67Edwards,130,132‐135.68Edwards,129‐130,132,134.;Hilgarth,Vol.1,108.;Mariéjol,251,254.

 

 

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Rulersinbothsocietiesenjoyedprivategardensandzoosintheirownpersonal

palaces,butalsorelishedescapingfromthecityforawhiletoenjoytheroyalpast

timeofhunting.Mainsquareswithwell‐regulatedmarketsmadeitpossibleforthe

generalpublictohaveaccesstoallthegoodsofthelandandplazasalsogavethema

placetocelebratemajorfestivalsandcatchglimpsesofroyalprocessions.Aboveall

otherbuildingsstoodoutthosededicatedtoreligion.Religiouscomplexeswerethe

homeofmanymenofrank,andtheleadingnoblesoccupiedthehighestpositionsin

religioussociety.ThehierarchyofSpanishroyalsocietywasreplicatedinthe

hierarchyofthechurchandthiswasseeninMexicoaswell.

AMesoamericanRoyalCourt:CourtlyGrandeurinTenochtitlan

ThecourtlypracticesoftheMexicawereveryelaborateandspecifically

adheredtoinawaythatechoedpracticesinEuropeatthetime.Moctezuma

receivedguests,suchasCortésinaspecialhallinhispalacewhereonlycertain

membersofMexicasocietywereallowedtogo.Inthisaudiencechamber,

Moctezumawasattendedtobyhisnephews,brothers,andothercloserelations.No

otherlords,howeverimportant,wereallowedtoenterthissacredspace.Thiswas

wherehereceivedCortésforthefirsttimeinthepalace,whichshowstheregardhe

heldfortheSpanishleader.InhispalaceMoctezumahadalargeguardtoprotect

andconversewithhim,whichwasmadeupofovertwohundrednoblemen.Mostof

thesemencametothepalaceeverydaybutwerekeptinseparaterooms,where

theyconductedbusinessamongstoneanother.Whentheydidenterthepresenceof

 

 

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theemperortheywererequiredtotakeofftheirrichlydecoratedclothesandtoput

onsomethingmoreplain.Theyhadtoentertheaudiencechamberbarefootand

withtheireyesloweredtowardsthegroundinreverenceandrespect.Theywould

bowthreetimesbeforespeakinganduponleavingthechamberwerenotpermitted

toturntheirbackontheking,butwereforcedtobackoutoftheroomwhilekeeping

theireyesontheground.69

Royalmealswerealsoelaborateaffairswiththeirownrulesandregulations.

Foreverymealtheroyalcookspreparedoverthirtydishes,whichwereplacedover

potterybrazierssothatthefoodwouldnotgetcold.Moctezumasatonalow,richly

decoratedstoolatalargetablecoveredwithbeautifulcloths,napkinsanddishware.

Beforeeatinghewasbroughtawaterbasintowashhishands,andwhenhebegan

toeatascreenwasputupinfrontofhimtogivehimprivacy.Hisfourchiefadvisors,

themenoftheroyalcounciloffour,kepthimcompanyduringhismealsandate

standingupatMoctezuma’sside.70Thetowelsheusedtodryhishandsandthe

platesandbowlsheatefromweresosacredthataftertheywereusedtheycould

neverbeusedagain.71Atthesemealstheresometimeswasentertainmentincluding

hunchbacks,jesters,acrobats,orotherperformances.WhenMoctezumawas

finishedwithhismealthetablewascleared,andMoctezuma’shandswerewashed

withgreatceremony.Afterthis,alltheothernoblemenintheantechamberswould

                                                            69Aguilar,147.;Cortés,111‐112.;Díaz,208‐209.70Cortés,111.‐112.;Díaz,209‐210.;Tapia,40.71Cortés,112.;Tapia,40.

 

 

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beabletoeat.Leftoversfromthenobles’mealsweregiventotheservantsand

entertainers.72

TheEmperorMoctezumahimselfwasextremelyhygienicandbathedtwo

timeseachday,whichmadehimmoreconcernedwithhiscleanlinessthanany

Europeanruler.Hehadmanywivesandmistresses,alldaughtersorniecesofother

great,noblelords.Thispracticeofpolygamywasreservedforonlymenofnoble

rank.Commonerswereonlyallowedtohaveonewifeandadulterywaspunishable

bydeath.Moctezumachangedclothesfourtimesadayandneverworethesame

clothestwice.Hisclothingwasbroughttohimwrappedinclothsothatitwouldnot

betouchedbythehandsofhisservants.73WheneverMoctezumaleftthepalace,he

alwaysdidsowithgreatpompandceremony.Hewouldexitthepalaceinarichly

decoratedlittercarriedbysomeofhisgreatlordsandnoblemen.Thisprocession

wasprecededbymencarryinglong,decoratedpolesthatsignifiedtoonlookersthat

theiremperorwasapproaching.Noonehepassedwasallowedtolookhiminthe

face.Thecitizensbowedtheirheadsorprostratedthemselvesuntilhislitterhad

passedby.74

EvenwhentheSpaniardstookMoctezumaprisoner,hewasstilltreatedina

mannerthatfithisposition.HewaswatchedoverbySpanishguardsbutwasstill

allowedtoholdcourtandhaveanyamusementorentertainmentthathewished.He

                                                            72Díaz,210‐211.73Aguilar,147.;Cortés,112.;Díaz,208.;Tapia,40.74Díaz,215,238.

 

 

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stillhadallofhisattendantsandcontinuedhisusualdailypractices,suchashis

twice‐dailybaths,elaboratemeals,andmeetingswithdomesticandforeignofficials.

Hecontinuedtoentertainhimselfwithbanquetsandotherelaboratefestivities.75

Fromhis“prison”hestillpunishedrebelMexicanobleswhoweretryingto

overthrowtheSpaniards,andreceivednewsaboutactivitiesinhisterritoriesthe

samewayasbefore.WhenanothergroupofSpaniardsreachedthecoast,withthe

aimofarrestingtherebelliousCortés,Moctezumaheardabouttheirlandingthree

daysbeforeCortés’menfoundout.76

Whileincaptivity,theSpanishseemedtoholdMoctezumainhighregard.

Fromtheirdescriptions,theyseemedtohavegenuinelylikedhimasapersonand

respectedhimasanoblemanofaroyalfamily.Díaz,whowasforatimeplacedasa

guardoverMoctezuma,describeshisimprisonmentinthefollowingway:

Wheneverwepassedbeforehim,evenifitwasCortéshimself,wedoffedourmailedcapsorhelmets…andhetreatedusallwithpoliteness…itwasnotnecessarytogiveorderstomanyofuswhostoodguardoverhimaboutthecivilitythatweoughttoshowtothisgreatcacique;hekneweachoneofusandevenknewournamesandourcharactersandhewassokindthattoallofushegavejewels…wheneverIwasonguard,orpassedinfrontofhim,Idoffedmyheadpiecewiththegreatestrespect.77

ThisrespectforMoctezumaisaveryimportantaspectoftheconquest.Notonlydid

theconquistadorsseemtomarvelathim,hiscity,anditspeople,buttheyalso

                                                            75Tapia,40.;Aguilar,147‐148.;Cortés,92.;Díaz,230‐231.76Díaz,243,257.77Díaz,233,236.

 

 

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seemedtogenerallylikeMoctezumaasaperson.Theyacknowledgedhimasa

legitimaterulerfromaroyalfamilyandtreatedhimassuch.ThisrespectforMexica

nobilityissignificantespeciallysinceitcarriedthroughtothepost‐Conquestyears

whereindigenouspeopleofroyaldescentweregivenhighpositionsinthecolonial

society.Thisaspectofpost‐Conquestsocietywillbediscussedmoreinthenext

chapter.

AsinMexico,allaspectsofcourtsocietyinSpainwereattendedtowiththe

upmostpompandceremony.Thegrandnessoftheroyalcourtwasmeanttoshock

andawe,butalsotoshowthemonarchs’powerandauthority.Othernobleshad

theirownpalacesaswell,whichweregenerallyasmaller,lessgrandversionofthe

royalcourt.ItwasveryimportantinSpanishsocietyforpeopletodressandact

accordingtotheirrankandnottodisplaythemselvesinawaythatwasabovetheir

currentstation.Forexample,inthefifteenthcentury,womenwiththerankof“lady”

couldweardresseswithtrainstwiceaslongasthoseofwomenwithoutatitleof

nobility.Mostnobletitleswereinherited,butthekinghadthepowertogranttitles

suchasduke,marquis,count,andbaronforexceptionalservice.Althoughcertain

clotheswereonlyallowedforthehighestmembersofsociety,noteventhehighest

rankingnoblewasallowedtooutshinethemonarch.78

AglitteringcourtlifethatisassociatedwithEuropeanroyaltyreallybeganto

developinSpainduringthereignofIsabellaandFerdinand.Isabellalovedhaving

                                                            78Hilgarth,Vol.2,48.;Mariéjol,268‐269.

 

 

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thenoblemenandladieswithheratcourtsoshecouldalwaysplayherroleas

queenwithasmuchpompassheliked.Herclosestservantsweremembersofthe

nobleclass,andmanygovernmentalofficesatcourtwerealsoreservedforthoseof

thearistocracy.Havingthesepeopleclosetoheratcourtwasnotonlyforvanity;it

alsohadadiplomaticpurpose.Keepingthenoblefamiliesatcourtandappointing

themtothebestofficesmeantthatnotonlycouldthemonarchskeeptheireyeson

themembersofthenobleclass,theycouldalsouseimportantpositionsasrewards

forloyalty.Havingaroyalcourtsocietywasawaytokeepsocietyasawhole

intact.79Othermembersoftheroyalfamilysometimeshadtheirowncourtstolook

after.ThisincludedthesonandheirtoIsabellaandFerdinand,Juan,whohadhis

ownpalacesandroyalcourtthatmimickedthecourtofhisparentsbutonasmaller

scale.80

Intheroyalhouseholds,everythingwasdoneforthemonarchsfrom

morninguntilnight.Theywereneveralone,butwerealwaysaccompaniedby

servantsofsomesort.Becauseofthis,thereweremanypositionsavailableatthe

royalcourtandeveryservanthadhisorherownplaceandduties.Oneofthe

highestpositionsonecouldhaveatcourtisthatofmayordomomayor,themanwho

oversawallpalaceexpensesandmanyoftheofficesofthecourt.Everymealwas

attendedtobyservantswhomadesurethateachroyaldiningexperiencewasdone

withappropriateceremony.Therewereservantstopreparetheroyalbedchambers,

                                                            79Mariéjol,37.80Hilgarth,Vol.1,52.;Mariéjol,238.

 

 

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setthetables,cleanthepalace,andevendresstheroyalfamily.Therewere

cobblers,barbers,peopleinchargeofwardrobeandentertainmentssuchasbooks,

physicians,cooks,andallothersortsofpositionsthatwerenecessaryfor

maintainingaroyalhousehold.Themonarchswerealwayssurroundedbyroyal

guardsandhigh‐rankingknightswereassignedspeciallytowatchtheroyal

bedchamberatnightandaccompanytheroyalfamilywherevertheywent.81

Themonarchswentoutamongsttheirpeopleoftenforprocessionsand

ceremonies.ItwasdeeplyimportantfortheSpanishkingandqueentobevisibleto

theirpeopleandbeseentobegenerous,compassionate,andpowerfulrulers.They

generallywentoutcarriedinlittersandwereaccompaniedbyaprocessionofcourt

figures.Theroyalmonarchsreveledingoingamongsttheirpeopleinroyalsplendor

andalsoenjoyedhostingelaborateceremoniesduringwhichthecourtsparedno

expense.Formalceremonysurroundedthemonarchsenteringthecityandother

royalprocessions,receptionsofforeigndiplomats,andtheopeningoftheCortes,the

SpanishversionofParliament.Isabellaespeciallyloveddressingthepartforthese

royaleventsandtakingpartinthedancingandothercourtlyactivities.82The

grandestceremoniesoftheyear,apartfromreligiousfestivals,wereonesthat

centeredonthenoblefamilythemselvesincludingbaptisms,weddings,and

funerals.Religionwasoftenthebasisofmostceremonies,butafterthereligious

solemnitieswereobserved,exuberantcelebrationwouldfollow.Therewere

                                                            81Edwards,135‐136.;Mariéjol,239‐243.82Hilgarth,Vol.1,50.;Mariéjol,244‐245,247.

 

 

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banquetswithmusicanddancing,bullfights,plays,andtournaments.Thecity

populationalsocelebratedthesemajoreventsbywatchingtheroyalprocessions

andthenholdingtheirowncelebrationsinthemainplaza.Anotherimportant

aspectofcourtcelebrationswastheideaofchivalry.Spainwasaverywaroriented

societyandlikedtocelebrategreatvictoriestoencourageaknightlyculturethat

promotedenthusiasmforwars,suchastheReconquista.Becauseofthistherewere

oftenjoustsandotherknightlygames,whichwereentertainingbutalsoserveda

biggerpurpose.83

WhenlookingatthesocietiesoftheMexicaandSpanishside‐by‐side,itis

easytoseethegreatimportancebothplacedintheideaofaroyalcourt.Thecourt

servedmanypurposesfromentertainmenttopolitics.Itwasawayforthemonarchs

toshowtheirstatus,tothecommonclassofcourse,butalsotothenobilitywhom

theysurroundedthemselveswith.Usingthegiftsofcourtpositions,rulerscould

securealliancesfromsomeofthemostpowerfulfamiliesinthekingdom.They

couldalsoshowofftheirroyaltyandpoweratcelebrations,whichwereregularly

heldthroughouttheyear.Everyaspectoftheirdailyliveswasoverseenbyservants,

andthehighestpositionsinthehouseholdweregenerallyrecruitedfromtheupper

echelonsofsociety.Youngnoblemenandwomenweresometimesraisedand

trainedintheroyalpalacetoimplementloyaltyfromayoungageandtoteachthe

nextgenerationthewaysofcourtlifeandrulership.Thegrandceremonieswere

meantforentertainmentbutusuallyalsohadsomesortofreligiousundertone,                                                            83Edwards,133,136.;HilgarthVol.2,64.

 

 

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sinceeachsocietyheldreligioninsuchhighregard.Bothsocietieswerealsowarrior

culturesanddisplayedthisfactasoftenastheycould.

Conclusions

Itiseasytoseebyexaminingsomeofthesesocietalaspectsthatthecultures

oftheMexicaandtheSpanishsharedsomestrikingsimilarities.Theyboth

controlledhugeareasofland,yetmostterritoriesmaintainedsomesortof

autonomy.InMesoamerica,theMexicamonarchsruledbyfearandmaintainedtheir

powerbypromotingastrongwarriorcultureandmaintainingapowerfularmy.The

Spanishmonarchs,ontheotherhand,usedtheirpresencetokeepoutlying

territoriesincheckandtraveledthroughtheirlandsthroughouttheyear,stayingin

citiesalloverthepeninsula.

Whenitcomestothecitiesthemselves,theconquistadorsadmittedthat

therewasnothinginSpaintorivaltheMexicacapitalcityofTenochtitlan.InSpain,

therewasnocapitalcityandsonoonecityhadyetbeensingledoutandmade

exceptionallygrand.Spanishsocietyhadtheirideaofaperfectcity,squareandwell

laid‐out,butmostcitiesdidnotmeetthesestandardssincemanyhadbeenrecently

conqueredfromMoorswhohadhaphazard,unorganizedcityplanning.TheMexica,

ontheotherhand,hadanextremelywelllaidoutandmaintainedcity,withstraight

rowsofstreetsandcanals,whichmadetravelthroughoutthecityextremelyeasy.

Religiousbuildingsdominatedthearchitecturalfeatssincebothsocietieswere

heavilybasedonreligion.Royalpalaceswerethesecondmostimpressivebuildings

 

 

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inbothSpainandMexicoandwereusedasastatussymbolfortheroyalfamilies.

Theywerealsothehomeoftheroyalcourts,whichformedanintegralpartofboth

societies.Royalcourtswereusedasthebackdropofextravagantceremonies.

Servantsconstantlysurroundedtheroyalfamilyinbothsocietiesandtheywere

attendedtoeverymomentofeveryday.Everyaspectoftheirdailyliveswastreated

togreatceremonyandtheywerealwaysprotectedbyaroyalguard.Thepalaces

werealsothehomeofmanyothernobleswhoservedthemonarchsinreturnfor

titlesandahigherrankinsociety.Celebrations,usuallywithreligiousandsecular

parts,werecelebratedtoshowthecourtlygrandeurandgivethecommonpeoplea

reasontocelebrateaswell.Royalprocessions,andbeingamongstthepeoplewere

alsoimportanteventssinceitgavethecommonpeopleachancetoseetheir

monarchsandcementedloyalty.

Thischapterfocusesontheseaspectsofsocietyfromtheviewpointofthe

firstEuropeanstocomeintocontactwithsuchahighlyadvancedindigenous

civilization.Theconquistadors’accountsaresouniquebecausetheywereamong

thefewEuropeanindividualswhowereabletoseetheMexicaEmpire,Moctezuma,

thecityofTenochtitlan,andtheMexicapeoplebeforeitwaseverinfluencedby

Spanishculture.TheysawtherawcharacterofMesoamericansocietyasitwasin

thetimebeforetheConquest.Theseaccountsareinvaluableforthedescriptions

theygiveus,andaresodetailedandremarkable,thattheyeasilypaintapictureof

pre‐ConquestMesoamerica.Theygiveusexceptionalnarrativesaboutthegrandeur

 

 

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oftheMexicaroyalcourtbecausetheyfounditremarkableandfelttheneedto

recordtheirexperiencesingreatdetail.

WiththeirdescriptionsweareabletoseethattheMexicacities,architecture,

ceremonies,andcourtlypracticessharedmanysimilaritieswiththoseseeninSpain.

Insomecases,especiallywhenitcametotheexceptionalcityofTenochtitlan,the

MexicaseemtohaveoutdonetheircontemporarySpaniards.Cortéswasso

impressedwiththecitythatheissaidtohavebeenheartbrokentocausesomuch

destructiontoit.Díazalsoreflectsinhisoldagethesadnesshefeelsatthe

destructionofsucharemarkablecity.“OfallthesewondersthatIthenbeheldto‐

day(sic)allisoverthrownandlost,nothingleftstanding.”84Thecapitalcityof

Spain’snewterritorywasbuiltontopoftheruinsofTenochtitlan,whichshowsthe

regardtheSpaniardsheldforthelostcity.Tenochtitlanmayhavebeendestroyed,

butnotallaspectsofindigenousroyalculturevanishedaftertheconquest.This

continuationofindigenousnobleauthorityisdiscussedmorefullyinthefollowing

chapter.

                                                            84Díaz,109.

 

 

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CHAPTER4

POST‐CONQUESTMESOAMERICA:THEBLENDINGOFSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETIESANDTHESURVIVALOFINDIGENOUSCULTURE

ThesocietyofcentralMexicointheyearsfollowingtheconquestwasnotone

markedbyindigenousdefeatordesolation.Tenochtitlanmayhavebeendestroyed

andtheMexicaEmpireoverpowered,butthepeopleofMesoamericadidnotsee

themselvesasconquered,vanquished,orsubordinated.1Inreality,1521isnota

yearthatmarksthe“Conquest”ofMesoamerica;itinsteadsignifiestheendofatwo‐

yearwarbetweentheSpaniardsandthepeopleofTenochtitlan.Italsomarksthe

beginningoffurtherconquestexpeditionstogaincontroloftherestofNewSpain.

TheruinedcapitalcityoftheMexicaEmpirewasrebuiltandbecamethecapitalcity

ofthenewSpanishcolony.ThemainplazainMexicoCitywasbuiltoverthegreat

centralsquareofTenochtitlan,Cortéshadhishomebuiltinthesameplacewhere

Moctezuma’spersonalpalacehadbeen,andthecathedralofMexicoCitywasbuiltin

thesameplacewheretheMexicagreattemplehadoncestood.2Therebuilding

effortofthenewcityofMexicowasdonebypre‐HispanicresidentsofTenochtitlan

andthesurroundingareas.Theseindigenoussurvivorsalsomadeupthemajorityof

thepopulationofthenewcity.Soinaway,Tenochtitlansurvived,althoughasthe

                                                            1Wood,142.2Martínez,2,105.;Restall,65,70.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,8.;Schwartz,214.;Townsend,132.

 

 

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capitalofNewSpainitwasundoubtedlyinaverynewformthanithadbeeninpre‐

Conquestyears.3

Overtime,theSpanishpresenceinMexicoCityandtherestofMesoamerica

increasedasnewlyconqueredterritorieswereincorporatedintothenewcolony

andcolonialinstitutionsweresetup.TheSpaniardstriedsettinguptheirown

institutionsinthesenewareas,butoftenfoundthatworkingwithintheframework

alreadyestablishedbytheindigenouspeoplewasthemostefficientandeffective.

ThefollowingquotebySpanishhistorianandchroniclerAlonsodeZoritaexplains

howpeopleinColonialtimesviewedtheresilienceofnativecommunitiesand

culture:

WhenNewSpainwasconqueredbytheSpaniards,thismodeofgovernmentofthenativeswasretainedandcontinuedforsomeyears.Moctezumaalonelosthiskingdomanddominion,whichwerevestedintheroyalCrownofCastile.SomeofhistownsweregiveninencomiendatoSpaniards.Alltheotherlordsofprovinces,boththosewhoweresubjecttohimandthosewhowereindependent,includingtherulersofTexcocoandTacuba,possessed,ruled,andgovernedtheirlands,buttheydidthisasrepresentativesofYourMajestyorofencomenderos.Theselordsdidnothaveasmuchlandorasmanyvassalsastheyhadoncehad,butthepeoplebroughtthemtributeofproduceandotherthingsasbeforetheConquest,andtheywereobeyed,feared,andrespected.4

TheencomiendasZoritamentionsrefertograntsofnativelaborandtribute,which

wereawardedtoCortés’sfavoritesandafewevenwenttoindigenousnoblesin

                                                            3Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,7.4Zorita,113.

 

 

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recognitionoftheirstatus.Inarelayfashion,newlyconqueredterritorieswereused

aslaunchingpadsforsuccessiveconquesteffortsandnewcolonieswereexploited

fortheirresources,funding,andpeopleasworkers,tributepayersandwarriors.

WarsaimedatconqueringindigenouspeoplesinLatinAmericapersistedwellinto

thetwentiethcenturyanditcanevenbearguedthatwhatisknownas“the

Conquest”isstillincomplete.5TheSpaniardsmayhavethoughtthatindigenous

peopleswerecompletelyloyaltotheCrown,butnativessawthemselvesassubjects

oftheirownlordsfirst,andtheSpanishkingsecond.6

IntheyearsfollowingtheConquest,thenativepopulationsinNewSpain

continuedtogreatlyoutnumberthepopulationsofSpanishsettlers.Butbecauseofa

numberoffactors,includingthedisunityofindigenouscommunities,Spaniards

wereabletocontinuetheirconqueringexpeditionswithgreatsuccess.Epidemics

alsohelpedtheSpaniardsgainfootholdsintheirnewcolonyandallowedthemto

notonlysettleinthesenewareas,butalsomadetheircontrolofnativecommunities

abiteasier.Someestimatessuggestthatnativepopulationsdeclinedbyasmuchas

90percentinthecenturyaftersmallpoxandotherdiseaseswerefirstintroducedto

Mesoamerica.Duringthistime,indigenouscity‐statesoftenlosttheirownrulers,in

additiontothehugemajorityoftheirpopulation,sothenewSpanishcolonial

                                                            5Martínez,2,105.;Restall,65,70.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,7.;Schwartz,214.6Restall,76.

 

 

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governmentwasabletogainastrongerfootholdthantheywouldhaveinthe

absenceofsuchepidemics.7

Becausethepopulationdensityoutsideofthemajorcitieswasrelativelylow,

alargenumberofpeoplesurvivedthewavesofepidemics.Thesepeoplelivingin

ruralareaswerealsonotasdirectlytouchedbySpanishcultureandweretherefore

abletopreservetheirpre‐Conquestwayoflife.Undoubtedly,indigenousculture

waschangedbyEuropeaninfluence,butinmanyareasofMesoamericatheculture

remainedmoreindigenousthananythingelse.8Evenintheurbanareas,native

culturesurvived.Nativeelites,especially,faredwellinthenewculturalsettingif

theywerewillingtotakeadvantageofthenewsituation.9Anexampleofthisisthe

rulersofTlaxcalawhowereabletonegotiatethemselvesintotheroleofSpanish

alliesaftertheinitialbattlesdidnotgotheirway.Thismayseemalmostlikea

betrayalofindigenousinterests,butfornativenoblemen,thiswasthemostrealistic

pathtosurvivalandsuccessinthenewColonialorder.10Soforindigenouspeoples

tosucceed,theyhadtoworkwiththeSpaniards.However,thispracticewentboth

ways.TheSpanishcolonialprojectonlyworkedwellinMesoamericawhenit

coincidedwithpre‐existingpractices.Whenitdidnot,itwasmetwithfierce

resistance.Sothiswasreallyatwowaystreet.Bothculturesrecognizedsimilarities

                                                            7Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,7.;Townsend,147.8Wood,10.9Restall,102.10Wood,106.

 

 

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inoneanotherandtheyalsorealizedthattheonlywaytosucceedinColonialNew

Spainwastoworktogetherandadapt.11

Post‐ConquestSociety:AnOverview

OutsideofthefewcitieswhereSpaniardssettledandestablishedtheir

presence,manyindigenouspeoplecontinuedtoliveinpredominantlynative

communitiesduringtheColonialperiod.Theycontinuedspeakingtheirown

languages,learnedtowritetheselanguagesusingRomanletters,dressedthesame

waythattheyhadinpre‐Colonialtimes,farmedandatetraditionalMesoamerican

cropssuchasmaizeandbeans,andbuilthousesusingtheirownarchitectural

techniques.12Formanycommunities,thismeantthatlocalautonomywasnotlostin

1521,butslowlyerodedoverthecenturies.Fromtheperspectiveofmanynativesis

Mesoamerica,theConquestwasnotasingle,dramaticevent,butalong,drawnout

processofadaptationandevolution.13

OnereasonforthispersistenceofnativeculturewastheSpaniards’tunnel

visionwhenitcametoChristianizingtheirnewindigenoussubjects.Thespreading

ofChristianitywas,afterall,theultimatejustificationfortheirconquestcampaigns

andsubsequentrepressiveandoftenviciousbehavior.Butbecausethe

Christianizationprojectwassoimportant,everyotheraspectofnativeculturewas

secondary,andoftennotimportant.Forexample,therewerenomajoreffortsonthe

                                                            11Restall,104.;Townsend,144.;Wood,59.12Wood,10.13Restall,74.

 

 

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partoftheSpanishtomakenativepeopleslearntheSpanishlanguage.Infact,

Spaniards,especiallyfriars,wereencouragedtolearnindigenouslanguagesinorder

tomoreeasilyspreadtheteachingsofChristianity.Thisledtothedevelopmentof

writtenindigenouslanguagessothatreligiousliteraturecouldbeprintedinlocal

nativevernacular.Privileged,upperclassmenwereofteninstructedinthewriting

oftheirownlanguages,leadingtothenumeroussurvivingindigenousdocumentsin

archivestoday.NativedresswasanotheraspectofMesoamericanColonialsociety

thatremainedrelativelyunchangedaftertheConquest.Itslowlychangedand

adaptedoverthecomingcenturiesandwasevenadoptedbySpanishsettlerswho

foundindigenousclothingmoreappropriateforColoniallife.Thecomplete

HispanizationofnativepeopleswasnotaconcernfortheSpaniardsduringthe

Colonialyears,andwasnotimplementedinfulluntilwellintothenineteenth

Century.14

Becauseofthis,somanyaspectsofpre‐Conquestindigenoussocietysurvived

intotheColonialperiod,eitheruntouchedorbarelyinfluencedbyEuropeanculture.

FactorsthatweresoimportanttoeachsocietybeforetheConquest,includingthe

ideaofroyalty,theimportanceofreligion,andthewayofgovernancewereeach

detailedindepthinthepreviouschaptersandwillalsobethefocusofthispost‐

Conquestnarrative.Manycommunitiesretainedtheirtraditionalrulinginelitein

theColonialperiodandstillhighlyrespectedtheroyalfamiliesofpre‐Conquest

times.ChristianitywasofcourseimposeduponthenativesofMesoamericabythe                                                            14Restall,74‐75.

 

 

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Spaniards,butthereligionthatwaspracticedinMesoamericawasaChristianity

heavilyinfluencedandshapedbytraditionalMesoamericanspirituality.Colonial

governmentwaslikewiseablendofbothculturesandevenhadseparateSpanish

andIndigenousinstitutionswherethenativesofMesoamericaenjoyedquiteabitof

autonomywhenitcametotheirowngovernanceatthelocallevel.15Another

importantaspectofColonialsocietythatwillbeexploredistheideaofindigenous

peopleastheirownconquistadorsintheyearsafterthefallofTenochtitlan.Allof

thesesocietalandculturalaspectsshowtheperseveranceofindigenousheritage,

theadaptabilityoftheMesoamericannatives,andthesurvivaloflocalculture.

TheSurvivalofRoyalIndigenousLineagesandPrestige

ThemajorthemeofthischapteristhesurvivalofMesoamericanculturein

thewakeofdefeatandconquest.Oneofthemostimportantaspectsofthisisthe

continueddominanceoftraditionallynoblelineages.Indigenousroyalsnotonly

continuedtodemandrespectfromtheircommunities,theywerealsohighly

respectedbytheSpanishconquistadors.ThefamilyofMoctezuma,forexample,was

recognizedasbeingworthyofroyaldistinction.Theyreceivedtitlesofnobility,

weregivenSpanishencomiendasfromwhichtheyearnedtribute,andwere

generallyexemptfromtaxes.16InTenochtitlan,thelastindependentMexicaruler

wasCuauhtemoc,whosurrendered(orwascaptured,dependingonthesource)in

1521.HewasabletocontinueasrulerofTenochtitlanevenaftertheConquestuntil

                                                            15Wood,10.16Chipman,xx,xxii.;Martínez,2.;Wood,142.

 

 

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hewasexecutedin1525,supposedlyforplottingrebellion.17Followingthispattern,

theSpaniardswerequicktoexecutelocalrulerswhowerenotflexibleand

amenabletoSpanishinterests.However,rulerswhocooperatedandacceptedthe

newColonialorderoftenfoundthemselvesinthesameseatofpowertheyhad

alwaysoccupied,withoutmuchinterferencefromthenewEuropeanpower.18

DescendantsofthefirstMexicaemperor,Acamapichtli,continuedtooccupy

placesofpowerinMexicoCityforoverfourdecadesaftertheConquest.The

emperoroftheMexicaatthetimeofthefallofTenochtitlanwasCuauhtemoc.After

theConquest,hewasallowedtoremainastheruleroftheMexicaandwasbaptized

andrenameddonHernandodeAlvarado.19Afterhisdeathin1525,Cortéselecteda

manknownasJuanVelásquezTlacotzincihuacoatl.Hewasthelastcihuacoatl

(secondincommandaftertheemperorinMexicasociety)beforetheconquest,and

wasthegrandsonofthegreatcaptain,andfirstcihuacoatl,Tlacaelel.Heonlyliveda

littleoverayearafterhiselectionandonhisdeathhewasreplacedbyaMexica

privatecitizennameddonAndrésMotelchihtzin.20Thenextruler,donPablo

Xochiquentzin,wasanoblemanbutnotamemberoftheroyalMexicafamily.He

ruledforonlythreeyears,andafterhisdeath,theruleofMexicowasreturnedtothe

royalfamilywhendonDiegoHuanitzinwaschosenasrulerofTenochtitlan.Hewas

                                                            17Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,59,169.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,39,79.;Chimalpahin,Annals,135.;Lockhart,1993,148–150.;Schwartz,215.;Townsend,120,127,159.18Martínez,111.;Restall,124.19Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,57.20Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,57,59,169.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,39.;Chimalpahin,Annals,135,147.

 

 

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agrandsonofAxayacatl,thesixthemperoroftheMexica.21Hewasfollowedasruler

ofTenochtitlanbydonDiegodeSanFranciscoTehuetzquititzinwhowasagrandson

ofTizoc,theseventhruleroftheMexica.22Heruledforthirteenyearsandwas

succeededbydonCristóbaldeGuzmánCecetzin,whowasasonofdonDiego

Huanitzin,andagreat‐grandsonofAxayacatl.Afterhisdeath,donLuisdeSanta

MaríaNacacipactzinbecamethelastindigenousrulerofTenochtitlantocomefrom

theMexicaroyaldynasty.Hisdeath,in1565markedtheendofthisgreatdynasty

begunbyAcamapichtlialmosttwohundredyearsearlier.23

ThedescendantsofMoctezumaIIwereundoubtedlythenativepeoplewho

faredthebestinthenewColonialsociety.Afterthetwo‐yearbattlewiththe

Spaniards,thedevastationanddestructionofTenochtitlan,andwaveafterwaveof

epidemics,onlyafewofMoctezuma’schildrensurvived.Thosewhodidwere

treatedlikeroyaltyandtheSpanishCrownrecognizedthemassuchandinsisted

thattheirroyalbloodbehonoredandrespected.Ofhissurvivingchildren,theone

whowasconsideredhisprincipleheirwasagirlnamedTecuichpotzin.Bornaround

theyear1509,TecuichpotzinwasabouttenyearsoldwhentheSpaniardsfirst

enteredTenochtitlan.HerimportanceinMexicasocietyisshownbyherfirstthree

                                                            21Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,171.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalplahin,Vol.2,39,41.;Chimalpahin,Annals,135,137,147.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena45,47.;CódiceCozcatzin,foja13verso.22Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,173.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,41.;Chimalpahin,Annals,137,147.;CódiceCozcatzin,foja13verso.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,45,47.23Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,175.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,41,43.;Chimalpahin,Annals,137,139,147.;CódiceCozcatzin,foja14recto.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,45,47.

 

 

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marriagestoMexicaprinceswhowereinlinetoinheritthethrone.Shewasfirst

marriedtoAtlixcatzinwholittleisknownabout,butthe“tzin”attachedtohisname

signifieshisplaceasroyalty.HersecondhusbandwasheruncleCuitlahuac,who

followedMoctezumaonthethronebutonlyreignedeightydaysbeforesuccumbing

tothesmallpoxepidemic.Tecuichpotzinwasthenmarriedtoherfather’scousin,

Cuauhtemoc,thefinalMexicaemperorelectedbeforetheConquest.Hermarriageto

thesethreemenissignificantbecausebymarryingher,CuitlahuacandCuauhtemoc

wereabletolegitimizetheirrighttothethrone.SinceTecuichpotzinwas

Moctezuma’sprincipleheirandbornfromtheunionwithhisprimarywife,shewas

usedasawaytosecureandconfirmthesenewlyelectedemperors’claimtothe

Mexicathrone.24

AftertheConquest,herpositiondidnotdiminish.Shewasbaptizedandgiven

theChristiannameIsabelandwasquicklywidowedathirdtimewhenherhusband

CuauhtemocwasexecutedbyCortésforhissupposedinvolvementinaplotto

revolt.AfterthisshewassubsequentlymarriedtothreedifferentSpaniardswhoall

heldahighplaceinthenewColonialsociety.Isabel’sfirstSpanishhusbandwasa

conquistadorandloyalfriendofCortés’namedAlonsodeGrado.Afteronlyayear,

IsabelwaswidowedforafourthtimeandmovedintoCortés’householdwhereshe

soonbecamepregnantwithhischild.ShewasquicklymarriedoffagaintoPedro

GallegodeAndrade,anotherconquistador.SixmonthsafterhermarriagetoGallego,

                                                            24Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,55–57,163.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,87.;Chipman,xxi,40,64.;CódiceCozcatzin,foja1recto.;Martínez,111.;Townsend,95.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,35.

 

 

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IsabelgavebirthtoCortés’childwhowasnamedLeonorCortésMoctezuma.The

childwastakentoberaisedbyarelativeofCortésandIsabelsoonbecamepregnant

again,thistimebyherhusband,andgavebirthin1530toasonnamedJuande

AndradeMoctezuma.Gallegodiedsoonafterthechild’sbirthandthetwenty‐one

yearoldIsabelwasawidowforthefifthtime.Hersixthandfinalmarriagetook

placein1532andlasteduntilIsabel’sdeathin1550.Fromthisunioncamefive

morechildren:PedroCanodeMoctezuma,GonzaloCanodeMoctezuma,JuanCano

deMoctezuma,IsabelCano,andCatalinaCano.25

InadditiontoarrangedmarriageswithSpanishColonialofficials,Isabelalso

receivedoneofthewealthiestencomiendasinNewSpain.Asencomenderaof

Tacuba,acitythathadoncebeenpartoftheMexicaTripleAlliance,Isabelreceived

tribute,labor,andwealthfrom1,240tributaryunits.26Receivinganencomiendain

NewSpainwasararehonor.Cortéswasinchargeofdistributingtheencomiendas,

someofwhichhekeptforhimself.Therestofthegrantswenttohisfavorite

countrymenandconquistadors,andtwoofMoctezuma’sdaughters.27Inadditionto

Isabel,anotherdaughterofMoctezuma,christenedMariana(laterknownas

Leonor),receivedtheencomiendaofEcatepec,anotherimportantcityincentral

Mexico.MarianawasthedaughterofMoctezumaandhissecondarywife,which

placedherbelowIsabelinthehierarchyoftheroyalfamily.However,shealsofared

                                                            25Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,55‐57,163‐165.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,87.;Chipman,49,51‐52,58‐59,95.;CódiceCozcatzin,35.;Martínez,111.;Townsend,164–165.26Chipman,xxi,49.;Martínez,111.27Chipman,45‐46.

 

 

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verywellintheColonialEra.InadditiontotheencomiendaofEcatepec,Mariana

wasalsomarriedtosuccessfulSpaniards.28Herfirstmarriage,whichtookplacein

1527toJuanPazdidnotlastlongsincePazdiedsoonafter.Marianathenmarried

CristóbaldeValderramaandwithhimhadadaughternamedLeonordeValderrama

yMoctezuma.29

ThethirdandfinalheirofMoctezuma’swhowasrecognizedbytheofficials

ofNewSpainwasknownasPedroMoctezuma.BornfromtheunionofMoctezumaII

andthefemaleheirofTula,Pedroisthoughttohavebeenabouteighteenwhen

Tenochtitlanfell.HewassettoinheritthethroneofTulaatthistimeandwas

thereforemostlikelyresidinginthatcityandwasthereforeawayfromTenochtitlan

duringthewars,destruction,andepidemics.BecauseofhisstatusasMoctezuma’s

onlyrecognizedsonwhosurvivedtheConquest,Pedrowasgiventheencomienda

andgovernorshipofTula.30Hemarriedthreetimesduringhislife(allthreeofhis

wiveswereindigenous)andheeventraveledtoSpainonmultipleoccasions.Once

waswithCortésin1528andasecondvoyagetookplaceinthe1530s.Duringthis

venturehemetwiththeEmperorCharlesVwhograntedhimacoatofarmsbearing

thirty‐twogoldcrownsthatsymbolizedthemanyterritoriesMoctezumahadhad

controlover.31

                                                            28Chipman,xxi.29Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,143,163.;Chipman,70‐71.30Chipman,81–82,84.31Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,161.;Chipman,85,89.;CódiceCozcatzin,35.;Townsend,188‐189.

 

 

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ThisfirstgenerationoftheMoctezumafamilywasnottheonlygroupof

indigenousroyalstoreceivespecialtreatment;thefamilyname“Moctezuma”

continuedtoholdsignificantcloutintheColonialEraandbeyond.Isabel’stwo

daughtersbecamenuns,whichwasanunusualfateforindigenouswomensince

thesepositionswereusuallyreservedforwealthySpaniards.Isabel’seldestson,

JuandeAndradeMoctezuma,becameherheirandinheritedthemajorityofher

Tacubawealth.32Herthirdson,GonzaloCano,marriedaSpanishwomannamedAna

dePradoCalderónandremainedinNewSpaintoinherittheencomiendaofTacuba

afterthedeathofhishalf‐brotherJuandeAndradeMoctezuma.GonzaloCano’s

grandsoneventuallyenteredintoaprestigiousmilitaryorderin1620whenhe

becameaknightofSantiagoinSpain.ThisbranchoftheMoctezumafamily

continuedtoreceivemonetarypaymentsfromthegovernmentofMexicountilthe

1930s.Isabel’smostsuccessfulsonwasJuanCanodeMoctezumawhomovedto

SpainandmarriedElviradeToledoin1559.Thisbranchofthefamilybecamepeers

oftheSpanishnobilityandearnedthetitlesofCountsofEnjaradaandFuensalida

andDukesofAbrantesandLinares.33Isabel’sillegitimatedaughter,LeonorCortés

Moctezumawasgivenlargedowriesfrombothhermotherandfatherandmarried

JuandeTolosa,averywealthySpaniardwhohaddiscoveredsilverminesinthe

ZacatecasregionofNewSpain.TheirsonbecameavicarinNewSpainandoneof

                                                            32Chipman,65–68.33Chipman,xiv,72–73,139,140‐141.

 

 

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theirdaughters,IsabeldeTolosaCortésMoctezuma,marriedthefutureadelantado

ofNewMexico,JuandeOñate.34

AnotherdescendantofMoctezuma,DiegoLuis,sonofPedroMoctezuma,

inheritedhisfather’sgovernorshipinTulaandmarriedaSpanishheiress.Diego

Luis’swifewasFranciscadelaCuevayValenzuela,whowasalady‐in‐waitingtothe

queenofSpainandagranddaughteroftheDukeofAlburquerque.Aspartofthe

Spanishnobility,DiegoLuisandhiswifedidnothavetopaytaxestotheCrown.

Theirprincipleheir,PedroTesifónbecameamemberofaSpanishmilitaryorder

andmarriedintoanothernoblefamilyinSpain.Hiswife,GerónimadePorrasy

CastillowasadaughterofaMarqués.PedroTesifónbecamenobilityinhisownright

whenPhilipIVgrantedhimthetitleofViscountofIlucanin1627.Pedrorequested

thatthistitlebechangedtoCountofMoctezumadeTulayTultengo,reflectingthe

importanceofhisindigenousroyalheritage.Whenhedied,Pedrowasnotonly

ViscountofIlucanandCountofMoctezumadeTulayTultengo,hewasalsoaKnight

ofSantiago,LordofTula,LordofPeza,andperpetualRegidorofGuadix.Thisbranch

ofthefamilycontinuedtopassthesetitlesfromgenerationtogeneration,andalso

addedtoitthetitleofMarquesesdeTenebrón.Pedro’sgranddaughterGerónima

MaríadeMoctezumaLoaysadelaCuevamarriedJosephSarmientodeValladares,

whoeventuallybecametheViceroyofNewSpaininthelateseventeenthcentury.35

                                                            34Chipman,68,101–103,105.35Chipman,91,94–95,124,126,129,131–133,137.;Martínez,111.

 

 

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ManyofthesetitlesofnobilitythatweregrantedtothedescendantsofMoctezuma

arestilltothisdayheldbymembersofthatindigenousroyalfamily.36

NotonlydidthelineofroyaltycontinueinTenochtitlanaftertheConquest,

butalsoheirsofMoctezumaexcelledgreatlyinthenewColonialEra.Membersof

theMexicaroyalfamily,aswellasnoblesfromotherindigenouscities,were

recognizedastheequalstotheSpanishtitlesofduke,marquis,andcount.They

wereusuallyexemptfrompayingtributetotheSpanishCrownandobtainedgreat

wealthfromcollectingtributefromtheirowncommunities.Moctezuma’sdaughters

weresomeoftherichestpeopleinthecolonyofNewSpainandtheirdescendants

becamegovernorsofNewSpainterritoriesandpeersintheSpanishnobility.Most

ofMoctezuma’ssonswereeitherkilledduringtheConquestwarsordiedof

epidemicdiseases,buttheonewhodidsurviveinheritedvastwealthinNewSpain

andhisdescendantsachievedgreatsuccessaswell.Spanishpeersandwealthy

familiesinMexicostillclaimdescentfromtheseroyalindigenouslineagesandcan

tracetheirancestrybacktothatgreatemperorofMexico,MoctezumaII.37

IndigenousNobilityinthePost‐ConquestYears

Aswasdiscussedinpreviouschapters,indigenousrulersinpre‐Conquest

timeswereextremelypreoccupiedwithdistinguishingthemselvesfromothersin

thecommunitybywearingcertainclothingandjewelsanddemandingrespectin

                                                            36Chipman,xiv,147.37Chipman,xiii–xxii.;CódiceCozcatzin,41.;Martínez,107,111.

 

 

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veryceremonialways.IntheColonialperiod,manyofthesepracticesremainedin

place.Thehereditaryrulerswerestillinpowerinmanyareas,theycontinuedto

visuallydistinguishthemselves,anddemandedtherespectoftheirsubjectsinmuch

thesameway.Theserulersalsoadoptednew,Spanishwaysofdistinguishing

themselvesfromthecommonpeople.Itisimportanttonotethattherewere

differenthierarchiesintheColonialsociety.Therewasanindigenoushierarchy,

whichhadsurvivedfrompre‐Conquesttimes,whichdistinguishednativenobles

andcommonersfromoneanother.Therewasalsoaracialhierarchythatplaced

Spaniardsaboveindigenouspeoplesandinbetweenthetwowasagradientof

peopleofmixedancestryknownasmestizos.38

AnexampleofindigenousdistinctionintheColonialtimesisnaming

practices,whichweredifferentamongthevarioussocietalclasses.Inpre‐Conquest

times,Mesoamericannameswereoftenbasedonnativecalendarsorphysical

characteristics.However,earlyonintheColonialperiod,manyindigenouspeople

begantoadoptSpanishstylenamingpatternsinordertoreflecttheirstatusinthe

newColonialsociety.PeopleofthelowerclassesusuallytookcommonSpanish

namesfortheirfirstnameandsurname,whereasindigenousnobilitytookaSpanish

nameastheirfirstnameandcombineditwithapre‐Hispanicsurname.Thisnot

onlyshowedtheirrankinthenewColonialsociety;italsosignifiedtheimportant

nobleorroyalfamilythattheyweredescendedfrom.High‐rankingindigenous

                                                            38Martínez,2,106.

 

 

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nobleswerealsogiventheprivilegeofattachingtheSpanishprefixesdonanddoña

totheirnames.39

Anotherimportantwaynativepeoplesdistinguishedthemselvesasbeingofa

higherrankinColonialsocietywastotrytopassasaSpaniard.Thiswasaprivilege

reservedonlyforindigenouspeopleofveryhighsocialstandingandthesenative

noblesadoptedmanyaspectsofSpanishmaterialculturetoflaunttheirposition

includingclothingandweapons.40TheTlaxcalteca,forexample,wereallowedtouse

SpanishweaponsinreturnforaidingtheSpanishintheirsiegeofTenochtitlan.

UsingSpanishstylevisualdistinctionsalsomadeitclearwhichsideofthebattlethe

differentindigenousgroupswereon.BybearingcertainEuropeanmaterial

elements,groupssuchasthepeoplefromTlaxcalawereclearlystatingwhichside

theywerefightingfor.41

Spanish‐stylecoatsofarmswerealsoadoptedbyindigenouscitiesandtheir

rulersasawaytosignifytheircontinuedsocialstatusinthenewColonialworld.An

exampleofthisisMoctezuma’ssonPedrowhowasgrantedaSpanishcoatofarms

bytheEmperorCharlesVin1539.Inrecognitionofhisfather’ssuccessand

dominanceinMesoamerica,Pedro’scoatofarmsincludedthirty‐twogoldcrowns,

                                                            39Martínez,107‐108.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,10,127.;Wood,59.40FlorineG.L.Asselbergs,“TheConquestinImages:StoriesofTlaxcaltecaandQuauhquecholtecaConquistadors,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),79.;Martínez,107.;Schroeder,22.;Wood,59.41Asselbergs,79.

 

 

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whichrepresentedthevariousmajorcitiesthatMoctezumahadcontrolled.42

Indigenouspeoplehadasimilarwayofdistinguishingdifferentcitiesduringthe

pre‐Conquestyears.Warriorsofdifferentcity‐states,andevendifferentregions

withineachcity,worecertainclothestosignifytheircommunity.Standardsand

clothingwerealsousedtodistinguishdifferentrankswithinthemanycompaniesof

fightingmen.CoatsofarmsintheEuropeanstylewereadoptedasanewformof

socialdistinction,whichstillmimickedpre‐Colonialpractices.Theygenerally

includedsomeaspectoftheSpanishRoyalcrest,alongwithindigenousdepictions

andsymbols.Coatsofarmshadtobegivenbythecrown,somanyindigenous

leadersandcommunitiesappliedforthemandreceivedpermissiondirectlyfrom

Spain.Thisnewadaptationshowednotonlysocialrankbetweenindigenouspeople,

italsoshowedthatsomeindigenousnobleswererecognizedasbeingequalinstatus

toSpanishnatives.Theywerenotonlyallowedtohavetheirowncoatsofarms,but

werealsoallowedtowearSpanish‐styleclothing,armor,hats,andusehorsesand

Spanishweapons,butonlyiftheywereapprovedtodosobytheSpanishCrown.43

Whenitcomestotheideasofroyaltyandnobility,bothSpanishandMexica

cultureshadarelativelysynonymousviewoftheseconcepts.Thismeantthatinthe

newColonialorder,certaincommonpractices,suchasthedistinctionofclasses

basedonvisualmaterialbelongings,continuedtothrive.Whetheritwasvia

clothing,furniture,ornamingpractices,bothSpaniardsandindigenouspeoplein

                                                            42Chipman,85‐121.43Asselbergs,74.;Wood,57‐58,90.

 

 

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NewSpainsoughttoshowofftheirsocialstanding.Thisideawasintricatelylinked

tobloodties,ancestry,andcommunityhistories,whichwereimportantdocuments

thatwerecreatedenmasseduringtheColonialperiod.Byrecognizingindigenous

royalsasauthenticpre‐Conquestdynasties,Spanishsocietyallowedindigenous

nobleculturetosurvivethroughouttheColonialperiod.44Visualremindersofthis

elevatedstatusareimportanttostudy,buttheideasbehindthesepracticesshow

anotherthreadofcommonculturethatbroughttheSpaniardsandMexicatogether

intheColonialyearsandwhichhelpedcreateacultureofblendedidentitiesinNew

Spain.

ANewChristianity?

OneofthemostimportantthingstheSpaniardswishedtocompleteinthe

NewWorldwastheconversionofindigenouspeoplestoChristianity.Friarsand

priestssetupSpanishparishes,whichwerebasedontheorganizationalready

establishedinMesoamerica.Eachparishgenerallycoincidedwithapreviously

establishedindigenouscity‐stateandnewchurcheswereoftenconstructedinthe

sameareawhereindigenoustempleshadbeen.Knownasthe“SpiritualConquest”

thiseffortwastheprimefocusofthenewColonialgovernmentandthe

Hispanizationproject.Thefocusonconversionisonereasonwhymanyother

aspectsofindigenouscivilizationandculturestillsurvived.Convertingto

Christianitywasseenasthemostimportantelementtoacceptanceinthenew

                                                            44Martínez,95,105‐106.

 

 

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Colonialorder,butwhenitcametomostotheraspectsofindigenouslife,people

weregenerallyleftalone.ItmayseemthereforethattheSpiritualConquestwas

complete,andthoroughlywipedoutindigenousreligion.However,recent

scholarshiphasshownthatthisisnotthecase.45

SomescholarsarguethatbehindafaçadeofconformitytoChristian

practices,indigenouspeoplestillcontinuedtoholdnativereligioninhighregard

andcontinuedcertainceremonialpractices.Otherscholarshavesaidthatduringthe

ColonialperiodinNewSpain,anewformofChristianitywascreated;onethat

blendedaspectsofnativeandEuropeanreligions.MatthewRestallarguesthatthe

soundestargumentisonethatcombinesbothoftheseelements.“Natives

accommodatedandunderstoodChristianityanditsplaceintheirworldinwaysthat

weareonlyjustbeginningtograsp…Fewwoulddisagreethatthespiritual

conquest,asconceivedalmostfivecenturiesago,remainsverymuchincomplete.”46

IwouldagreethatthisexplanationfitstheatmosphereofColonialNewSpainthe

best.Christianitycertainlydidnotdominate.Itwascombinedwithindigenous

elementstocreateanewformofChristianityintheSpanishcoloniesoftheNew

World.However,strictlynativepracticesnevercompletelydisappeared,andmany

indigenouspeoplecontinuedtocovertlyworshiptheirowngodsintheirownway.47

                                                            45Restall,74.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,9,174‐175.46Restall,74.47Townsend,147.

 

 

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Ofcourse,thepracticeofnativereligionswasnottakenlightly,andthose

whowerecaughtwerefacedwithtriedandtrueSpanishmethodsofdealingwith

heretics:prosecutionforheresy,publichumiliation,andexecution.Oneofthemost

popularexamplesofthiswasthegrandsonofthemostfamousrulerfromthecity‐

stateofTexcoco,Nezahualcóyotl.Thisnativelord,baptizeddonCarlosdeTexcoco,

wasfoundtobeencouraginghispeopletocontinuepracticingtheirancientbeliefs

andrejectCatholicism.Hewastriedforheresy,convictedofbeinganidolateranda

heretic,andwassubjugatedtoanembarrassingpublicprocessionandceremony

whichresembledthepopularInquisitionmethodknownastheautodefe.48

Withallthisbeingsaid,itisclearthattheSpiritualConquestinNewSpain

wasneverentirelycompleteandthiswas,toalargeextent,duetothefactthat

despitetheirdifferences,EuropeanandMesoamericanreligionsactuallyshareda

numberofcharacteristics.ByrecognizingsimilaritiesbetweenChristianityandtheir

ownreligion,indigenouspeopleswereabletoincorporateChristianideasintotheir

previouslyheldbeliefsfairlyeasily.Indoingthis,indigenouspeoplesof

MesoamericamadeChristianityinNewSpainadistinctreligionfromtraditional

ChristianitypracticedinEurope.Theystillcelebratedtheirreligiononthesame

groundtheyalwayshad,asthenewchurcheswerebuiltoutofstonesfromtheold

templesandlocatedinthesameplaceinthecity.Nativeelitesweregivenmostof

thepositionsinthechurch,andthesemenhadoftenhadsimilardutiesintheirown

templesinpre‐Conquesttimes.Spaniardsintroducedtheircultofsaints,whereeach                                                            48Martínez,101.

 

 

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communityhadtheirownpatronsaints.Mesoamericansreadilyadoptedthis

practicesinceitcoincidedsodirectlywiththepre‐Conquestpracticeofeachcity

havingitsownpatrondeity.TraditionalMesoamericanfeastsandreligious

celebrationsweremadetocoincidewithreligiouseventsontheCatholiccalendar.

TheSpaniardslearnedquicklythatthepracticesmostreadilyadoptedbythe

indigenouspeopleoftheNewWorldwereonesthatcoincidedwithpre‐Conquest

religiousbeliefs.Becauseofthis,manyindigenouspeopledidnotbelievetheywere

rejectingtheiroldgodsandcontinuedtoworshipintheirownwayandtreat

Christianityasanewformoftheirtraditionalreligion.Inthisway,theconversionof

theindigenouspeoplesofMesoamericawasincomplete.Thenevergaveuptheirold

beliefs;rathertheymanipulatedChristianitytofittheirownpurposes.49

Post‐ConquestGovernment

VerysoonafterthefallofTenochtitlan,theSpaniardssetuptheircolonial

governmenttooverseeandcontroltheirinterestsintheNewWorld.They

establishedtheoldMexicacapitalasthenewcapitalcityfortheViceroyaltyofNew

Spain.Thehighestpositioninthisnewgovernmentwasthatoftheviceroy,whowas

therepresentativeoftheCrown’sinterestsinNewSpain.Thismeantthatthe

viceroywasinchargeoftheViceroyalty,butwasultimatelyloyalandresponsibleto

theKingofSpainandtheCrown.Incities,Spanishofficialswereelectedtooversee

theCrown’sinterestsatthelocallevelandcollecttaxestosupportthenew

                                                            49Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,174–176.

 

 

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governmentandtoboosttherevenuesoftheSpanishEmpire.However,despitethe

physicalpresenceofSpanishofficials,especiallyinthemajorcities,theindigenous

citizensmaintainedalotofautonomyandwereonlycontrolledindirectlybythe

Crown.Nativepeoplesmadeupthevastmajorityofthepopulation,sotheSpaniards

hadlittlechoicebuttoallowindigenousnoblestocontinueexercisingtheirown

controlovertheirpeople.50

ForcenturiesaftertheConquest,indigenouscommunitieswereableto

exercisesubstantialgovernmentalautonomyatthelocallevel.Spanishofficials

recognizedthatthebestwaytoestablishcontrolwastoworkwithlocalindigenous

institutionsthatwerealreadyinplace.ThismeantthattheSpanishcontrolledthe

governmentattheuppermostlevels,butatthelocallevel,controlremainedinthe

handsoflocalindigenouselites.Thesecommunitiescontinuedtospeaktheirown

languages,electtheirownrulers,andlivingtheirlivesastheyalwayshad.Sincethe

Spanishsettlersweregenerallynotfarmers,butinsteadworkingclassartisansor

skilledlaborers,theylefttheagriculturallandtotheindigenouscommunities.

Obviously,thissystemworkedbestwheretherewasalreadyawell‐established,

sedentary,agriculturalsociety.Thisiswhymajorurbanareas,suchasTenochtitlan,

werethefocusofcolonialefforts.However,thisalsomeantthatoutsideofthemajor

cities,indigenouslifewasgenerallyleftalone.Becauseofthis,nativecommunities

                                                            50Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,8,158.

 

 

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wereabletopersevereasself‐governingcity‐statesandtheircultureremainedalive

andflourished.51

OneofthemostinterestinganduniqueaspectsoftheColonialprojectinNew

Spainwastheimplementationofadualmodemodelofsocialandgovernmental

organization.InthecitiesandtownsofNewSpain,thereweretwoseparatepolities

or“republics”thatultimatelyworkedinconjunctionwithoneanotherwhen

necessary,butremainedindependent.Therewas,ofcourse,theSpanishRepublic,

whichwasinchargeoftheSpanishsettlersinNewSpainandwasalsoinchargeof

thehighestofficesintheColonialgovernment.Alongsidethiswasanother

institutionknownastheRepúblicadeIndios(IndianRepublic),whichrepresented

theinterestsoftheindigenouspeopleinthenewColonialorder.Theheadofthe

IndianRepublicwasgenerallyanativegovernorwhowasapartofthelocaldynasty

orroyalfamilythathadbeeninpowerbeforetheConquest.Atthesametimethatit

subjugatedtheindigenouspeopletotheruleroftheSpaniardsbyitslower

placementintheColonialgovernment,italsogavenativepeopleofNewSpainsome

autonomyandaspecialstatusasvassalsoftheSpanishCrown.Inexchangefor

theserepublicspayingtributetothecrownandconvertingtheirsubjectstothe

Catholicfaith,theindigenouscommunitieswereallowedtomaintaintheirown

                                                            51Martínez,98.;Restall,73.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,8–10,158.;Schroeder,12.;Townsend,146–147.

 

 

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nobilityandinternalhierarchies,keeptheirtraditionallands,andforthemostpart

governtheirpolitiesinmuchthesamewayastheyhadinpre‐Conquestyears.52

IndigenousConquistadors

Anothermajorthemewithintheideaofnativeculturalsurvivalistheroleof

indigenouspeopleas“conquistadors”ratherthantheoneswhowereconquered.

WhenlookingatindigenoussourcedocumentsfromMesoamericathatdepict

regionalhistoriesitisclearthattheConquestwasnotalwaysdefinedastheSpanish

defeatoftheMexicain1521.Mostindigenousrecordsdonothaveclearpre‐

Conquestandpost‐Conquestsections,butinsteadtendtomoveseamlesslyfrom

yeartoyearevenduringthefallofTenochtitlan.Theserecordsoftenshowthelocal

migrationstories,foundingofcommunities,andlocalrulers,butleaveoutoronly

brieflymentiontheseizureofpowerbytheSpaniards.Followingthisthread,

indigenouslocalhistoriestendtoplacethecommunityinquestionattheheadofall

activity.ThismeansthatindocumentsfromtheColonialperiod,manyindigenous

communitiesportrayedthemselvesnotastheconqueredpeople,butastheones

doingtheconquering.Theirdefeatisnotonlydenied,buttheentireideaof

conquerorandconquerediscompletelyinverted.53

                                                            52Martínez,5,92.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,8,13,62–63,71,158.53Asselbergs,86.;LauraE.Matthew,“WhoseConquest?Nahua,Zapoteca,andMixtecaAlliesintheConquestofCentralAmerica,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),103.;Restall,123.;Wood,143.

 

 

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IntheyearsfollowingtheconquestofTenochtitlan,nativeallieswerejustas

importantinthespreadofSpanishpowerandinfluence.Indigenouswarriors,

mostlyNahuatl‐speakersfromcentralMexico,wereusedinthecampaignsto

conquerthelandsofpresentdayCentralandSouthAmerica.TheSpanish

conquistadorscontinuedtochooseindigenouswarriorsfromtheareassurrounding

theformercapitalcityoftheMexicaEmpirebecausetheybelievedthatthese

nativesweremorecivilized,intelligent,andcapablethantheotherindigenous

populationsinMesoamerica.Thesenativeswereoftenchosenbecauseoftheir

abilitiesaswarriorsandwereoftenfromtheupperclass.Theywerecarefully

selectedsothattheywouldbeabletousetheirhighsocialrank,intelligence,and

civilityassettlersinthenewlyconqueredterritories.Theywereexpectedtospread

themorehighlyadvancedformofcivilizationofthenativesofcentralMexicoto

otherareasinMesoamerica.Indigenouswarriorsintheseconquestswereoften

underthedirectionandinfluenceoftheirownnativecaptainsandbecauseofthis

theysawthemselvesaspartakingintheirownconquestexpeditionsratherthan

workingforanyEuropeanpower.54MatthewRestallputsitwellwhenhesaysthat

“inmanyways,thesecampaignswereacontinuationoftheMexicaexpansionism

thathadgonealmostuncheckedforacenturybeforeSpanishinvasion.”55Itisclear

thattheseindigenouswarriorswerenotfightingsolelytoassisttheSpaniards,but

                                                            54JohnF.ChuchiakIV,“ForgottenAllies:TheOriginsandRolesofNativeMesomamericanAuxiliariesandIndiosConquistadoresintheConquestofYucatan,1526‐1550,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),198–199,211.;Matthew,103,105,120.;Restall,123.;Townsend,128–129.55Restall,123.

 

 

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wereperusingtheirownlocalinterestsandcontinuingpre‐Colonialexpansion

efforts.

AstrikingsimilaritybetweentheSpanishandMexicainthepre‐Conquest

yearscanbefoundinthetacticsusedinconquestandexpansionefforts.One

exampleofthisthatcontinuedtobeheavilyusedinthepost‐Conquestyearswasthe

sequentialstrategyofexpansion,whereanewlyconqueredlocation,itsresources

andwarriors,wasusedasasortofsteppingstoneforthenextconquest.Local

rivalriesandantagonismswereoftenexploitedtobenefittheconquerorandboth

SpanishandMexicaconquistadorsusedintimidationasoneoftheirforemost

tactics.56ThesimilarconquestpracticesusedbybothEuropeanandindigenous

societiesmeantthatduringthevarious“conquests”madebytheSpaniards,their

indigenousallieshadadifferentideaaboutwhatwastakingplace.Whenthe

SpaniardsclaimedthattheyhadconqueredtheMexicaEmpire,indigenousallies

suchasthepeoplefromTlaxcala,sawitasanindigenousvictory.Indigenousallies

oftheSpaniardsoftensawthemselvesasthevictorsandconsideredtheirpeoplethe

conquerors,nottheSpanish.Itisimportanttorealizethenthattheimportanceof

conquests,andthesimilarpracticesseeninbothofthesesocieties,ledtoa

continuationoftheconqueringmentalityinthenewcolony.AlthoughtheSpaniards

oftensawthemselvesasthevictors,indigenousgroupshadtheirownmotivesfor

participatingintheconquestexpeditions.ItwasnottohelptheSpaniards,butto

                                                            56MichelR.OudijkandMatthewRestall,“MesoamericanConquistadorsintheSixteenthCentury,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),46.

 

 

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increasetheirown,ortheircommunity’s,prestigeandpower.57TheSpanish

thoughttheywerecontrollingandmanipulatingthenatives,butreally,the

indigenouspeopleofMesoamericawereusingtheSpaniards,andtheirmore

advancedweaponry,fortheirownselfishpurposes.

ThepresenceofcentralMexicanindigenouscultureinnewlyconquered

areasfarfromtheBasinofMexicoisshowninmanyways,includingthefactthat

Nahuatlbecamealmostasecond“official”languageofNewSpainduringthe

Colonialyears.AnotherevidenceofNahuapresenceisthatmanycitiesin

Guatemala,whichhadbeenprimarilyMayaninculture,weregivenNahuatl

names.58ColoniesformedbycentralMexicanconquistadorsinotherareasof

Mesoamericawereusuallynamedafterthecity‐statethattheconquerorshad

originatedfrom.Theyformedsatellitecommunitiesawayfromtheirhomeland,but

continuedtopracticetheirownculturalcustomsandkeptalivetheirown

traditions.59AnexampleofthisistheuseoffamiliesfromTlaxcalatosettleonthe

frontiersofNewSpain.Theywerelookedonasanadvancedculturebecausethey

weremoreHispanicizedthanotherindigenouspeoplesincetheywereoneofthe

firstgroupstoallythemselveswiththeSpaniards.Theyhadalsoaccepted

Christianityandwereahighlyadvancedandcivilizedsedentaryagricultural

community,whichmadethemaperfectgroupofpeopletohelpcivilizeother

                                                            57Asselbergs,84.;Matthew,103.;OudijkandRestall,54.58Asselbergs,83.;Restall,123.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,17–18.59Asselbergs,71.

 

 

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indigenouspeoplefromareasoutsidetheBasinofMexico.60Becauseofthis,Nahua

culturewasevenmorewidespreadinthepost‐Conquestyearsthanithadbeenin

theyearsprecedingit.ThisbegsthequestiontheniftheMexica,andNahuaculture

weretrulyconqueredin1521.Thisisobviouslynotthecasesincetheirculture

continuedtospread.

Indigenouswomenalsoplayedanimportantroleintheconquestoflandsin

Mesoamerica.Womenfromthelocalnobilitycouldbeespeciallyusefultotheir

communitiesbecausetheyweregiventoSpanishmeninordertocementalliances.

Ontheotherhand,theSpaniardsalsobenefitedfromthisarrangementbecause

princessesoflocalnoblefamiliesdemandedalotofrespectfromthecommunity.An

exampleofthisisfoundinthecityofTlaxcalawherethekingXicotencatlgavetwo

ofhisdaughters,DoñaLuisaandDoñaLucíatoPedrodeAlvaradoandhisbrother

Jorge.BecauseofthepositiontheyheldintheTlacaltecasociety,theseprincesses

gaveauthenticitytoconquestexpeditionsandwereusedtoencouragelocal

warriorstopartakeinconquestsalloverMesoamericaandSouthAmerica.61Using

marriagestocementalliances,asdiscussedindepthinChapter2,wasapractice

                                                            60BretBlosser,“’BytheForceofTheirLivesandtheSpillingofBlood’:FlecheroServiceandPoliticalLeverageonaNuevaGalaciaFrontier,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),291.;YannaYannakakis,“TheIndiosConquistadoresofOaxaca’sSierraNorte:FromIndianConquerorstoLocalIndians,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),237.61RobisonA.Herrera,“ConcubinesandWives:ReinterpretingNative‐SpanishIntimateUnionsinSixteenth‐CenturyGuatemala,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),121,129,131–133.;OudijkandRestall,45.;Schroeder,20.

 

 

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seeninboththeIberianPeninsulaandMesoamerica.Thispracticeisanother

exampleofasimilaritybetweenthetwosocietiesinthepre‐Conquestyears,which

translatedtotheColonialperiodandcontinuedtobeusedtothebenefitofboth

groupsofpeople.62

Conclusions

OnTuesday,the15thofFebruaryoftheyear1600,donJuanCanodeMoctezuma,aSpaniard,produced[arepresentationof]thelateMoteucçoma.DonHernandodeAlvaradoTezozomoctzinimpersonatedMoteucçoma.Theycarriedhimonaplatformandwentshelteringhimwithacanopy.Inhispresencepeoplewentdancingashecameinfrontofthepalace…theSpaniardscelebrated.63

ThisquotefromoneofChimalpahin’smanyworksshowsthesurvivalofrespectfor

indigenousnobilityduringacelebrationofthegreatemperor,MoctezumaII.Juan

CanodeMoctezuma,thesonofIsabelMoctezumaandgrandsonofMoctezumaII

carriesarepresentationofhisgrandfatherthroughthecrowdsinMexicoCity.

Anothermemberoftheoldindigenousnobility,HernandodeAlvarado

Tezozomoctzin,isdresseduptoimpersonateMoctezuma.Heiscarriedonacanopy‐

coveredplatform,whichishowMoctezumahadgoneaboutthecityandis

celebratedbythepeopleofthecity.Notonlywashestillbeingcelebratedbythe

indigenouspeopleofcentralMexico,butChimalpahin’stestimonystatesthateven

theSpaniardswerecelebrating.HewasrespectedbyCortésandbelovedbymanyof

                                                            62Asselbergs,83.;OudijkandRestall,45.63Chimalpahin,Annals,67.

 

 

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theSpanishmenwhowerekeepinghimhostage.Thisrespectandhonorlivedinto

theColonialperiodwiththetreatmentofhisdescendants.Moctezumamayhave

beenkilledandhiscitydestroyed,butindigenouscultureinMesoamericawasalive

andwellforalongtimeaftertheeventknownastheConquest.

Beforebeginningthismanuscript,Ihadastrongsensethatmanyofthe

scholarlysourceswhichclaimedthatthecultureoftheMexicawasbarbaricand

uncivilized,thattheSpaniardsweresuperiorineveryway,thattheMexicawere

devilworshiperswithnosenseofreligion,andthattheConquestcompletelywiped

outthecultureofnativeMesoamericans,weremissingafewkeyelements.Nowthat

theresearchprocessisalmostover,Icandefinitivelysaythatalloftheseclaimsare

indeedwrong.TheMexicawereextraordinary.Theircivilizationwasremarkably

sophisticated,theirreligionextremelyadvanced,theirculturesoadaptablethatit

notonlysurvivedtheConquestbutisstillalivetoday,andtheywereinmanywas

superiortotheircontemporarySpaniards.Infact,theirculturewasremarkablylike

thatoftheir“conquerors.”ThisallowedtheColonialsocietyinNewSpaintomerge

thetwocultures,blendtheirpractices,andformaveryuniqueidentity.

TheColonialexperienceinNewSpainwasuniquebecauseindigenous

culturewasnotoverpoweredandreplacedbythecultureoftheSpanish

conquerors.Likewise,thetwocultureswerenotentirelyisolatedfromoneanother

either.BecauseMesoamericansandSpaniardshadagreatdealofculturaltraitsin

common,theyeasilysawparallelsinoneanother’spractices.Thisallowedfor

 

 

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indigenouscultureandsocietytosurviveintotheColonialperiod,onlygradually

changingasitincorporatedSpanishideas,yetstillremainedrecognizableasthe

civilizationthathadexistedinthepre‐Conquestyears.InMesoamerica,indigenous

culturenotonlysurvived,butitthrivedandreadilyadaptedandevolved.Inorderto

keeptheirculturealive,indigenouspeopleofcentralMexicosoughtoutfamiliar

aspectsofthenewEuropeancultureandincorporatedintotheirownsocieties.By

selectivelyadaptingtocertainaspectsofSpanishculture,theywerefulfillingthe

colonialgovernment’swishesofbecoming“Hispanicized.”Ontheotherhand,by

reworkingnewideastofittheirowntraditionalbeliefsandvalues,thenewly

introducedculturewascompletelyredevelopedintosomethingentirelynovel.64It

wasneitherEuropeannorindigenousculture;itwasauniqueblendoftwosocieties

moresimilarthanmostpeoplewouldcaretoadmit.

                                                            64Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,10.;Wood,10.

 

 

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CONCLUSION

TheSpanishConquestofMexicohasoftenbeenreducedtoasimple,singular

event.BecauseoftheimportanceofimpressingtheSpanishCrownandsecuring

royalfunds,earlySpanishconquistadors(mostnotablyCortés)emphasizedthe

incivilityofthenativesoftheNewWorldandtheabundantrichestobefoundinthe

newlands.EarlyhistorianscontinuedtofollowthisHispanicizednarrativeandfor

manycenturies,theindigenousvoicewassuppressed.Nativepeopleswere

portrayedasbarbaricandbackwards,aseasilyconqueredandmanipulated,andas

completelyabsorbedintoSpanishculture.Byfocusingonsimilaritiesbetweenthe

SpanishandMexicaculturesintheyearsbeforetheConquest,Ihopetoshowthat

therelationshipbetweenthesetwosocietieswasmuchdifferentthanwhatis

popularlybelieved.

Theyear1521markstheendofatwoyearwarandthefallofTenochtitlan,

butitdoesnotsignifytheendofindigenouscultureinMesoamericaorthe

disappearanceofMexicasociety.BecausetheMexicaandSpaniardshadsomany

culturalaspectsincommon,indigenousculturewasallowedtosurvivewithinthe

newcolonialorder.Inthepre‐Conquestyears,boththeSpanishandMexicawere

conqueringsocieties;astheSpanishKingdomsstruggledtoregaincontrolofthe

IberianPeninsuladuringtheinfamousReconquista,theMexicamigratedtocentral

Mexico,builtanimposingcapitalinthemiddleofalake,andgainedcontrolover

 

 

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muchofcentralMexico.Bothofthesecultureswerealsoextremelyreligious.They

bothbelievedthatahigherbeingcontrolledeveryaspectofanindividual’slife.

Praying,givinggiftsandsacrifices,andperformingpenancesforsinswerecommon

practicesseenthroughoutEuropeandMesoamerica.Whenfocusingonthespecifics,

therewereofcoursesomedifferencesbetweenthereligionsthesetwogroups

practiced,butbylookingatthebiggerpicture,itisclearthattheimportanceof

religionwasthecentralfactorinbothSpainandMexico.

Theimportanceofroyaltyinbothsocietieswasalsoakeysimilarityinthe

pre‐ConquestyearsthattranslatedintoColonialsociety.Forthisaspectofsociety,I

havedelveddeeperintosomeofthespecificsimilarities.BothSpaniardsandthe

Mexicahadastrictformofroyalinheritanceandgavepreeminencetothedynastic

royalfamily.InSpain,thiswastheTrastámarafamilywhichbegantheirreignwhen

anillegitimatesonstolethethronefromhisbrotherin1369.Thisfamilypassedon

theruleofCastilefromfathertoson(andbrothertosister)untilCharlesVcameto

thethronein1516andbegantheHapsburgdynastyinSpain.1Theinheritanceofthe

royalcrownfollowedasimilarpatternintheMexicaEmpirebeginningwith

Acamapichtli,whotookthethronesometimebetween1362and1384.Theruleof

centralMexicowaspassedfromfathertoson,brothertobrother,anduncleto

nephewinadirectlineofmaledescendants.ThefinalMexicarulerbefore

                                                            1Liss,xv,10.;MacKay,121‐122,133,141.;Miller,22.;Redworth,24‐25.;Storrs,11.

 

 

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Tenochtitlanfellin1521wasCuauhtémoc,agreat‐great‐grandsonofAcampaichtli.2

Thedirectlinewithinaroyalfamily,andtheimportanceofkeepingthecrown

withinthatspecificdynastyissomethingthattheSpanishandMexicareadily

recognizedassomethingtheyhadincommon.Inthepost‐Conquestyearsthis

meantthattheSpanishgreatlyrespectedthedescendantsoftheMexicadynastyand

theseindigenousnobleswereabletofindsomesuccessinthenewcolonialorder.

Tokeepthebloodlinespure,marriageswereoftenmadewithintheextended

royalfamily.Marriagewasalsousedinbothculturesasastrategytocement

allianceswithotherpolities.Thissimilarityinthepre‐Conquestyearswascarried

onintotheColonialeraandrepresentedablendofthesetwoculturesandtheir

practices.TheSpaniardsreadilymademarriageallianceswithindigenous

noblewomeninordertocementfriendshipandgainthecooperationofthenative

people.ThebestexampleofthisisthemarriageofMoctezumaII’sdaughterIsabel

tothreehigh‐rankingSpaniardsinquicksuccession.3ThekingofTlaxcala,

Xicotencatl,alsogavetwoofhisdaughterstoSpanishconquistadorsinorderto

cementthealliancebetweentheSpanishandtheirindigenousallies.4Sothisideaof

bloodpurity,andkeepingtheroyalfamilypureandalsousingdaughterstomake

strategicmarriagealliancesreadilybecameapartofColonialsocietysinceithad

                                                            2Ross,19,22,25,33.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,35‐43,53‐57,113‐115,119,123‐125,129‐133,157‐159,165‐167,211‐213,217,229‐233,235.;Durán,33‐34,38,41‐49,51‐53,60,84,91,218,220,224,301,322‐323.;Keber,61‐64,66,85,211‐214,216,227‐228,271‐272,274.;Motolinía,28l;Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.8,1,2,4,15.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,45‐47,97‐98.3Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,55‐57,163‐165.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,87.;Chipman,49,51‐52,58‐59,95.;CódiceCozcatzin,35.;Martínez,111.;Townsend,164‐165.4Herrera,121,129,131‐133.;OudijkandRestall,45.;Schroeder,20. 

 

 

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alreadyexistedinbothcultures’pre‐Conquestpast.Marriagealliancesbetweenthe

Europeansandindigenouswasoneofthemostimportantsolidifyingfactorsinthe

earlyColonialyears,andledtothemestizajecharacterofLatinAmericathatstill

existstothisday.

Anotheraspectofpre‐contactculturethatwasapparentinbothsocietieswas

thedistinctionbetweenclassesandespeciallythevisualdistinctionoftherulersand

theroyalfamily.Membersoftheroyalfamilywhowerenotcloseenoughtothe

thronetohaveahopeofrulingwereoftengivenotherprestigiouspositionsin

societytoshowtheirstatus.InSpain,thisincludedpositionsinthechurchandnoble

titlessuchasduke,count,andmarquis.InMexico,extramaleheirswereoftenpart

oftheroyalcounciloffour,whichhadthepowertoelectrulersandmakemajor

governmentalpositions.Thesenoblemenwerealsogivenlargetractsofconquered

landstoruleintheirownrightandwereoftengiventhelordshipoverneighboring

city‐states.5ThesepracticescreatedverycomplicatedwebsofnobilityintheIberian

PeninsulaandMesoamericaandweremergedandincorporatedintothenew

Colonialorder.Visualdistinctionssuchasclothingwerealsoimportanttoboththe

SpanishandMexicaandcontinuedtobeanintegralpartofsocietyintheColonial

period.

Pomp,ceremony,andshowingoffroyalprestigeandpowerinaelaborate

publicwaywasahugepartofthecultureintheIberianPeninsulaaswellasin

                                                            5Durán,58‐60,70,72.;Miller,56,153,159,160,173.;Redworth,6,10,11.

 

 

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Mesoamerica.Especiallyeventssurroundingthereligiouscalendarandtheroyal

family(suchasweddings,funerals,androyalbirths)werenotonlycelebratedbya

grandfeastattheroyalpalace,butwerealsocelebratedbythecommonpeople.The

royalsusuallyusedtheseeventsasanexcusetostageelaborateprocessionthrough

themajorcitiestoshowthemselvestotheirsubjectsandgivetheirpeopleareason

tocelebratetheirreign.6TheseceremonialpracticesdidnotstopaftertheConquest.

TheSpanishbroughttheirowncelebrationstotheNewWorldandtheindigenous

peopleadoptedmanyaspectsofSpanishceremonialculture.Yettheindigenous

peoplealsocontinuedtocelebratetheirownimportanteventsandpeopleanddid

sointraditionalnativeways.

AnotheraspectofsocietythatwassimilarinboththeIberianPeninsulaand

Mesoamericaistheimportanceofcities,localcommunitiesandgovernance,and

regionalautonomy.IncentralMexico,theMexicaruledavastareaoflandfromtheir

capitalcityTenochtitlan.However,theregionsthattheyhadcontroloverstill

maintainedmuchoftheirautonomyandweregenerallyallowedtokeeptheirown

localdynasticrulersinplaceandcontinuetraditionalregionalpractices.7Thisform

ofindirectimperialcontrolhasoftenledscholarstodismisstheideathatwhatthe

Mexicahadbuiltupwasindeedanempire.However,theirformofcontrolwas

normalforMesoamericaandwasevenreplicatedintheSpanishKingdoms.The

royalcourtmovedaboutintheIberianPeninsulaandsotheyhadnocapitalcity.

                                                            6Durán,34,35,40,43,47,87,150,168,174‐179,218.;Miller,81,82,85,104,105,172,234,264,265.7Tapia,24,28. 

 

 

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Whentheywereresidinginamajorcity,theimperialgovernmenttookoverthe

reignsforatime,butassoonastheroyalcourtmovedon,governmentalcontrolwas

restoredtolocalofficials.Inthisway,mostcitiesandregionsoftheIberian

PeninsulawereunderthecontrolofthekingsandqueensoftheSpanishKingdoms,

butotherthanowingloyaltyandtribute,thesecitieswereself‐governing.8Theidea

ofacitybeingitsownstate,withinthelargerimperialstate,wasapopularpractice

inbothSpainandMexicointhepre‐Conquestyears.After1521,thecity‐statesof

MesoamericaoftenremainedintactandrelativelyautonomousinthenewColonial

order.MajorindigenouscitiesbecametheframeworkofnewSpanishcolonialcities

andoutlyingtownsweregenerallylefttotheirowndevices.Localrulersremained

incontroloftheregiontheirfamilyhadtraditionallyheldpowerover,andsoforthe

averageperson,locallifeinthenewSpanishsocietywasnotanydifferentthanit

hadbeenbefore.

Cityarchitecturewasjustasimportantasthecitiesthemselvesandthemajor

infrastructuresofthecitiesinbothSpainandMexicoshowcasedthetwomost

importantaspectsofsociety:religionandroyalty.Royalpalaceswereofenormous

significancetotheMexicarulers,andastheSpanishMonarchsbegantoestablish

morecontrol,theyalsorealizedtheimportanceofthisvisualrepresentationof

wealthandprestige.InTenochtitlan,Moctezuma’spalaceswerethegrandest

residentialmonumentsinthecities.Theywerecompletewithroomstoholdcourt,

conductgovernment,andhadelaborateroyallivingquarters.Thesepalacesalso                                                            8Edwards,135.;Hilgarth,Vol.1,51,80.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,65.;Mariéjol,238,243,272,277,282.

 

 

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containedelaborategardens,aviaries,andzoosfortherulerstodistractthemselves

fromthedemandsofgovernance.9Spanishrulersalsobuiltelaborateand

extravagantpersonalresidences,whichtheyusedinthesamewaythattheMexica

usedtheirs,toconductbusinessbutalsotoentertainthemselvesandothers.10

Religiousarchitecturewasalsoverydominantinbothsocieties.InbothSpanishand

centralMexicancities,thereligiouscomplexwaslocatedatthecenteroftownand

dominatedtheskylineofthecity.11Theimportanceofreligionforshowcasing

power,wealth,andtheimportanceofreligionwascarriedonintothepost‐Conquest

years.ThenewCatholiccathedralwasbuiltonthesiteoftheoldMexicapyramid

usingthestonesfromthedemolishedindigenoustemple.Cortés’shomewasbuilt

onthesamesitewhereMoctezuma’spalacehadbeen,showingthattheSpanishnot

onlyrecognizedtheimportanceofthesestructuresandlocations,butrespectedthe

importanceofthemfortheindigenouspeople.

Withintheroyalpalacesofthecities,anotherimportantaspectofroyal

culturewasstrictlyobservedandthatwasthepracticeofcourtlyceremonies.Tobe

aroyalpersoninbothSpainandMexicomeantthateachaspectofone’sdailylife

wasstrictlydictatedbyceremony.Eachmealwasanelaborateaffairwhichwas

carriedoutwithadherencetostructuredsequentialevents.Apersonofnon‐royal

birthhadtobehaveinacertainwayandmakeobeisancestotherulerifallowedto

entertheroyalpresence.Theideaofcourtlypracticeswasoneofthefirst

                                                            9Aguilar,146,147,180.;Cortés,85,91,109,110.;Díaz,194,211‐215.;Tapia,38,40.10Hilgarth,Vol.1,51,56,62.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,50‐51.;Mariéjol,237,244‐245.11Augilar,179.;AnnonymousConquistador,168,175.;Cortés,105.;Díaz,217,218.;Tapia,41,42. 

 

 

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similaritiesInoticedbetweentheSpanishandMexicaandwhichpromptedthe

desireforthismoreindepthstudyofthesimilaritiesbetweenthesetwocultures.

Becauseofthesesimilarities,theSpanishknewhowtotreatMoctezumawhenthey

firstapproachedhimandwerewillingtoshowhimtherespectthathedeserved.

Bothculturesdictatedthatrulersweredivinepeopleandtherepresentativeofthe

godsonearth,andsothisconceptwaseasilyadheredtowhentheSpanishfirst

enteredTenochtitlanandcamefacetofacewiththeMexicaemperor.12

Alloftheseaspectsofpre‐ConquestculturesurvivedintotheColonialEra.

TheimportanceofthesimilaritiesbetweenSpanishandMexicacultureisevidentin

thesocietythataroseintheearlyColonialyears.Itwasnotanoverarching

Europeancultureandindigenouspracticesdidnotdisappear.Therelationships

betweenthesetwocivilizationsinpre‐Colonialtimesmeantthatmanyaspectsof

societythataroseafter1521wereacombinationofbothEuropeanandindigenous

culture.ThenewSpanishsettlerslearnedalotfromtheindigenouspeople,andthis

processoflearningwentbothways.Thesetwoculturescametogetherinawaythat

wasuniqueforcolonialprojects.Theydidnotcompletelyisolatethemselvesfrom

oneanother,andoneculturedidnotdominate.Instead,theSpanishandMexica

knewthatthemostsuccessfulrouteforeachoftheirsocietieswastoworktogether

tocreatethenewinstitutionsofcolonialNewSpain.Theyobservedoneanother,

                                                            12Aguilar,147,148.;Cortés,92,111,112.;Díaz,208‐211,230,231,233,236.;Hilgarth,Vol.1,50.;Mariéjol,37,244,245,247.;Tapia,40.

 

 

166

borrowedideas,andmeshedtheirtraditionsintoabrandnewsocietyintheNew

World.

Thismanuscriptonlyscratchesthesurfaceoftheworkthatcanbedonewith

regardstorelationshipsandsimilaritiesbetweenpre‐contactSpanishandMexica

societies.SomeideasthatIonlytouchedonbriefly,suchasreligionandwarrior

ethos,canandshouldbeexaminedinfull.Manyworkshavebeendoneon

MesoamericanreligionandmanyhavealsofocusedontheSpiritualConquestinthe

NewWorld.Butacomparisonbetweenthetworeligionsintheyearsbeforecontact

islackingandwouldbeagreatendeavorforfurtherstudyontherelationships

betweenthesetwocultures.

ThisworkisnotonlyimportantforscholarsofMesoamericaandearly

ColonialNewSpain.Anewapproachtounderstandingthedevelopmentand

implementationofcolonialprojectscanbeappliedtocolonizationacrosstheworld.

BylookingattherelationshipsbetweenindigenousinhabitantsandtheirEuropean

conquerors,weasscholarscanbetterunderstandtheinteractionsbetweenthe

conquerorsandtheconquered.Wecanuserelationshipstounderstandwhy

colonialstatesusethetacticstheydo,whyandtowhatextentindigenouspeople

resist,andwhatthisallmeansforthecountriesofthemodernworld.Insum,

MesoamericanhistoriansandscholarsofearlyColonialNewSpaincanusethiswork

andapproachtocolonialsocieties,butitcanalsobeusefultoscholarsstudying

colonialismallovertheglobe.Itisalsorelevanttothestudyofmodernnationsthat

 

 

167

evolvedfromcolonialprojects.Thecolonialpastofacountryorregioncantellalot

abouthowthatareaevolvedintothenationitisinthemodernday.Ihopethatthis

workcanbeusedasaplatformforotherstudiestofurthertheunderstandingofthe

MexicaofTenochtitlan,theirrelationshiptocontemporarySpanishsociety,andwhy

thiscolonialexperienceledtothecountryweknowasMexicotoday.These

questionscanbeansweredbyexploringtherelationshipsduringthecolonialpastof

thesixteenthcentury.

InfurtherprojectsIwouldliketoexaminefurthertheinstitutionsthatarose

inTenochtitlanandthesurroundingareaofcentralMexicointheearlyyearsof

colonialisminNewSpain.Thefocuswillcontinuetoberoyalty,royalculture,and

courtlylife,butwillmovefrompre‐Conquestsimilaritiestopost‐Conquestrealities.

HowdidindigenousroyaltysurviveintheColonialyears?WhichaspectsofMexica

societywereadoptedbytheSpaniardsandwhichonesweremanipulatedintoa

moreEuropeanform?WastherestillaroyalcourtinearlyColonialMexicoCity?

Thesequestionscanbeansweredbylookingfurtherintothecolonialdocumentsof

NewSpainandwillshedmorelightontheintegrationofbothEuropeanand

indigenouscultureintothenewcolonialorder.

IwouldalsoliketocomparethecolonialexperienceincentralMexicowith

othercolonizationprojectsacrosstheworld.Thiswillincludelookingatother

SpanishcoloniesinCentralandSouthAmericaandtheCaribbean.Iwillalsoexplore

otherEuropeanimperialculturessuchasEnglandandtheirexperiencesinNorth

 

 

168

America,Belize,Australia,andIndia,andFranceinNorthAfrica,SouthAmerica,and

theCaribbean.Portuguesecolonizationwillalsobeafocusofthisstudy,andtheir

colonialprojectsinAfricaandBrazilwillalsobeusedforcomparison.Thefocusof

thislargecomparativeglobalcolonialstudywillbetherelationshipsbetween

EuropeanandIndigenousculturebeforecontactandhowsimilarities(orlack

thereof)contributetothesocietythatisfoundincolonialstates.Understanding

colonialsociety,andpre‐contactsimilarities,iscrucialfortheunderstandingof

modernnationstatestoday.WiththisprojectandtheonesIhopetoexploreinthe

future,Iintendtocontributetothecolonialnarrative,andhelpshedlighton

indigenousviewpoints,culturalsurvival,andsuccess.

 

 

169

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