regionalism: art and architecture of the regional styles...

Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to

c.1200 (Deccan and south India)

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Lesson: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200 (Deccan and south India)

Lesson Developer: Anisha Saxena and Niharika Sankrityayan

College/ Department: Lady Shri Ram College/Center For

Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University




Table of Contents Chapter 20: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles

750 AD to c.1200 (Deccan and South India and Deccan)

Introduction

20.1 Art and architecture of the Deccan I: Kailashnatha temple, Ellora

20.2 Art and architecture of the Deccan II: Chalukyan Architecture

20.3 Art and Architecture in South India I: Pallava Architecture

20.4 Art and Architecture in South India II: Chola Architecture 20.4.1 Art and Architecture: Early Phase

20.4.2 Art ad Architecture: Second Phase 20.4.3 Art and Architecture: Third Phase

20.5 Metal Sculpture 20.6 Other Architectural Achievements

20. 7Exercise Glossary

Further Readings




Introduction

The previous chapter (chapter 19) discussed in detail various schools of architecture and sculpture that developed in northern India from

750 to 1200 CE. The chapter also discussed how temples in the early medieval India were not merely spaces for religious activity, they were

important structures that legitimized political authority and regulated economic life, sometimes even acting as banks providing loans to

traders. The present chapter in continuation with the previous chapter will discuss the growth of architecture and sculpture in south India and

Deccan from 750 to 1200 CE.

The early beginnings of architecture and sculpture in south India and

Deccan under the patronage provided by the Pallavas and the Chalukya rulers has already been discussed in great detail in chapter

10 (see chapter on cultural development). The foundations of the Dravida or the south Indian style of architecture were laid under the

Pallava rulers, who ruled from the sixth to the ninth century CE. The architecture of the Deccan or Vesara style was an amalgamation of the

Nagara and Dravida style of architecture and developed under the Chalukyas.

Politically by the eighth century CE the Deccan and southern India

were experiencing changes in political environment. From the middle of the sixth century to the thirteenth century, the Deccan region of

peninsular India came under the sway of a line of rulers. An important

dynasty was the Chalukyas of Badami ruling from their capital at Badami or Vatapi. The Early Chalukyas achieved political unification of

much of the Deccan for almost 200 years, even though during this period portions of their territories were temporarily lost to the Pallavas

from the Tamil country in southern India. Just after 750 CE the Chalukyas of Badami succumbed to the Rashtrakuta invasion from

Maharashtra in the northern Deccan. From 757 CE for about two centuries, the Rashtrakutas ruled over the Deccan. In 973 CE the

Rashtrakutas were ousted by Taila II, a scion of the Chalukya family, who established his capital at Kalyani/Kalyana. The decedents of Taila




ruled from there until 1161 CE, when the region was temporarily

occupied by the Kalachuris with their capital at Annigeri and was afterwards shifted to Kalyani. The Chalukyas of Kalyani regained

power and ruled until 1189 CE. Due to the declining strength, the southern part of their territory was occupied by the Hoysalas and the

northern by the Yadavas of Devagiri. The Yadavas ruled from 1187-1310 CE. The Kakatiyas who were vassals of the Chalukyas of Kalyani

became independent after the defeat of the Chalukyas by the Kalachuris. The Kakatiyas rose to power and ruled over a large part of

the Deccan for nearly three centuries. The Eastern Chalukyas has established themselves in Vengi by the second half of the eighth

century and ruled till late tenth century, when they defeated by the

Cholas. The Pallavas of Kanchi continued to rule till the ninth century coming constantly in conflict with the Chalukyas, Pandyas and

Rashtrakutas, their power slowly dwindling replaced by the Cholas. The Cholas came to power at Tanjore under Vijayalaya, who defeated

the Muttaraiyar chiefs. In the beginning of their rule the Cholas accepted Pallavas as their overlords, but by the end of the ninth

century, beginning of tenth the Cholas under the leadership of Aditya I (871-907 CE) had become one of the strongest dynasty ruling from

south India. By mid twelfth century under the rule of the later Chola kings the empire began to dwindle loosing territory to the western

chalukyas and the emerging Hoysalas, who ruled Karnataka from the tenth to the fourteenth century. Each of the political dynasties that

ruled south India and Deccan created some of the exquisite examples of art, both in terms of temple architecture and sculpture.

20.1 Art and architecture of the Deccan I: Kailashnatha temple, Ellora In Deccan the most fascinating traditions of rock-cut and structural

temples emerged from the sixth to the thirteenth centuries CE. The religious monuments of the Chalukyas of Badami are of outstanding

interest for their transition from cutting into rock to free-standing construction, as well as for their range of distinctive architectural

styles. Hardly anywhere else in India it is possible to find cave-temples and structural temples of the same period beside each other at the

same site, as in Badami and Aihole; nor at other sites can temples be seen next to each other built in contrasting Dravida and Nagara styles,

as at Mahakuta and Pattadakal.

One of the finest examples of rock cut architecture in Deccan is the

Kailasa temple at Ellora. It is one of the largest and the biggest




monolithic temple in India. The temple was the result of the

munificence of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (756-773 CE) and was named after him as Krishnesvara. The style of carving for the main

complex is uniform. Its architectural and elevational impact is marred by the fact that it is located as if in a huge pit or hollow of a rocky hill.

The plan of the temple has a square mandapa with sixteen columns, three porches, sandhara plan of shrine and ambulatory passage

(pradakshina-patha). Its ambulatory passage is an open terrace. The iconography of the south wall of its mandapa is rich with Ramayana

panels.

Kailasa temple, Elevation Source: AIIS, Gurgaon

20.2 Art and architecture of the Deccan II: Chalukya Architecture

In the first half of the 8th century, climax of the Dravida and Nagara styles appeared, with emergence of other idioms and stylistic

intermingling. In the later years of Chalukya ruler Vijayaditya’s reign (696-733 CE), and reigns of Vikramaditya II (733-44 CE) and

Kirttivarma II (744-57 CE) a number of temples were constructed. Some of the temples are: Sangameshvara,Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna

temples at Pattadakal. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami,

Gaudargudi , Chikkigudi Hucchappayyamatha, Hucchappayyagudi and Hucchimalligudi, Durga and Ladkhan, Galaganatha and Mallikarjuna




temples at Aihole.

The largest of the Pattadakal temples and the most elaborately

planned and artistically embellished monument of the Chalukya period, the Virupaksha stands at the southern perimeter of the site’s

landscaped compound. The temple is associated with Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II, and was original named after her as

Lokeshvara. That the temple must have been considered the outstanding achievement of the era is borne out by two inscriptions on

the eastern gateway to the complex. These give the names of the principal architects: Tribhuvan and Sarvasiddhi Acharyas, Master of

the Three Worlds and Master of the Abode of Good Qualities. Many of

the sculptors involved on the project also have their names engraved beneath the carved panels that they worked on.

Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal Source: Author

The Virupaksha temple is the focus of a symmetrically planned complex, with a stone paved compound bounded by walls and sub-




shrines, entered through gateways on the east and west. A Nandi

pavilion stands freely within the compound, between the temple and the eastern gateway. The temple consists of a linga sanctuary

surrounded by a passageway on three sides, lit by windows on three sides and preceded by a vestibule. This opens into a square mandapa

with sixteen free-standing columns creating five aisles running in both directions, the central aisles being slightly wider.

The sculptures on the outer walls are among the greatest masterpieces

of Chalukya plastic art. Panels on the passageway walls are mostly devoted to Shiva, which include icons of Bhikshatana, Bhairava,

Lakulisha holding a club, and Harihara. The central projection on the

north passageway walls has a formally posed eight-armed image of Vishnu armed with disc, conch, sword, shield, bow and arrow, with a

dwarf at the feet. That this may be a replacement image is suggested by Shiva and Parvati between exquisitely modelled makaras with open

jaws, riders and cascading tails on the walls above, and diminutive Mahishasuramardini beneath. An image of Varaha occupies the

adjacent recess.

20.3 Art and Architecture in south India I: Pallava Architecture

A definite architectural and iconographical vocabulary had developed in south India under the Pallavas by the seventh century CE. This is clear

indicated in the rock cut structures that the Pallavas created at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu). It was also under the Pallavas that the

first structural temples were created in south India. The Shore temple at Mahabalipuram is considered the first structural temple built in

south India. The temple is constructed out of blocks of granite and was constructed under the patronage of the Pallava king Narsimhavarman

II Rajasimha (700-728 CE).

The temple has an unusual plan with three distinct worship areas

constructed on a same platform; the primary worship area faces east and is dedicated to Shiva. This worship area has the highest pyramidal

superstructure. The second, smaller shrine is also dedicated to Shiva and consists of a smaller superstructure. The third shrine is located at

the western edge and is dedicated to Vishnu as Anantashayin and has no superstructure. The figure of Anantashayin was carved out of

existing rock at situ.




Shore temple, Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu

Notice the two rising pyramidal shaped shikaras Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shore_Temple#mediaviewer/File:

Shore_temple,_mahabalipuram.jpg




20.4 Art and Architecture of south India II: Chola Architecture 20.4.1 Art and Architecture: Early Phase

The Cholas were the successors of the Pallava rulers in south India and had established themselves firmly by the ninth century CE. Their

religious and artistic activity centered in and around Tanjore. Early stages of temple architecture began under the reign of Aditya I (871-

907 CE) and Paratntaka I (907-955 CE).

The first phase of Chola artistic activity can be dated from the ninth to the early half of the tenth century CE, the temples during this early

phase were generally constructed entirely in stone and were smaller in size. The plan of the early temples consisted of a vimana and an

ardhmandapa. The entire complex was surrounded by a prakara and a

small gopuram was placed at the principal entrance, the superstructure of which was constructed in brick.

One of the finest examples of the early Chola architecture is the

Brahmapurishvara temple at Pullamangai in Papanasam district, twenty kilometers from Tanjore. The temple is dated to 910 CE and

was constructed under the reign of Parantaka I, dedicated to Shiva the temple faces east and consists of a vimana and an ardhmandapa.

The outer walls of the temple contain images of various Brahmanical

gods and goddesses, these sculptures are some of the finest Chola sculptures carved in stone and show extraordinary grace and delicacy.

The adhisthana of the temple has a beautifully carved frieze of yalis. Sculptures of exceptionally beautifully carved ganas appear at various

places on the temple walls, they are carved with great skill and

delicacy and are represented in various moods and poses.




Standing sculpture of Brahma, Brahmapurishvara temple, Tamil Nadu. Source:https://www.flickr.com/photos/shanmugamsriraman/3688625

087/in/set-72157620836984165




Images of ganas in various poses and moods, Brahmapurishvara temple, Tamil Nadu.

Source: http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/01-12/features2349.htm

The next impetus for the Chola architecture came under the patronage of the Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, wife of Chola king

Gandaraditya (949-957 CE). Though not many new temples were constructed under her, she is said to have replaced a number of

existing brick temples with stone. The quality of Chola stone sculpture

became deteriorated, the sculpture became stiff marking a deviation from the early graceful and delicate style. The Agastyeshvara temple

at Anangur, Tamil Nadu is said to be built by her in 979 CE.

20.4.2 Art and Architecture: Second Phase

The next phase of Chola architecture began with the accession of

Rajaraja I (985-1012 CE) and continued under the reign of his son Rajendra Chola (1012-1044 CE). Under the rule of Rajaraja the Chola

empire reached its zenith, he conquered parts of Kerala, Coorg, lower and eastern Karnataka. In 993 CE he also led naval expeditions to Sri

Lanka and Maldives. Rajaraja not only patronized Brahmanical temples and deities, under his rule a number of Jaina and Buddhist religious

structures were also constructed.




This phase of Chola architecture was marked by construction of large,

grand temples with multiple stories- Brihadishvara temples at Thanjavur and at Gangaikondacholapuram are two examples of this

phase of Chola architecture.

The Brihadishvara temple at Tanjore during its time of construction was one of the largest buildings to be constructed in the world. The

temple has a number of inscriptions and inform that the temple was constructed between 1003 CE - 1010 CE. Dedicated to Shiva the

temple was originally surrounded by two prakara walls, the inner prakara is 800 feet long (east-west) and 400 feet broad (north-south)

and has gopuram on the east entrance and three small torana on the

other three sides. The outer prakara is now completely lost, but the gopuram attached to it still stands on the east.

Seen in the photograph are the two entrance gopuram to the Brihadishvara temple, notice the barrel valuted roof that finishes the

shikhara of the gopuram.

Brihadishvara temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadeeswarar_Temple




Both the gopurams are same in design though the outer gopuram is taller and has five tiers and inner gopuram has three tiers. In front of

the temple rests an enormous stone image of Nandi, which is sixteen feet long and thirteen feet high.

The main temple itself is constructed out of granite and is one hundred

and eighty feet in length and consists of a mukhamandapa, ardhmandapa, an antarala, a garbhagriha and a pradakshinapath. The

niches on outer walls of the temple contain images of various forms of Shiva. The Vimana of the temple is two hundred and sixteen feet high

and consists of sixteen stories

Brihadishvara temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu

Source: http://undiscoveredindiantreasures.blogspot.in/2011/06/brihadeeswar

a-temple-in.html




Similar to the architectural style of Brihadesvara at Tanjore, Rajaraja I’s son Rajendra I constructed another temple with same name at his

new capital city of Gangaikindacholapuarm. Constructed in about 1023 CE, the temple marked his victory over Pala king Mahipala. The temple

has only one prakara wall with an all-stone gopuram on the east.

Brihadesvara temple, Gangaikondacholapuram, Tamil Nadu

Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangaikonda_Cholapuram#mediaviewer/File:GangaiKonda_Cholapuram(Front_View).JPG

20.4.3 Art and Architecture: Third Phase

The last phase of architecture under the Chola patronage began in

1070 CE and lasted till 1279 CE. During this phase the Chola rulers focused on restoration of the old temples and made additions to the

existing temples than undertaking new temple projects. Vikrama Chola (1118-1135 CE) added a Nrittya mandapa and covered the roof of the

Tirumalikai temple. Kulotunga III (1178-1218) added a Nrittya

mandapa at the Chidambaram temple. Both these rulers also added a prakara wall and a gopuram to the already existing goddess shrine at




Chidambara.

Another feature that became common during this time was

construction of separate shrine for the female goddesses, which came to be known as the Amman shrines. The addition of free standing

mandapas that are popularly called the ‘thousand pillared halls’ also became popular’ the mandapas of the temple became more ornate and

started receiving special attention; one of the architectural feature peculiar to this phase of Chola architecture was the shape of the

mandapas which imitated form of a chariot. The number and size of gopurams increased, they also became more ornate than before.

20.5 Metal Sculpture

The Cholas created some of the most exquisite metal sculptures known to humankind. Their bronze sculptures are world famous for their

exquisite quality, beauty, grace and precision. Pratapaditya Pal rightly notes that the Chola sculptors found an ideal balance between form

and ornamentation. Although the figures are idealized, they appear to

be naturalistically modeled. Chola bronzes have found their way in all major museums in the world.

Before the Cholas, even the Pallavas were aware of the knowledge of

bronze casting, but only few examples of Pallava bronze sculpture survive. The technique used to create the bronze sculpture by the

Cholas is called cire perdue or the lost wax process. According to this process a wax model of the image created was made with all complete

details of jewellery, clothes etc, then this image was coated with three layers of clay. This clay-encased wax image was heated, the wax

melted out leaving a hollow cavity within the clay image. The molted bronze was then carefully poured inside the hollow clay image and was

allowed to cool. Once the metal was called and set the clay was broken revealing a bronze image. Details were reworked and image was given

its final shape. Out of all the images created by Chola sculptors the

image of Shiva as Nataraja is their best-known creation, they are best known for their high aesthetic quality.

These bronze images unlike the stone sculptures that were sculpted on

the temple walls, were movable images. These images were regularly taken out of the temple during religious festivals.




Shiva as Nataraja, Chola eleventh century Bronze Dallas Museum of Art, Texas, U.S.A




Bronze image of Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi as Parvati

Chola bronze, 990 CE

Freer Gallery, Washington D.C, U.S.A Photograph: Author




20.6 Other Architectural Achievements It was during the early medieval period that Shravana Belagola in

Karnataka, became an important Jaina pilgrimage site. The famous 17.5 meter standing stone image of Bahubali or Gommata, the son of

the first tirthankara Rishabhnath or Adinatha was erected under the patronage of Chamunda Raya, minister of the Ganga king Rachamalla

(974-984 CE).

The rulers of the Hoysala dynasty also created some of the most

exquisite temples during this period. The Hoysala for,ed a small kingdom in region around Belur and Halebid in eleventh century, in the

begening they were feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyan, but by the twelfth century they were becoming powerful defeating and acquiring

territories both from the Cholas and the Chalukyas. Tht Hoysala temple consists of several connected parts and consisted of a porch, a

vestibule, a hall and a sanctum sanctorum. The Hoysala temple plans are one of the most complex temple plans and their sculpture are

much celebrated for their intricate detailed carvings.

20. 7 Exercise

Explain the following architectural elements 1. Prakara 2. Vimana

3. Gopuram

Ans.

1. Prakara- outer wall in south Indian temple architecture 2. Vimana- The main temple consisting of garbhagriha and Shikhara

3. Gopuram- Large entrance gateways, peculiar to south Indian or Dravida architecture




Match the following Pallava rock cut temples Rahtrakuta

Earliest structural temple in south India Chola queen Lost wax process Mahabalipuram

Sembiyan Mahadevi Shore temple Kailashnath temple, Ellora Parantaka I

Brahmapurishvara temple Chola Bronzes

Answer

Pallava rock cut temples Mahabalipuram

Earliest structural temple in south India Shore temple Lost wax process Chola Bronzes

Sembiyan Mahadevi Chola queen Brahmapurishvara temple Parantaka I

Kailshnath temple, Ellora Rashtrakuta

Describe the Lost wax process

Ans. According to the lost wax process or cire perdue a wax model of

the image created was made with all complete details of jewellery, clothes etc, then this image was coated with three layers of clay. This

clay-encased wax image was heated, the wax melted out leaving a

hollow cavity within the clay image. The molted bronze was then carefully poured inside the hollow clay image and was allowed to cool.

Once the metal was called and set the clay was broken revealing a bronze image. Details were reworked and image was given its final

shape.

What were the important landmarks of Chola architecture in

third phase of architecture?

Ans.

1. The last phase of architecture under the Chola patronage began in 1070 CE and lasted till 1279 CE

2. During this phase the Chola rulers focused on restoration of the

old temples and made additions to the existing temples than undertaking new temple projects.

3. Construction of separate shrine for the female goddesses, which




came to be known as the Amman shrines became popular.

4. The addition of free standing mandapas, popularly called the ‘thousand pillared halls’ became popular. The so called Nrittya

mandapa imitated chariots. 5. The number and size of gopurams increased, they also became

more ornate than before

Glossary Adhisthana-platform

Antarala-vestibule Ardhmandapa-intermediary space between the sanctum and the

temple exterior. Dravida-Form of south Indian architecture

Ganas-pot bellied attendants of Shiva Garbhagriha- womb house, sanctum

Gopuram-gateway Mukhamandapa-the front hall or porch of the temple

Nrittyamandapa-dancing hall Pradakshinapath-circumambulatory path

Prakara-outer wall Torana- gateway , archiform gateway pattern

Vesara-Form of architecture in Deccan Vimana-the main temple, including garbhagriha and shikhara

Further Readings

Champakalakshmi, R. Trade, Ideologyand Urbanization: South India

30 BC to AD 1300, Oxford University Press, 1996.

Foekema, Gerard. A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples, Abhinav Publications, 1996.

Hardy, Adam. Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transform,

IGNCA, 1995.

Huntington, Susan L. The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, University of Michigan, 1985.

Meister, Michael W., M.A. Dhaky, and Krishna Deva (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, South India. Lower

Dravidadesa 200 B.C.-A.D.1324, American Institute of Indian Studies,




1988.

Pal, Pratapaditya. Indian Sculpture, Vol.2, 700-1800, Los Angeles

County Museum of Art, 1988.

Soundararajan, K. V. Early Temple Architecture of Karnataka and its Ramifications, Dharwar, 1969.

Srinivasan, K. R. Temples of South India, New Delhi, 1971.

Yazdani, G., ed., The Early History of the Deccan, Oxford, 1960.

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