referin łe gramaticale reference... · scurt istoric privind limba englez ă ... frisiana şi...
TRANSCRIPT
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REFERINłE GRAMATICALE
Grammar Reference
Authors: Dora LOGHIN ; Cristina FELEA
Scurt Istoric privind Limba engleză – inflecŃii şi vocabular
Historical Sketch of the English Language – Inflections and Vocabulary
Engleza este o limbă de origine vest-germanică înrudită cu olandeza, frisiana şi germana,
avand, însă şi multe elemente de vocabular din limbile franceză, latină sau grecă, dar şi din
alte limbi. Engleza a evoluat pornind de la limbile de origine germanică ce au fost aduse pe
teritoriul Marii Britanii în raidurile lor de cucerire de către triburi migratoare cum ar fi
Anglii, Saxonii, IuŃii, etc, care sunt cunoscute împreună sub numele de Anglo-Saxoni sau
popoare engleze străvechi. Engleza veche (Old English) deja se întrezărea la orizont încă din
zorii secolului 8 După Cristos. Azi, cam 341 milioane de persoane vorbesc engleza ca limbă
maternă şi încă aproximativ 267 milioane o folosesc limbă a doua în cadrul a peste 104 Ńări –
inclusiv Marea Britanie, Irlanda, SUA, Canada, Australia, Noua Zeelandă, Africa de Sud,
Samoa Americană, Andorra, Anguilla, Antigua şi Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados,
Belize, Bermuda, Botswana, Teritoriul Britanic din Oceanul Indian, Insulele Britanice
Virgine, Brunei, Camerun, Canada, Insulele Cayman, Cook precum şi Danemarca. Limba
engleză este folosită pe glob de 750 milioane locuitori, fie ca limbă oficială a unei naŃiuni, fie
împreună cu alte limbi (pidgin şi creola). Este una dintre limbile - sau chiar limba - oficiale
pe teritoriul Marii Britanii, în Canada, Australia, şi Noua Zeelandă; în Statele Unite nu există
o limbă oficială. Larga răspândire a englezei la scară mondială în diplomaŃie, comerŃ şi
ştiinŃă, îi certifică importanŃa din acest punct de vedere şi ne ajută să înŃelegem de ce miliarde
de persoane o preferă altor limbi şi uneori optează pentru a şi-o însuşi ca limbă a doua. Nu
superioritatea sa intrinsecă în raport cu alte limbi a facut ca engleza să devină principala
limbă vorbită pe glob. BogăŃia vocabularului, o mare flexibilitate a gramaticii şi faptul că e
mai expresivă decât sunt alte limbi (unii pun cel puŃin ultimele două aspecte sub semnul
întrebării), sunt calităŃi care reprezintă, de fapt, rezultatul şi nu motivele sau cauzele
importanŃei acestei limbi pe glob. ImportanŃa unei limbi este dată de importanŃa utilizatorilor
săi şi felul în care aceştia o folosesc. Începând cu secolul al 18-lea, vorbitorii de limbă
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engleză – mai întâi cei de pe teritoriul insulelor britanice şi mai târziu cei din America şi din
dominioanele britanice – au exercitat o influenŃă considerabilă asupra fenomenului de
expansiune colonială, a progresului industrial şi technologic, precum Ńi asupra politicii
mondiale. Locul pe care engleza îl ocupă în lume este rezultatul direct al istoriei oamenilor
care o vorbesc.
Clasificarea limbilor
În cadrul istoriei limbii şi a popoarelor Indo-Europene, engleza este clasificată printer limbile
Vest- Germanice de Jos. Istoria timpurie a limbilor Germanice se bazează pe o reconstituire a
limbii Proto-Germanice, care între timp a evoluat şi a dus la formarea limbilor Germană,
Engleză, Olandeză, Afrikaans, Yidiş şi a limbilor scandinave.
Limbile Germanice
Subgrupa limbilor Germanice prezintă multe diferenŃe în raport cu alte limbi de origine Indo-
Europeană.
1. Legea lui Grimm(sau Prima Mutatie a Sunetelor) explică modificările consonantice care s-
au produs în cadrul limbii sub forma în care s-a prezentat aceasta începând cu etapa Protro-
Indo-Europeană până la etapa ei Germanică.
a. Oclusivele aspirate sonore au devenit oclusive neaspirate sonore (bh, dh, g s-au
transformat in b, d, g)
b. Oclusivele sonore au devenit oclusive mute (B, d, g au devenit p, t, k)
c. Oclusivele mute au devenit fricative mute (P, t, k au devenit f, θ, x (h))
Legea lui Verner explică alte excepŃii care nu apar menŃionate Ńn cadrul Legeii lui Grimm.
2. Sistemul verbal bi-temporal: desinenŃa de Past Tense (-ed) şi una de Present Tense (-s)
(fără a se recurge la prezenŃa verbelor auxiliare)
3. Past Tense neaccentuat: pentru exprimarea sa se folosea un sufix dental sau alveolar ( -ed
în
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engleză,-te în germană, sau -de în suedeză)
4. Adjective tari şi slabe: fiecare adjectiv avea o formă diferită in funcŃie de faptul că era
precedat sau nu de un determinant.
5. Accent fix: pe prima silabă.
6. MutaŃii vocalice (Proto Germanică)
o scurt la a scurt (în latină: hortus, în engleză: garden)
a lung la o lung (în latină: mater, în engleza veche: modor)
7. vocabularul comun: au apărut cuvinte care nu au mai existat pana atunci în vocabular, cum
ar fi termeni nautici (maritimi). Altele ar fi: rain, earth, loaf, wife, meat si fowl.
Perioada Englezei Vechi sau Perioada Anglo-Saxona (449-1066 A.D.) s-a numit Perioda
InflecŃiilor Intregi. Period cuprinsa intre1200 si 1500 A.D. s-a numit Perioada Englezei
Medii, sau Perioada InflecŃiilor Uniforme, iar perioada Englezei Moderne începe aproximativ
în 1500A.D. şi s-a numit , destul de impropriu, Perioada InflecŃiilor Pierdute.
În Perioada Modernă s-au manifestat aceleaşi tendinŃe la fel ca şi în celelalte doua perioade,
însă de semnalat este faptul ca într-adevăr schimbări mari şi rapide care au avut loc în această
ultimă perioadă s-au datorat apariŃiei tiparului şi a răspândirii educaŃiei.
Modificările cele mai importante din perioada Englezei Moderne sunt:
‘s este semnul cazului Genitiv
Though, thee, thy, thine şi ye au devenit forme arhaice, iar vechea formă de Acuzativ, youm,
este folosită acum ca formă de Nominativ şi Acuzativ singular şi plural pentru Pronoumele
Personal, persoane II plural.
NegaŃia dublă nu se mai utilzează pentru accentuarea unei forme negative.
Modul Subjonctiv este acum rar folosit, spre deosebire deconstrucŃiile cu Acuzativul şi cu
Infinitivul, care sunt acum foarte utilizate.
Be este folosit în loc de Have doar în cazul verbelor Intranzitive de Mişcare sau de
Schimbare a stării.
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Elemente referitoare la vocabularul limbii engleze
Evenimentul care a avut un impact covârşitor asupra limbii engleze, atât în privinŃa
gramaticii cât şi a stocului de cuvinte, adică a vocabularului acesteia, a fost Cucerirea
Normandă. Odată cu acest moment, tendinŃa formării de cuvinte exclusiv din surse pur
englezeşti a luat sfârşit, de acum încolo recurgându-se la împrumutul de cuvinte, ca o metodă
de adaptare la noile realităŃi socio-istorice. Pentru a exprima noile aspecte socio-umane,
engleza apela la ajutor din partea altor limbi, în vocabularul cărora conceptele respective
existau deja. Acest proces-procedeu a avut atât avantajele cât şi dezavantaje. Multe cuvinte
provenite din tezaurul lingvistic din perioada Englezei Vechi au fost eliminate, lor
substitutindu-li-se cuvintele nou-preluate – de ex. ‘inwit’ a fost înlocuit cu ‘conscience’,
(cp.’the ayenbite of inwit’ devine ‘remorse of conscience’), ‘rime-craft’ cu ‘arithmetic’,
‘wanhope’ cu ‘despair’. Multe astfel de cuvinte nou-sosite în limbă nu au supravietuit, însă
câştigul a depăşit pierderile, iar drept urmare, engleza a fost descrisă ca fiind ‘cea mai
completă limbă vorbită vreodată pe pământ.’Totuşi, engleza nu şi-a pierdut niciodată
identitatea. În ciuda copleşitoarei preponderente a elementului străin, de împrumut, mai ales
din limba latină, engleza este fără tăgadă o limbă de extracŃie teutonică indiferent din ce
punct de vedere am privi-o, ca limbă vorbită sau ca idiom scris. Toate inflecŃiile sale
gramaticale, şi părŃile sale de vorbire active, cum ar fi pronumele, adjectivele si adverbele
pronominale, prepoziŃiile şi conjuncŃiile sunt pur englezeşti. Toate cuvintele, chiar şi cele
mai banale, sunt, în general, englezeşti, iar la scrierea unei cărŃi, chiar şi autorii cei mai atraşi
de ‘cuvinte mari, nu pot să nu recurgă la stocul majoritar de cuvinte, care, fără doar şi poate,
sunt englezeşti. În Biblie, spre exemplu, din 100 de cuvinte, 97 sunt englezeşti - chiar şi în
scrierile lui Milton, raportul e de 80 la100. În scrierile în proză, raportul e de 60/100, 30
latine, 5 greceşti şi 5 provenite din alte limbi. De la pătrunderea în engleză a atâtor elemente
străine, s-a ajuns la o suprapunere destul de masivă vocabularului celor două limbi, ceea ce a
dus la abundenŃa acestei limbi în sinonime.
English is a West Germanic language related to Dutch, Frisian and German with a
significant amount of vocabulary from French, Latin, Greek and many other languages.
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English evolved from the Germanic languages brought to Britain by the Angles, Saxons,
Jutes and other Germanic tribes, which are known collectively as Anglo-Saxon or Old
English. Old English began to appear in writing during the early 8th century AD.
Approximately 341 million people speak English as a native language and a further 267
million speak it as a second language in over 104 countries including the UK, Ireland, USA,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, American Samoa, Andorra, Anguilla,
Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Botswana, British
Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cameroon, Canada, Cayman Islands,
Cook Islands and Denmark.
The English language is spoken by 750 million people in the world as either the official
language of a nation, a second language, or in a mixture with other languages (such as
pidgins and creoles.) English is the (or an) official language in England, Canada, Australia
and New Zealand; however, the United States has no official language. If we are to ask what
are the world’s most widely spoken languages we get a rather complicated answer.
Estimates of how many people speak a language are quite general and can vary
considerably. For example, English estimates vary from 275 to 450 million, Spanish from
150 to over 300 million, Hindi from 150 to 350 million, and Russian from 150 to 180 million.
The worldwide use of English in diplomacy, commerce, and science is evidence of its
importance in this regard, and serves to explain why many millions around the world find it
desirable and sometimes necessary to learn it as a second language.
It is not the intrinsic superiority of English over other languages that has made it the premier
world language. If it is richer in vocabulary, more flexible in grammar and more expressive
than other languages (and some would question at least the last two of these claims), these
qualities are the results, not the causes, of its importance in the world. Simply stated, what
makes a language important is the importance of the people who use it and the use to which
they put it. Since the eighteenth century, speakers of English – at first from the British Isles
and later from America and the dominions – have played an important role in colonial
expansion, industrial and technological development, and the world politics.
Classification of language families
The position of English in the world is the direct result of the history of those who speak it.
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The history of Indo-European language and people classifies English genetically as a Low
West Germanic language of the Indo-European family of languages. The early history of the
Germanic languages is based on reconstruction of a Proto-Germanic language that evolved
into German, English, Dutch, Afrikaans, Yiddish, and the Scandinavian languages.
Germanic Languages
The subgroup of Germanic languages contains many differences that set them apart from the
other Indo-European languages.
1. Grimm’s Law (or the First Sound Shift) helps to explain the consonant changes from
Protro-Indo-Europen to Germanic.
a. Aspirated voiced stops became Unaspirated voiced stops (bh, dh, gh became b, d, g)
b. Voiced stops became Voiceless stops (B, d, g became p, t, k)
c. Voiceless stops became Voiceless fricatives (P, t, k became f, θ, x (h))
Verner’s Law explains other exceptions that Grimm’s law does not include.
2. Two Tense Verbal System: There is a past tense marker (-ed) and a present tense marker (-
s) on the verb (without using auxiliary verbs.)
3. Weak Past Tense: Used a dental or alveolar suffix to express the past (such as -ed in
English,-te in German, or -de in Swedish.)
4. Weak and Strong Adjectives: Each adjective had a different form whether it was preceded
by a determiner or no determiner.
5. Fixed Stress: The stress of words was fixed on the first syllable.
6. Vowel Changes (Proto Germanic)
Short o to short a (Latin: hortus, English: garden)
Long a to long o (Latin: mater, OE: modor)
7. Common Vocabulary: Words developed that hadn't been used before, such as nautical
terms (sea). Others include rain, earth, loaf, wife, meat and fowl.
The Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (449-1066 A.D.) has been called the Period of Full
Inflection. The period from 1200-1500 A.D. has been called the Middle English Period, or
the Period of Levelled Inflections, and the period of Modern English begins about the year
1500A.D., and has been called, not quite adequately, the Period of Lost Inflections.
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The same tendencies have operated in the Modern Period as in the other two, but a check to
great and rapid changes in this last period has been given by the Invention of Printing and
the spread of education.
The chief changes in the Modern English are:
‘s is used as sign of the Genitive case.
Though, thee, thy, thine and ye have become obsolete, and youm the old Accusative, is used
as Nominative and Accusative singular and plural of the 2nd
Peronal Pronoun.
Double negatives are no longer used to strengthen a negative.
The Subjunctive is very little used.
The Accusative and Infinitive construction is greatly extended in use.
Be is used for Have only with Intransitive Verbs of Motion or Change of State.
Vocabulary
The Norman Conquest had almost as great an influence on the Vocabulary of English as on
its Grammar. It gave a definite check to the tendency to form new words from purely English
sources, and introduced the habit of borrowing words to denote new needs from languages
where they existed already. This process ha caused loss as well as gain. Many Old English
words have been driven out by the new-comers – e.g. ‘inwit’ by ‘conscience’, (cp.’the
ayenbite of inwit’ becomes ‘remorse of conscience’), ‘rime-craft’ by ‘arithmetic’, ‘wanhope’
by ‘despair’.
Many new-comers themselves have failed to survive. But the gains greatly exceed the losses,
and the result has been described as ‘the most complete language spoken by man.’
English, however, has not lost its individuality. In spite of the overwhelming preponderence
of foreign, especially Latin, words in its vocabulary, English, as spoken, or written, is
thoroughly a Teutonic language. All the Grammatical Inflections, and the working parts of
speech, such as pronouns, pronominal adjectives and adverbs, prepositions, and
conjunctions are purely English. All the commonest, shortest, and most graphic words are
generally English, and in writing a book even those fondest of using big words cannot avoid
using a majority of English words. For instance in the Bible out of every 100 words 97 are
English, and even in Milton there are 80. In ordinary prose probably about 60 would be
English, 30 Latin, 5 Greek, and 5 from other languages.
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From the intrusion of so many foreign elements into English there has resulted a good deal
of overlapping of vocabulary, and English is therefore rich in synonyms.
A. Prefixe:
Prefixes
Prefixele sunt fie: a) de origine teutonică, anglo-saxonă, ori engleză sau, b) clasică sau
romanică.
Grupa limbilor clasice sau romanice include toate limbile moderne ce provin din latină,
inclusiv latina şi greaca.
Prefixes are either: a) of Teutonic, Anglo-Saxon, or English origin or, b) of Classical or
Romance origin.
Classical or Romance includes all modern langiages derived from Latin, as well as Latin and
Greek.
I. Prefixe anglo-saxone
Anglo- Saxon prefixes
a-, al-, afte-r, be-, by-, for(e)-, gain-, in-, mis-, n-, on-, out-, off-, over-, to-, un-, under-, up-,
with-.
a- = on : ashore, afoot
al- = all : almost, always, alone
be- = verbal prefix : to befriend, to become
by- = aside, near : by-path, by-stander
for- = very (when it is an intensive) or against (when it is a negative particle) : forgive,
forbid, forswear, for(e)go,
gain- = against: gainsay (= oppose, contradict, argue with, refute, deny)
in- = (im, em, en) in, with adjectives = to make : income, imbed, inlay, embitter, enrich
mis- = wrong : mislead, mistake.
n- = not : never, n-one
on- = onwards, ongoing, onrush, onset
out- = outcome, outcry,
off- = offspring, offset
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over- = oversea, overdo, overturn, oversee
to- = the, or asunder : today, tomorrow,
un- = not, back, or the opposite : unbelief, unroll, undo
under- = underfeed, underdone, underwood
up- = upturn, upheave, upland
with- = against, away from, withstand, withhold, withdraw
a. Prefixe clasice sau romanice
Classical or Romance prefixes
Aici intră majoritatea prepozitiilor de origine latină sau de origine greacă.
These include most of the Latin and Greek prepositions.
b. Prefixe latine
Latin prefixes
a-,ab-,abs-, ad-, etc = away from : avert abhor, absent, advance, ascend, accept, affirm,
aggressor, ally, annex, apply, arrive, assign attend
ambi- = on both sides, round : ambiguous, ambition
ante- or anti- = before : antecedent, anticipate
bi- = two : biscuit, biped
circum- = round : circumvent, circuit
cum- = together, with : compregend, coequal, collect, contact, corrupt
contra- = against : contradict, controversy, countersign
de- = down, from, away : descend, devious, decay
dis- = away from, asunder : distant, dissect, differ, delay
ex- = out of : except, event, evidence, effect
extra- = beyond : extraordinary, extraneous
in- = invite, import, irrupt, embrace, encourage
in- = not + adj. : intact, ignore, illegible, improper, irregular,
inter- = within : introduce, intromit
mis- = wrong, minus : mischance, mischief
non- = not: nonsense
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ob- = against, away, upon : omit, obvious, occur, offer, oppress, ostensible
per- = through : perceive, perfect, perlucid
post- = after : postscript, p.m.
prae- = before : precede, pretend, prevent
pro- = before, for, instead of : provident, pronoun, pollute, porten, puchase, pusue
re- = back, again : reduce, receive, redeem
retro- = backwards : retrograde, retrospect
semi-,sub-, super-, trans-, ultra-,
vice- = in place of : viceroy
c. Prefixe greceşti:
Greek prefixes
amphi- = on both sides : amphitheatre, amphibious
a- or an- = not : atheist, apathy, anarchy, anonymous
ana- = up, back : analyst, anatomy, anaphora
anti-, ant- = against : antipathy, Antarctic
apo- = from, back : apostrophe, apocalypse, apohorism
cata- = down : catastrophe, catalogue,
dia- = through : diameter, dialogue
ec- or ex- = out of : ecstasy, eccentric
en- = in : energy, emphasis, ellipse
epi- = on : epitaph, epigram
hyper- = over, above : hyperbole, hypermetrical
hypo- = under : hypotheses
meta- = change : metaphor, method
para- = alongside , contrary to : parallel, paradox
peri- = around : permeter, periphery, period
pro- = before : prolongue, programme
syn- = together with : syb=ntax, syllable, sympathy, system
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B. Sufixe
Suffixes
Când un sufix care conŃine o vocală scurtă este alipit unei rădăcini, una dintre vocalele
rădăcinii se schimbă pentru a pregăti pronunŃia pentru elementele care urmează. Această
prescurtare este cunoscută drept ‘fenomenul Umlaut’ (schimbare de sunet) sau MutaŃie.
Often when a suffix containing a short vowel is added to a root, a vowel in the root is
changesd in preparation for what follows. This shortening is called Umlaut (change of
sound) or Mutation.
Example:
cat – kitten, thumb – thumble, fox – vixen
a. Sufixe teutonice
Sufixe substantivale
Teutonic suffixes:
Noun suffixes:
Agent: -er (-ier, -yer, -ar, -or), -ster, -en, -ther, (-ter), -nd, -le
Instrument : -le (-el), -r, -ther, (-der)
State, quality, action: -dom, -hood, -head, -ing, -ness, -ship
Diminutive : -ing, -ling, -kin, -en, -ock, -y, (-ie, -ey)
Augumentative -ard, -ar
doer, liar, sailor, spinster, father, daughter, friend, stair, water, feather, kingdom, manhood,
goodness, hoping, friendship, landscape, gift, sight, death, earth, Mickey, annie, drunkard
b. Suffixe adjectivale
Adjective suffixes
= belonging to, somewhat like, made of
-ed, -en, -ish (-sh, -ch,)-ly, -less (without), -ow, -some (with), -th (-d), -ward, -y
ragged, golden, sweetish, French, manly, witless, yeallow, narrow, awesome, fourth, (third) ,
westward, dirty, heavy
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c. Sufixe verbale
Verb suffixes
- care exprimă ideea de frecvenŃă
Frequentative : k, le, er
brisk, grapple, glimmer/glitter
- cauzative
Causaive: en, se
gladden, hasten, cleanse
d. Sufixe latine
Latin suffixes
Sufixe substantivale
Noun suffixes
Persoană Person: -ant, -ent, -ate, (-ee, -ey, -y), -ary (-ier, -eer, -ar, -er, -or), -ess or -ese
Instrument : -ment, -ory, -ter (-tre)
Stare, calitate, acŃiune
state, quality, action: -ance, -ence, -age, -ity (-ty), -ice (-ess), -tion (-son), -tude, -
our, -ure, -y
Diminutive diminutives : -el (-le), -let (-et), -ule, -cle, -el, (-sel)
Colective collectives: -ary, -ery, -ar, -er
Augumentative augumentatives: -oon, -one, -on
servant, agent, advocate, trainee, attorney, army, adversary, engineer, vicar, archer,
chancellor, baroness, Chinese, countess, ornament, dormitory, monster, spectre, constancy,
confidence, courage, enmity, beauty, prejudice, largess, action, reason, magnitude, honour,
morsel, panle, circle, rivulet, bullet, pocket, globule, particle, vessel, cavalry, gutter,
grammar, balloon, million
e. Suffixe adjectivale
Adjective suffixes
-al, -ane, -ary, -ate, (-ete, -eet), -able, -ous(full of), -ory, -ive
loyal, humane, vulgar, ordinary, divine, ornate, complete, discreet, capable, cursory, plaintive
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f. Suffixe verbale
Verb suffixes
Frecventative: -ate : agitate
Inceptive (inchoative): -esce : effervesce
Causative: - fy : glorify, testify
g. Sufixe de origine greacă:
Greek suffixes
Sufixe substantivale
Noun suffixes
-ic, (-ics) - science and arts : arithmetic, logic, politics, mathematics
-y, -ism - state or action : melody, theory, philosophy, theism, antagonism.
-ist, -te, -t - agent : antagonist, sophist, apostate, patriot, idiot
h. Sufixe adjectivale
Adjective suffixes
-ic,- ical : epic, poetic, theological, skeptical
i. Sffixe verbale
Verb suffixes
-ize or -ise = to make or do : theorize, sympathise
(partial source: http://www.ethnologue.com)
C. Alfabetul – Reguli de PronunŃare
The English alphabet – Pronunciation
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Sunetele reprezentate aici sunt acelea care aparŃin dialectului engelzei britanice marcate de
accentul RP (Received Pronunciation). În ceea ce priveşte prounŃia, alte varietăti ale limbii
engleze diferă de acesta în destul de mare masură, mai ales cand e vorba de pronunŃarea
vocalelor şi a diftongilor.
The sounds represented here are those of British English spoken with an R.P. (Received
Pronounciation) accent. Other varieties of English differ considerably in pronunciation,
especially the vowels and diphthongs.
Pronunciation
The sounds represented here are those of British English spoken with an R.P. (Received
Pronounciation) accent. Other varieties of English differ considerably in pronunciation,
especially the vowels and diphthongs.
a. Ghid fonetic
Pronunciation guide
/ei/ sunet diftongic: a,h,j,k.
(difthong)
/i:/ sunetul lung: b,c,d,e,g,p,t,v
(long sound)
/e/ f,l,m,n,s,x,z
/ai/ i,y
/u:/ q,u,w
/əω/ o
/a:/ r
Sunete vocalice
Vowel sounds
Sunete consonantice
Consonant sounds
/a:/ fast
/٨/ cut, butter, but
/æ/ match, act, mass
/ai/ fly, mind, time
/au/ how, down, cloud
/aiə/ buyer, tyre, fire
/auə/ hour, tower, power
/ε/ ten, lend, men
/εi/ day, play, same
/b/ cab
/d/ desk
/f/ farm
/g/ greet
/h/ house
/j/ young
/k/ call
/l/ like
/m/ mark
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/εə/ wear, fair, care
/i/ sit, tip, dish
/i:/ feel, bee, treat
/iə/ clear, beard, here
lost, pot, dot /ر/
/əua/ boat, note, phone
more, floor, board /:ر/
i/ boy, employ, joinر/
/u/look, could, stood
/u:/ blue, you, choose
/uə/ poor, pour, sure
/ə:/ bird, later, word
/ə/ the weak wovel in: about,
forgotten, matter
/n/ note
/p/park
/r/ route
/s/ safe
/t/ test
/∫/ shore
/u/ look
/v/ vote
/w/ where
/z/ zebra
/ З/ leisure
/η/ bring
/t∫/ chairman
/θ/ thin, mouth, three
/ð/ that, mother, there
/dЗ/ German, Japanese, danger
16
17
I.1. Pronumele subiect
Subject Pronoun
Pronumele complement înlocuieşte
complementul direct sau indirect al unui verb
We use the object pronoun to replace the
direct or indirect object of a verb
I.2. Pronumele complement
Object Pronoun
Help me. Give me a hand.
Pronumele complement urmează unei
prepoziŃii:
We use the object pronoun after a
preposition
sg. pl. sg. pl.
I we me us
you you you you
18
he/she/it they him/her/it them
I’m late.
She’s (waiting) outside.
Were they present?
Wait for me. Maria doesn’t have the book, I
have it.
I can’t see Adrian and Susan; I can’t see
them.
Tell us the truth!
19
I. 3. DeterminanŃii
Determiners
Substativele sunt adesea precedate de cuvinte cum ar fi: the , a sau an. Aceste cuvinte se numesc
‘determinanŃi’. Ele arată ce fel de referinŃă însoŃeşte substantivul respectiv. Dintre determinanŃi
amintim, de exemplu, articolul hotarât, care precede substative la numărul singular şi plural.
Nouns are often preceded by the words the, a, or an. These words are called determiners. They
indicate the kind of reference which the noun has. Such determiner the definite article It is used
before both singular and plural nouns:
Singular: the day, the week, the anthem
Plural the days, the weeks, the anthems
Determinantul a (ssau an, atunci cand substativul respectiv începe cu o vocală) se numeşte articol şi
se foloseşte impreuna cu substantive la numărul singular. Aceste articole (an, a, the) sunt cele mai
comune exemple de determinanŃi, însă limba engleză cunoaşte mulŃi alte tipuri de determinanŃi.
The determiner a (or an, when the following noun begins with a vowel) is the indefinite article. It is
used when the noun is singular: a day , a week, an antet
The articles the and a/an are the most common determiners, but there are many others:
any day, some day, that week, those students, this paper, whatever taxi, whichever participant
MulŃi determinanŃi exprimă ideea de cantitate. Many determiners express quantity:
each person, many people, several computers, all examples, every week, both parents, few
occasions, enough food, no escape.
I. 4. Numeralul
I. 4. 1. Numeralul cardinal şi ordinal
Cardinal and ordinal numbers
Numeralul cardinal reprezintă poate cea mai cunoscută modalitate de a exprimă ideea de cantitate.
Numeralele se numesc determinanŃi atunci când preced un substantiv. În această poziŃie, ei exprimă
ideea de cantitate. Perhaps the most common way to express quantity is to use a cardinal number.
Numerals are determiners when they appear before a noun. In this position, cardinal numerals
express quantity: one car , two cars, twelve cars.
În aceeaşi poziŃie, exprimă ideea de succesiune de elemente.
In the same position, ordinal numerals express sequence: first paragraph, second floor, third prize.
20
I. 4. 2. Numeralul ordinal
Ordinal numbers
Subclasa numeralelor ordinale cuprinde un set de cuvinte care nu sunt numerale propriu-zise (aşa
cum first este legat de one sau second de two), dar pe care le numim, generic, numerale ordinale. Ele
sunt: last, latter, next, previous, şi subsequent. Şi acestea îndeplinesc funcŃia de determinanŃi. The
subclass of ordinals includes a set of words which are not directly related to numbers (as first is
related to one, second is related to two, etc). These are called general ordinals, and they include last,
latter, next, previous, and subsequent. These words also function as determiners:
next question, last meeting, previous paragraph, subsequent developments
Atunci când nu preced un substantiv, numeralele sunt considerate a fi o subclasă a substativului şi,
la fel ca acesta, primesc determinanŃi, sau pot fi precedate de numerale propriu-zise (în ultimul
exemplu, twos este un substativ la numarul plural si este precedat de determinantul five):
the two of us, the first of many; five twos are ten
When they do not come before a noun, as we've already seen, numerals are a subclass of nouns They
can even have numerals as determiners before them. And like nouns, they can take determiners. In
the last example, twos is a plural noun and it has the determiner five before it.
I. 4. 3. Pronumele şi adjectivul posesiv
Possessive advjective and pronoun
Adjectiv posesiv – Possessive
Adjective
Pronume Posesiv – Possessive
Pronoun
sg. pl. sg. pl.
my our mine ours
your your yours yours
his their his theirs
her their hers theirs
its their its theirs
I. 4. 3. i. Adjectivul demonstrativ
Demonstrative Adjective
21
My reservation is valid. This suitcase is mine. Our room is smaller. The smaller room is ours.
Adjectivul posesiv se foloseste înaintea unui substantiv cu scopul de a indica apartenenŃa acestuia la
un anumit posesor.
(We use a possessive adjective before a noun to say who the noun belongs to.)
I like house music. My favourite producer is Jaydee. I am sure the next award is his.
Her guess was right. The right guess was hers.
II. Substantivul
The Noun
II. 1. Pluralul substantivului; Substantive cu plural regulat
Plural of Nouns; Regular plural nouns
cele mai multe substantive primesc terminaŃia –s: table – tables; book – books; train – trains.
most nouns end in –s
dacă substantivul se termină in consoană + -y, -y –ul dispare, substantivul primind desinenŃa finală –
ies:
match- matches; city – cities; duty – duties.
if the noun ends in a consonant + -y, the –y disappears and the ending becomes –ies.
în cazul în care substantivul se termină în vocală + -y, adăugăm la rădăcină terminaŃia –s: day –days,
toy – toys.
nouns ending in a vowel + -y, get an –s at the end of the noun.
Când substantivul se termină în –ch, sh, -s, -z, sau -x, primeste desinenŃa finală–es; se mai adaugă –
es si la următoarele substantive: potato(es), tomato(es).
nouns ending in –ch, sh, -s, -z, or –x get –es
de apropiere – of proximity
HERE
de depărtare – of remoteness
THERE
sg. pl. sg. pl.
this man these men that man those men
22
În cazul substantivelor terminate în –f sau –fe, desinenŃa de plural devine –ves (excepŃie: roof,
hoof):
wife – wives; shelf – shelves, loaf - loaves.
nouns ending in –f or –fe, change their ending into –ves; exceptions: roof, hoof, proof, cliff, chief,
belief,
etc.
PronunŃie: pluralul s/-es
DesinenŃa –es pentru substantivele terminate în –ch, -sh, -s, -z, sau –x se pronunŃă /iz/: box / -
boxes;
wish - wishes.
With nouns ending in –ch, -sh, -s, -z, or –x, the -es ending is pronounced /iz/: box / - boxes; wish
- wishes.
II. 2. 1. Substantive cu plural neregulat:
Irregular plural nouns
man – men
woman – women
child – children
person - people
brother – brethren (spiritual -);
brother – brothers (blood -)
tooth- teeth
foot – feet
goose – geese
mouse – mice
louse – lice
ox – oxen
fish – fish/fishes (specii de peşti);
fruit – fruit/fruits (soiuri de fructe);
die – dice/dies
II. 3. Exprimarea cantităŃii
Expressions of quantity
Tipuri de substative
Types of nouns
1. Caracteristici
Features
Exemple
Examples
Substantive
numărabile
Countable nouns
singular form: a map/
- sunt însotiŃe de some + un
substantiv la plural în propoziŃii
afirmative şi de any + un
substantiv la plural în propoziŃii
He’s got an (interesting)
idea/ a (useful) tip.
The sportsman has won some
medals.
23
banknote/ student
plural form: maps/
banknotes/students
Exemple:
We need a map, not
several (maps).
interogative şi negative
sunt însoŃite de many şi de
a few.
Countable nouns are used with
some + a plural noun in positive
sentences, and any + a plural
noun in questions and negatives
- (affirmative) some/several/
ideas/answers
- (interrogative) any ideas
- (negative) any /no ideas
- are used with many(a lot of)
and a few.
They have many friends.
There are a lot of job
opportunities here.
has a few problems with his
car
Do you/does she have any
questions?
Nobody had any solutions.
They had no solutions (at all/
whatsoever).
Substantive
nenumărabile
Uncountable nouns
only singular form:
advice
advice/information/
weather/music/money/
knowledge, etc
- sunt însoŃite de some in
propoziŃii affirmative şi de any în
propoziŃii interogative şi negative
în acord cu un verb la singular.
-sunt însoŃite de much şi de a little
Uncountable nouns are used with
some in positive sentences and any
in questions and negatives, but
only with a singular noun.
- are used with much (a lot of) and
a little
She has some (new)
information.
Is there any good music
here? I They haven’t got any
money.
All you need is a little food
and rest.
There isn’t much fun here.
It takes a lot of courage to
practise this sport.
2. Formele posesive: ‘s
şi of (Cazul Genitiv)
Possessive forms: ‘s
and of
- pentru persoane şi animale: ‘s
for people and animals: ‘s
după substantive la singular şi unele
substative la plural, atunci când acestea nu
se termină în –s
for people and animals
‘s - after singular nouns and plural
nouns which don’t finish in –s
the man’s briefcase,
the cat’s cushion
Jack’s opinion, the
children’s room
24
- după substantive la plural terminate în –
s, scriem –s’
‘s - after plural nouns ending in –s, we
write –s’
- când sunt două substantive, ‘s se adaugă
celui de-al doilea substantiv, dacă este
vorba despre o posesie comună, sau după
fiecare substantiv în parte, în caz de
posesie individuală:
‘s – with two nouns, it is added after the
second noun in case of common
possession, or after each noun in case of
individual possession.
the students’ dorm,
my friends’ house
John and Mary’s
suggestion(s)
but
John’s and Mary’s
suggestion(s)
3. Cuantificarea
substantivelor
cantitative
Quantifiers
a piece of/ an item of luggage/ furniture, a piece/word of advice, a
piece of information/ news, a kilo of strawberries, a carton of
cakes, a bottle/glass of milk, a glass/ drop/ bucket/ gallon of water,
a bar of chocolate, a cake of soap, a slice/ loaf, piece/ morsel of
bread, a slice of cake, a film of dust, a ray of hope,
a bolt of thunder, a flash of lightning, a round of applause,
a pint of beer, foot of wood, a pound of rice, an ounce of courage,
a piece of music, a bag of money, etc.
Note: some indicates the indefinite amount: some water
III. Articolul
The Article
Article Characteristics/ features Examples
1.
Nehotărât: a/
an
- primă referire
a + substantive care încep cu o consoană
an + substantive care încep cu o vocală.
a + nouns which begin with a consonant sound
an precedes nouns which begin with a vowel
I can see a bus stop over
there.
Is there an information
desk
25
Indefinite a/an
- first
reference
sound.
here?
She’s reading a map.
2.
Hotărât: the
- referinŃă
unică,
generică,
antrerioară
Definite: the
- prior
reference
PronunŃie: the /ðə/ inaintea substantivelor care
încep cu o consoană; the /ði/ înaintea
substantivelor care încep cu o vocală.
Pronunciation : the /ðə/ before nouns which
begin with a consonant; the /ði/ before nouns
begin with a vowel.
The bedroom door was
open.
The trip to Bucureşti was
cheap.
The girl is going to the
library.
The books she needs can
only
be found there.
3. Utilizarea articolului Use of articles
1.
Articolul
hotărât
definite article
- când precede substantive care denumesc mări,
râuri, nume de hoteluri, localuri, teatre, muzee,
ziare
before nouns denoting seas, rivers, hotels, pubs,
theatres, museums, and newspapers
- când substantivul denumeşte un concept unic
with nouns that denote a unique concept
Notă: articolul the nu se foloseşte la
substantivele care denumesc părŃi ale corpului;
pentru aceasta se folosesc pronume posesive.
Note: We do not use the with parts of the body.
We use my,/our/their, etc (I broke my arm and
she hurt her leg.)
The Daily Telegraph, The
Thames, The Pacific, The
Ambassador,
The Globe
the Sun, the Morning Star,
the Pope
2.
Articolul
nehotărât
indefinite
- cu substantive care denumesc o profesie:
with nouns denoting professions
- când însoŃeşte anumite formule de canitate:
with some expressions of quantity
He is a computer
programmer
and she is a midwife.
a pair of shoes; a little
patience; a couple of times;
a few discretion; a
26
article
- în exclamaŃii, precedat de what:
in exclamations with what + a countable noun
hundred/thousand; once a
week; forty miles an hour
What an interesting idea!
What a pity! What a
terrible thing!
3. Omisia
articolului
No article
- înaintea pluralelor sau substantivele
nenumărabile, pentru o referire generală
before plural and uncountable nouns for
general reference.
- înaintea substantivelor ce denumesc Ńări,
oraşe, străzi, limbi, feluri de mâncare, reviste,
aeroporturi, gări, munŃi:
before countries, towns, streets, languages,
magazines,
meals, airports, stations, and mountains
- înaintea substantivelor ce denumesc lo
anumită locaŃie (un anumit loc) precum şi
înanintea unor substantive ce denumesc
mijloace de transport
before some places and with some forms of
transport
- în exclamaŃii, după construcŃia ‘what’ + un
substantiv nenumărabil :
in exclamations, preceded by what + uncount
She buys only fresh
bananas.
Mary doesn’t like
strawberries. Coffee keeps
you awake.
We will soon enter Braşov.
Don’t buy Vogue, buy
Cosmopolitan.
at school/work; by
car/tram/ plane, etc; in/to
bed; on foot; to
go/come/ return/leave
home
What beautiful weather!
What loud music!
27
IV. Adjectivul si adverbul cu gradele lor de comparaŃie
The Comparison Degrees of Adjectives and Adverbs
Examples: a) regular adjectives and adverbs: (mono-/bosyllabic or polysyllabic) quick, blue, fit,
comfortable, fast, correctly etc. b) irregural adjerctives and adverbs: good,well, ill.,bad, far, little,
much, many, some.
Adjective Form Features
Adj: (mono-/bi-
syllabic) hard; hot;
pretty; fast
(pollyyllabic)
impoortant
forma de bază a adjectivelor şi a adverbelor;
nu
exprimă o comparaŃie.
the base form of the adjective or adverb; it
does not show comparison.
Positive
Adv: easily/gladly
Adj: (mono-/bi-
syllabic) harder;
hotter; prettier; faster
(polysyllabic) more
important
compară două elemente;
+ -er la adj mono-/bi-silabice
+ more pentru cele polisilabice
the form an adjective or adverb takes to
compare two things.
- + -er for mono and bi- syllabic adj
- + more for polysyllabic ones
Comparative
Adv (of manner) :
more easily/gladly
+ more : more gladly
Adj: (the) hardest;
(the) hottest; (the)
prettiest; (the) fastest
(polysyllabic) (the)
most important
compară trei sau mai multe elemente
the form an adjective or adverb takes to
compare three or more things.
- + -est for mono and bi- syllabic adj
- + (the) most for polysyllabic adjectives
Superlative
Adv (of manner): + most”: most gladly
28
(the) most
easily/gladly
IV. 1.
ObservaŃie:
Less şi least se folosesc şi la formarea comparativelor şi superlativelor majorităŃii adjectivelor şi
adverbelor: less important and least important.
Less şi fewer nu sunt sinonime. Less se foloseşte împreună cu substantive nenumarabile (less time,
less affection), iar fewer cu substantive numărabile (fewer seats, fewer participants).
AtenŃie: - er şi more sau -est şi most nu se asociază niciodată.
This is the more nicer member of our family.(incorect)
This is nicer member of our family. (corect);
She is the most nicest sister (incorect);
She is the nicest sister. (corect)
Note: Less and least can also be used to form the comparative and superlative degrees of most
adjectives and adverbs: less important and least important. Less and fewer cannot be interchanged.
Forme Neregulate (adjective şi adverbe)
Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs
Positive Comparative Superlative
good better the best
well better the best
bad/ badly worse the worst
Far farther the farthest
Far further the furthest
Late later the later or latest
Little (amount) less the least
many more the most
much more the most
some more the most
29
Less refers to amounts that form a whole or can’t be counted (less time, less affection), while fewer
refers to items that can be counted (fewer seats, fewer participants).
Never use -er and more or -est and most together.
Alte adverbe:
Other adverbs
yes (of course), no, by no means, by all means, not at all, hardly so, perhaps, probably, definitely,
likewise, otherwise, elsehow, anyway, anyhow, etc.
IV. 2 Forme adjectivale compuse: Substativ + Numeral
În acest caz, substantivul este folosit doar la forma de singular: A four-mile journey; a fifty-dollar
banknote, a three-piece suit
IV. 3. Indicarea direcŃiei prin adverbe de loc
Adverbs of place for giving directions
next to; at the corner of; continue straight ahead/to; across from; far from; go up the street; go up the
boulevard; go up the avenue; take the street/boulevard/ avenue; near to; turn left/right/at the corner;
cross the bridge/ the square; take the second street on the right, at the end of the street.
V. Verbul
The Verb
Formele gramaticale ale verbului sunt determinate de categoriile de timp, aspect, diateză, mod,
persoană şi număr. În acest sens, distingem două mari categorii ale verbului: formele predicative şi
formele nepredicative.
Modurile indicativ şi subjonctiv alcătuiesc formele predicative, care pot forma singure predicatul şi
care se acordă în număr şi persoană cu subiectul.
Modurile infinitiv, gerunziu, participiul prezent şi participiul trecut formează modurile
nepredicative, care nu pot forma singure predicatul propoziŃiei.
The grammatical forms of the English verb are rendered by the grammatical categories of aspect,
voice, mood, person and number, which divide its forms into finite and non-finite.
The finite forms include the indicative and the subjunctive moods, while the non-finite forms include
the infinitive, the gerund, the present and the past participle. The finite moods form predicates by
themselves, whereas the non-finite forms cannot.
Verbele limbii engleze se grupează in două clase mari: verbe regulate şi verbe neregulate.
30
La Past Tense şi la Past Participle, verbele regulate primesc desinenŃa –ed, în timp ce verbele
neregulate nu primesc această terminaŃie, rădăcina celor mai multe dintre ele suferind modificări
interne la preluarea acestor forme. Există o listă de verbe neregulate la sfârşitul oricărui dicŃionar
sau manual de gramatică.
English verbs fall into two major classes: regular and irregular verbs.
Regular verbs receive the –ed ending at Past Tense and Past Participle. Irregular verbs do not
receive this ending and most of them change the form of their root while passing to one of these
forms. There is a list of Irregular verbs at the end of any dictionary or grammar books.
Infinitive Past Tense Past Participle
Vb. Regulate: (to) ask asked asked
Regular verbs (to) intend intended intended
(to) change changed changed
Vb neregulate: (to) take took taken
Irregular verbs (to) see saw seen
(to) understand understood understood
V. 1. Verbul to be, to have şi to have got
Verbul to be este folosit atât ca atare, la construcŃiile cu timpul Prezent Simplu, cât şi ca verb
auxiliar la construcŃiile cu Prezentul Continuu.
to be participates in the construction of the Present Tense Simple – its short infinitive – as well as
the Present Tense Continuous, as an auxiliary verb.
Be Have (got)
Singular plural singular plural
I am we are I have, I have got (I’ve got) we have, we
have got
you are you are
you have, you have got
(you’ve got)
you have, you
have got ( you’ve
got)
31
he/she/it is they are he/she/it has,
he/she/it has got
(he’s/she’s/it’s got)
they have, they
have got (they’ve
got)
Caracteristici
Features
Exemple
Examples
- ‘have’ şi ‘have got’
exprimă ideea de posesie,
iar ‘have’, idea de acŃiune
- interogativul lui ‘have’ se
formează la fel ca
interogativul oricărui alt
verb (exceptându-l pe ‘be’)
la Indicativ Prezent.
- ‘have’ şi ‘have got’ sunt
folosite doar la prezent.
- ‘have’ participă şi la
construirea timpurilor Past
şi Future.
- numai ‘have got’ prezintă
forme contrase la pozitiv.
‘have’ and ‘have got’ are
used for ossession. - only
‘have’ is used when talking
about actions.
- the question form for
‘have’ follows regular
Present Simple:
- ‘have’ and ‘have got’ are
only used in the Present
Simple.
- use’have’ for the Past
Simple or Future forms
Jack has (got) a
new credit card.
I usually have
(nu have got)
breakfast at
home.
Do you have any
time for me?
I have a lot of
ideas; I've got a
lot of ideas.
Do you have a
car?
She will not have
time for two
jobs.
32
- there is no contracted
form for ‘have’ in the
positive form, only for
’have got’.
V. 2. Timpurile gramaticale
The Tense System
V. 2. 1. Exprimarea Timpului Prezent
Expressing Present Time
Timp
Tense
2. ConstrucŃie
Formation rules
Caracteristici
Feature and
meaning
Exemple
Examples
3. Ortografiere
Spelling rules
Prezentul
Simplu
Present
Simple
Affirmative
S + verb
(pers.Isg./pl./II
sg./pl./III pl.)
S + verb+-s
(pers.III sg.)
Interrogative
Do + S + verb?
(pers.Isg./pl./II
sg./pl./III pl.)
Does + S +
verb?
(pers.III sg.)
Negative
S + verb + do
not/don’t
(pers.Isg./pl./II
exprimă adevăruri
general-valabile;
acŃiuni generale;
acŃiuni repetate
expresses general
truths, habitual or
repeated actions
Formule
adverbiale
Adverbial
constructions
We spend our
holidays abroad
I never leave
home late.
She works
hard.(in general)
My train leaves
at 5.42 p.m.
Does my train
leave at …?
My train does
not/doesn’t
leave at…. .
I get up late at
weekends.
Mary often
drops by for a
cup of coffee.
- persoana III sg,
primeşte desinenŃa
de pers./nr. -s
- verbs in III sg.
always get the -s
ending
I/you/we/they
travel
He/she/it travels
- verbele care se
termină în -ch, -sh,
-s, -z, -x primesc
terminaŃia –es)
verbs ending in -
ch,
-sh, -s, -z, -x
receive –- es
(he)teaches,
33
sg./pl./III pl.)
S + verb + does
not/doesn’t
(pers.III sg.)
in the afternoon/
evening/morning/
at noon/
(mid)night/ one
o’clock/ weekend,
on Monday /time,
often, sometimes,
usually, always,
never, as a rule.
Do you ever
watch the
Discovery
Channel?
(it)analyzes, fixes
do şi go primesc –
esdo do and go
receive –es
(he) goes, does
- verbele care se
termină în
consoană + + -y, –
y → –ies
verbs which end in
consonant t+ -y
-y → –ies
(she) tries, cries
- verbele care se
termină în vocală +
–y, primesc
terminaŃia -s
verbs which end in
vowel + –y, only
add –s
(he) says, plays
Prezentul
Continuu
Present
Continuous
Affirmative:
S + be + verb +
-ing
Interrogative:
be + S + verb +
-ing ?
exprimă acŃiuni
care se petrec în
(sau aproximativ)
acest moment
expresses actions
which are
happening now or
around now
We are spending
our holiday
abroad.
I am leaving for
Sibiu.
She is working
hard. (now)
Are you talking
to me?
Is the student
we double the
consonant and add
–ing:
cut – cutting; run –
running; swim –
swimming.
- după –y, -w sau –
x se adaugă direct
–ing
after –y, -w or –y,
we simply add
34
Negative:
S + be + not +
verb + -ing
Formule
adverbiale
Adverbial
constructions
(right) now, at the
moment , this
week
coming today?
They are
not/aren’t
listening!
We are not/
aren’t travelling
home.
Are you busy?
At the moment
I’m working on
my project.
Julia is resting
this week.
–ing:
mix – mixing;
delay – delaying,
snow - snowing
- la adăugarea -ing
la vb. terminate în
–ie, -ie → -y
when adding -ing
to vbs. ending in
- ie, –ie → –y
lie –lying, die-
dying
V. 2. 2. Exprimarea TimpuluiTrecut
Expressing Past Time: Past Simple and Past Continuous
to be – past forms:
I/he/she/it was we/you/they were
ObservaŃii:
1. În limba engleză, trecutul se poate exprimă prin mai multe construcŃii gramaticale, dintre care
doar unele coincid cu formele de trecut din limba română. Din această cauză, şi din fidelitate faŃă de
limba engleză, vom păstra denumirile din aceasta limbă, cu precizarea că, acolo unde e cazul, vom
face echivalarea cu denumirile timpurilor din limba română.
The tense English system is more diversified than the Romanian tense system. While some forms
match Romanian forms quite faithfully, others – most of them – only approximate them.
2. În cazul verbelor limbii engleze, unul din cele mai importante aspecte îl constituie împărŃirea lor
în verbe regulate şi verbe neregulate.
English verbs are regular and irregular
3. În mod invariabil, verbele regulate primesc la forma de bază (rădăcina), care rămane neschimbată
la toate persoanele, terminaŃia –ed
35
Regular verbs end invariably in –ed
4. Verbele neregulate işi schimbă forma de bază, şi, prin urmare, trebuie învaŃate ca atare. La finalul
oricărei gramatici sau dicŃionar al limbii engleze există o listă cu verbele neregulate.
Irregular verbs change their form and must be learnt as such. Any grammar or dictionary is
provided with a list of irregular verbs.
Timpul
Tense
Caracteristici
Features and
meaning
ConstrucŃie
Formation rules
Exemple
Examples
Adverbe
Adverbials
1. Perfectul
Compus/
Simplu
Past Simple
Acest timp
păstrează în mod
omogen, aceeaşi
formă pentru toate
persoanele.
Exprimă o acŃiune
care s-a
întamplat/s-a
încheiat în trecut (e
însoŃit de adverbe
de timp/loc: last
year, yesterday, ten
minutes ago, etc).
This tense has the
same form for all
persons; it
expresses a
completed past
action.
I saw you at 2.30.
Affirmative:
S + verb +
-ed (for regular
verbs)
S + II from of
verbs (Past
Tense) (for
irregular verbs)
Interrogative:
(for all persons)
Did + S + verb?
Negative:
S + did +
not/did’t + verb
I travel(l)ed to
Cluj. (regular
verb)
Mary received the
invitation from the
secretary.(irregula
r vb)
The receptionist
wrote the taxi
number on a card.
They didn’t pay
their stay at the
hostel by credit
card.
What did you do
when she called?
(How did you
react?)
adverbials
yesterday, two
years ago, last
month, at 2.30,
in the park, in
your office,
etc.
subordinate
clauses:
while working,
when he came.
36
2. Imperfectul
Past
Continuous
Exprimă o acŃiune
care afla în
desfaşurare la un
moment dat sau pe
o perioada
(de)limitată de
timp.
The action was in
progress at a
certain moment or
during a limited
period of time
I was reading
between 4 and 8
p.m./ at 4 p.m.
Affirmative:
S + was (pers.
I/III sg.) /were
(pers. I pl.; II
sg/pl; III pl.) +
verb + -ing
Interrogative:
Was/Were + S +
verb + -ing?
Negative:
S + was/were +
not/wasn’t/were
n’t + verb + -ing
I was travel(l)ing
to Cluj.
Mary was
receiving the
invitation from the
secretary’s hand.
The receptionist
was writing the
taxi number on a
card.
They weren’t
paying their stay
at the hostel by
credit card.
What were you
doing when she
called? (in that
very moment)
3. Would
Used to
(equivalents of
Past Simple
when used as
narrative
verbs)
Used to +
verbe de
acŃiune sau
verbe de stare
It is used with
both action and
state verbs
- exprimă acŃiuni
care curente în
trecut şi care acum
nu mai sunt în
vigoare (corespund
imperfectului).
These phrases
express a past
recurrent activit
/state which is now
over.
Affirmative:
S + used
to/would + verb
Interrogative:
Did + S + used
to + verb
Would + S +
verb?
Negative:
S + did
not/didn’t use(d)
to + verb
The
accommodation
used to be better
last year
They used to
travel more when
they were
younger.
When we stayed
in Spain we would
often travel to
Alicante.
Adverbials
at the moment,
at that time, at
2.30, all that
time, that
week(end)
(simultaneous
actions)
while she was
reading
(incidental
action)
when he
37
Would +
exclusiv verbe
de acŃiune
It is used
exclusively
with action
verbs
S + would
not/wouldn’t +
verb
opened the
window
V. 4
Past Perfect
(Simple and
Continuous)
1. Past Perfect
Simple
had + Past
2. Past Perfect
Continuous
Participle
Are aceeaşi formă
pentru toate
persoanele Exprimă
o acŃiune încheiată
înaintea altei
acŃiuni trecute.
It has the same
form for all
persons.It expresses
a past action which
ended before
another past action.
exprimă o acŃiune
care se afla in
desfăşurare de o
perioadă de timp
sau de la un
moment dat până la
apariŃia altei acŃiuni
trecute.
S + had (for all
persons) + Past
Participle (III
form)
She had
completed a
specialized course
before she found
that job. When
they arrived at the
hotel, they
realized that the
guide had left.
I had already been
preparing the
bags for half an
hour when/before
my friends
arrived.
38
expresses an action
which had been
going on for a
period of time or
since a moment
before another past
action occurs.
V. 2. 3 Prezentul Perfect
The Present Perfect
Timpul gram
Tense
Caracteristici
Features
ConstrucŃie
Formation rules
Exemple
Examples
Adverbe
Adverbials
1. Present
perfect Sinple
S + have/ has
+ Past
Participle
(IIIrd form)
Face legătura dintre
timpul trecut şi
timpul prezent
(uneori şi viitor).
Aruncând o privire
retrospectivă către
trecut, ne
informează ce s-a
petrecut pană în
sau înainte de
momentul prezent.
It relates past
Affirmative
I/you/they have
(‘ve) written
(irregular vb)
He/she has (‘ve)
travelled
(regular vb)
Interrogative
Have you
written…?
Has he travelled
long?
I’ve been to many
places and I’ve
known a lot of
people (so far/up to
now)
Adverbials
so far, lately,
just, already,
yet, always,
usually, never,
ever, seldom/
rarely, often/
frequently
or with no
time
specification
since
39
actions and states
to the present. It
looks back from the
present into the
past, and expresses
what has happened
before now.
Exprimă o acŃiune
sau o stare are
continuă încă:
It expresses an
action or state
which began in the
past and continues
to the present.
- evenimente care
fac parte din viaŃa
noastră (în special
Present Perfect
Simple)
events that are up
to now part of our
life.
- acŃiuni care
continuă şi în
present
actions that are still
Negative
I have not
written
He has not been
travelling
(beginning of
action) for
(duration of
action)
I’ve had this
car for a year
(I still have
it).
Diana has
been learning
French (for a
long time)
(still learning)
Have you ever
visited
Romania?
They’ve never
been here
(before).
We’ve been
waiting for
weeks to get
the result! It’s
40
going on.
- acŃiuni trecute cu
consecinŃe/ efecte
în prezent
past actions with a
result in the present
been raining
for days!
I am tired
because I’ve
been working
hard.
George has
taken/been
taking
computer
classes (can
use it )
2. Present
Perfect
Continuous
S + have/has +
been + verb+ -
ing
Affirmative
I/you/they have
been writing
He/she has have
been travelling
Interrogative
Have you been
writing…?
Has he been
travelling long?
Negative
I’ve not been
writing
He’s not been
travelling
since
(beginning)
/for (duration)
41
În unele cazuri,
diferenŃa dintre cele
dous forme este
insesizabilă.
Sometimes the
difference between
the two Present
Perfect forms is
very slight
- pentru verbe care
exprimă ideea de
durată mare (work,
wait, travel, learn,
play), se preferă
forma continuă;
- cu verbe ca buy,
die, take, shut, etc,
şi care nu exprimă
această idee,
folosim mai
degrabă Present
Pefect Simple;
- verbele de stare
nu se folosesc la
Present Perfect
Continuous.
Present Perfect
Continuous + verbs
that express the
idea of long time;
Present Perfect
Simple + state
I have worked here
all my life/I’ve
been working here
all my life.
They’ve (already)
been walking for a
long time.
She’s passed the
exam. I’ve been
working/ trying so
hard to finish in
time.
She’s understood
42
verbs
Present Perfect
Simple exprimă
ideea de acŃiune
incheiată, mai ales
atunci când este
însoŃit de o
construcŃie
adverbială
cantitativă.
Present Perfect
Simple expresses
completion of an
action when it is
followed by a
quantitative
marker.
you perfectly well.
She has (already)
corrected three
papers.
They’ve changed
two trains to come
to Cluj.
V. 2. 4. Exprimarea Timpului Viitor
Expressing Future Time
Forma de
viitor
Future form
Caracteristici
Features and
meaning
ConstrucŃie
Formation
rules
Exemple
Examples
Adverbe
Adevrbials
1. Simple
Future
- consecinŃă
consequence
- previziune
- If you wait too
long, you’ll (will)
get bored.
43
prediction
- certitudine
certainty
- promisiune
promise
- avertisment
warning
- hotârare
determination
S+ shall/will
+ short
infinitive
- It will be fine
tomorrow.
- This letter will be
for me.
- I’ll always stand
by you.
- There won’t be too
much time left, so
we’d better hurry.
- I shall never
smoke.
3. Future
Continuous
- exprimă acŃiuni
viitoare văzute în
desfaşurare.
- expresses future
actions in
progress
S + will + be
+ verb + -ing
Who knows what I
will be doing
tomorrow this time?
In a week’s time
they will be enjoying
every moment of
their holiday.
in ten years’
time;
this time next
month; at 2
p.m.
2. Future
Perfect
- corespunde lui
Past Perfect şi
exprimă
anterioritatea unei
acŃiuni/stări
viitoare faŃă de o
altă acŃiune
viitoare.
- like Past
Perfect, it
expresses a future
action/state
completed before
another future
S+ will + have
+ Past
Participle
She will have left
when they reach the
hotel
by 4.30;
by the time
she returns;
by noon, etc
44
action.
4. Present
Continuous
exprimă
aranjamente sau
planuri personale.
- prezenŃa
adverbului
corespunzător e
obligatorie.
- expresses
personal
arrangements,
plans – always
accompanied by a
near future time
expression.
S + be + -ing
What are you doing
later? Are you going
out with the group?
- adverbe
care indică
viitorul
apropiat
near future
adverbials
tomorrow,
next
(week)end,
today, in the
afternoon, etc,
- expresii
adverbiale cu
zilele
săptămânii
week days
adverbials
on Friday,
last Monday.
5. Present
Simple
- exprimă acŃiuni
sau demersuri
oficiale.
- expresses
official actions.
S + short inf.
The train leaves at
8.45 a.m.
The library closes at
10 p.m.
at 10 p.m
6.‘Going to’ viitorul intenŃiei
si al predicŃiei/
deducŃiei logice -
also called the
future of intention
and of
S + going to +
short inf.
Are you going to
start or not? I’m
going to ask when
the next train leaves.
It’s not going to be
any better than it is
when the next
train leaves
soon
45
prediction/logical
inference.
now. Look! It’s
going to rain soon.
6. be to
= urmează să
– exprimă
iminenŃa unei
acŃiuni/stări.
- expresses the
imminence of an
action/state.
S + be to +
short inf.
They are to arrive in
the afternoon/in a
moment
in the
afternoon/
in a moment
8. be about to/
be on the
point/verge of
= a fi pe
punctul de a/
cât pe ce să/ a
sta să
S + be about
to + short inf.
S + be/verb
on the
point/verge
of + -ing
participle
The speaker is about
to end the
presentation.
The play is on the
point of starting.
She seems on the
verge of breaking
out.
9. be due to+
inf/ due at
un program/ orar
deja stabilit.
S+ be due
to/at + verb
The group of
students is due to
arrive at 8.30.
Their plane is due at
15.15. .
10. be bound
to
= trebuie să
- acŃiuni care se
impun ca
obligatorii.
S + be bound
to + verb
The group leader is
bound to know the
details regarding
their tour
programme.
46
V. 3. Forme verbale simple şi continue - Verbe de stare şi verbe de acŃiune
Simple and Progressive verb forms - Stative, dynamic, process verbs
Majoritatea verbelor pot avea atât aspect continuu cât şi simplu, exprimând, în funcŃie de context, o
acŃiune static-informativă, sau o acŃiune dinamică.
Most verbs can take on either of the aspects, expressing, according to the context, a stative-
informative action, resopectively, a dynamic-progressive one.
John lives in this house. (it is his PERMANENT rersidence)
John is living in this house. (it is his TEMPORARY residence)
The stative form of the verb ‘lie’, means ‘be situated gepographicaly’ and its dynamic form means
‘having a recumbent, horizontal position’ Forma statică a verbului lie înseamnă’ a fi situat
geographic, iar cea dinamică înseamnă ‘a sta culcat, a se întinde’ This country lies north of Spain.,
dar şi de poziŃie spaŃială: He left the papers lying on the table.
Verbe procesuale: arata evoluŃia graduală a unui process
Process verbs: they show gradation of a process:
grow,change, deteriorate, mature, narrow, widen, slow down.If it relates a process, then the verb is
an action verb. If it relates a state, the verb is a stative verb. Stative verbs: be, hate, like, love, need,
belong, believe, cost, get, impress,, know, reach, recognize, taste, think/consider, understand.
Generally, stative verbs fall into the following four groups:
Tipul verbului
Type of verb
Exemple
Examples
ÎnŃeles de bază =
stare
Basic meaning =
state
ÎnŃeles schimbat =
proces/acŃiune
Changed meaning =
process/action
1. care exprimă
o opinie sau un
proces cognitiv
which express
thought or
epinions or
mental
cognition
know, believe,
understand,
recognize
think/consider,
imagine,
impress, intend,
mean, mind,
perceive, please,
prefer,
I think it will be a
successful
seminar.(opinion)
I consider it would
be proper to wait.
I dislike rudeness.
I am thinking of leaving.
I am (seriously)
considering leaving.
47
presuppose,
realize, recall,
recognize,
regard,
remember,
satisfy, suppose,
think,
understand,
want, wish.
2. Verbe de
relaŃie
(relaŃionale)
sau care
exprimă posesia
Relational
Verbs, or verbs
which express
possession
be, belong to,
concern, consist
of, contain, cost,
depend on,
deserve, equal,
fit, have,
include, involve,
lack, matter,
need, owe, own,
possess, require,
resemble.
We don’t have such
a lot of time.
It belongs to
nobody.
I only own a bicyle.
Susan is (as a rule!)
a discreet person.
They are not having lunch
right now.
Today Susan is being very
nosy.
3. senzoriale
related to senses
and perception
see, hear, feel,
smell, taste,
sound
This sandwich tases
sour. (characteristic)
It also smells odd.
The blouse feels
rough against my
skin.
She sees well with
her new glasses.
I am tasting the sandwich.
(action)
I must smell it.
I am feeling this piece of
silk cloth.
She is seeing the eye
doctor. tomorrow. (has an
appointment)
Jane is no longer seeing
George. (is not dating him
48
This song sounds
familiar to me.
This idea sounds
great! (=seems)
I hear you very well,
don’t shout.
anymore)
She is seeing things
(=imagining)
They will sound their
complaints (=announce)
They started hearing
voices (=imagining).
4. care exprimă
emoŃii/trăiri
which express
feelings
astonish, love,
hate, like, desire,
detest, dislike,
know, believe,
understand,
suppose, want,
wish, remember,
forget, forgive,
guess, abhor,
adore, doubt,
feel, wonder
They didn’t forget
about the
documents.
‘I feel better’ = ‘I
am feeling better ( a
very present state, or
a gradual process,
probably more
evident in the
present)
He was forgetting/(again)
was remembering to walk.
(the process of
degradation or of recovery
of an ability)
Sometimes, for the sake of
emphasis, we can say: I’m
simply loving being here!
(I’m fully enjoying every
single moment of my stay
here). Couldn’t you see he
was hating the
conversation?
VI. ConstrucŃii interogative
Questions
1. Întrebări cu cuvinte care conŃin grupul
‘wh’ (wh – questions)
Wh- questions
Where is the station? (Close to the city
center.)
Who gave you this direction? (The dean’s
49
what; who; whose; which; where; when;
how; why; how + adjectiv/adverb ( how
much/ how far/ how fast)
VI. 2. Întrebări care cer răspunsuri de
tipul ‘da/nu’ (mereu despărŃite prin
virgulă de restul propoziŃiei)
Yes/no questions
Pronumele interogative ‘who’ şi ‘what’
pot îndeplini în frază atât rol de subiect
(subject) cât şi rol de complement (object). În
cazul în care întrebarea vizează subiectul, nu
se produce inversia subiectului cu predicatul
şi nici nu e nevoie de auxiliarul do
(respective does sau did). În schimb, la
celălalt tip de întrebări, aceste fenomene
apar.
Who and what can function either as subject
or as object of the sentence. In subject
questions, there is no inversion and no do
(does or did) auxiliaries, unlike in
complement questions.
secretary.)
How can I get to the Library? (You’ll see the
sign right away.)
Why were/are you late? (I missed the bus.)
When do I pay for the trip? (Even now if you
wish.)
She didn’t say which she preferred. (She is
still undecided.)
What were you doing at the time? (I was
looking for the hostel.)
Whose car are/were you washing? (My
own.)
How long have you studied/ been studying ?
(Not too long.)
Are you sitting comfortably?
Yes, I am/ No, I am not(I’m not).(sitting
comfortably? Did you see the presentation?
Yes, I did/ No, I didn’t (see the presentation)
Do you find the lecture interesting?
Yes, I do/ No, I don’t (find it interesting).
Was you friend listening?
Yes, he/she was/ No, he/she wasn’t
(listening).
Have you been to the theatre?
Yes, I have/No, I haven’t.
The Committee asks the candidate questions.
Who asks the candidate some questions?
(The Committee = Subject)
Who does the Committee ask some
questions? (The candidate = Object)
3 Alte tipuri de construcŃii interogative
50
Other types of interrogative constructions
1. Întrebări care vizează Subiectul Întrebări care vizează
Complementul
Subject Questions Object Questions
Who makes the schedule? Who did she ask?
The group representative does. She asked no one.
What has he pointed out? What did he do with the
folders?
Who left the plan on the table?
Who has been to Romania before?
2. Întrebări descriptive: Cum e/
Cum sunt?
Descriptive questions:
What….like?
‘What is it/he like? What are they like?’
A nu se confunda What is he like? cu How is
he? (care înseamnă ‘cum se simte (cu
sănătatea)?’)
Note: We should not mistake : What is he
like? with How is he? (meaning ‘How does
he feel?’and we refer here to the person’s
health)
What is your home town like?
It’s a nice, quiet, provincial town.
What are your room-mates like?
Oh, them. They’re all right, I suppose. I’ve
hardly met them.
How is your friend now, after that nasty flu?
She’s much better now, thank you.
VII. ConstrucŃii cu Verbele Modale
Modal Constructions
Verbele modale: can - could, may – might, must-have to; will-would, shall-should, ought to, dare
(to), need (to)
Verbele Modale sunt semi-auxiliare, deci se comportă altfel decât verbele obişnuite, adică, îşi
formează interogativul şi negativul singure, fără a se ajuta de verbele auxiliare clasice be şi do, nu
primesc –s la persoana III sg. prezent şi nu au forme nepersonale (infinitiv, gerunziu).
(I can to to greşit).
51
ExcepŃie fac ‘have to’, need to, be bound to, be going to’ la care se regăsesc toate aceste trăsături
şi care se numesc semi-modale. Aceste verbe au în cele mai multe cazuri dublu înŃeles: I may go at
last!
(I am allowed to) I may go today.( I will probably go).
De asemenea, majoritatea au o expresie sinonimică care să le înlocuiască în construcŃiile în care
acestea sunt improprii: They can swim (present) – They will be able to swim (future).
Modal verbs are semi-auxiliary verbs, therefore they have other characteristics than notional verbs,
that is, they don’t be or do to form the interrogative and the negative, nor do they get an -s in the III
sg. Also, they do not have non-finite forms (gerund or infinitive).
Exceptions are ‘have to’, ‘need to, ‘be bound to, ‘be going to’, ‘dare to’, which are called semi-
modals. They generally carry two meanings
I may go at last! (I am allowed to) I may go today.( I will probably go) and have a
synonymous expression to replace them in various situations where they are not fit.
Toate construcŃiile modale au două forme de bază:
A. construcŃiile modale simple, care se referă la situaŃii prezente sau viitoare:
S + modal + short infinitive
Paul may be leaving on Monday (It is possible that Paul is leaving on Monday);
This book may be what I really need. (This book is likely to be what I really need.)
B. construcŃiile modale perfecte, care se referă la evenimente trecute
Perfect Modal constructions – referring to past events
S + modal + have + Past Participle (IIIrd
form)
He should have arrived by now. (We expected him to arrive already by now.) The course must have
started. (I am sure the course has already started.)
All modal constructions can be found under two major forms: A. Simple Modal constructions –
referring to present or future situations;
VII. 1. Can - Could
Verbul
modal
Forma sininimică
Synonymous form
Sens
Meaning
Exemple
Examples
52
Modal verb
1. be able to abilitate fizică sau mentală (=a fi
capabil de ceva)
physical or mental ability = ‘to
be able to do something’
They can (are able
to) ski very well.
I could (was never
able to) never learn
to drive.
2. be likely/ possible
to (happen)
posibilitatea ca ceva să aibă loc;
o presupunere
possibility/probability/conjecture
or a characteristic
It can (sometimes)
be (is very
likely/possible to
get) very cold in
these parts in
winter.Can it really
happen to me/ Is it
really happening to
me?
CAN
3. Can’t = it’s
impossible; it’s
unlikey/ not likely
mposibilitate este exprimată doar
cu ajutorul formei negative
impossibility – exclusively the
negative form
It can’t be true (it’s
impossible to be
true)! He can’t have
said such a
thing!(It’s
impossible/not likely
that he said such a
thing)
1. was able to o însuşire/caracteristică trecută
past ability
I remember that ten
years ago they could
speak Spanish much
better (…were able
to speak…).
2. it is probable that This route could be
53
it happens/ to happen
; it is quite likely
that…
the right one.(it is
quite likely that this
is the right route).
3. Could’t = it’s not
possible/ it’s hard to
accept/believe
This is line 4, so this
couldn’t be the train
to Braşov.
COULD
4. why didn’t you?
reproş
reproach
You could hurry up
a bit! (it would be
nice if you did it!)
(Ai putea să te
grăbeşti puŃin!)
She could have
come in time! (It
would have been
polite of her to come
in time)(Ar fi putut
veni la timp!)
VII. 2. May - Might
Verbul
modal
Modal verb
Forma sininimică
Synonymous form
Sens
Meaning
Exemple
Examples
1. MAY
1. be
allowed/permitted
exprimă
permisiunea/aprobarea de a
face ceva; forma negativă
exprimă interdicŃia de a face
ceva expresses
permission/consent for an
action; the negative form
expresses interdiction to an
You may not enter
the building during
conference hours.
May I add
something?
But! They will not
be/were not
allowed/permitted to
54
action
enter the building
without a permit.
exprimă probabilitatea unei
acŃiuni - e mai puternic decât
might
expresses the probability for
the occurrence of an action –
it is stronger than might
It may be better if
you left in the
morning instead of
tonight.
it is probable,
possible that/to
exprimă probabilitatea (mai
mică) unei acŃiuni – e mai
puŃin puternic decât may
expresses likeliness (not very
strong, though) for the
occurrence of an action – it is
less strong than may
Her neighbours
might tell you where
she’s moved. (I am
not sure either
whether they know
or wheter they are
willing to tell you.)
Leaving today might
be an option.
Attending the class
only might have
been enough to
understand the
course.
- este o formă de reproş
it is a form of reproach
You might at least
stay until the speech
ends.
2. MIGHT
- de asemenea, exprimă o
acŃiune ramasă ca ultimă
alternativă (neplacută
vorbitorului)
it also shows that the action is
We’ve lost the
document! We
might as well start it
all over again!
55
seen as the last alternative
left, which the speaker resents
doing.
VII. 3. Must – Have to
Verbul modal
Modal verb
Forma sininimică
Synonymous form
Sens
Meaning
Exemple
Example
1. MUST (for
‘internal’
obligation
/conviction)
1. be compulsory/
obligatory/mandatory
2. it’s sure/certain
- exprimă obligativitatea
(convingere personală, nu
constrangere) de a face ceva;
forma negativă, ca şi may,
dar mai puternic decât
acesta, exprimă interdicŃia de
a face ceva , sau un reproş.
expresses obligation(
personal conviction rather
than imposition);
the negative form, expresses
interdiction to an action (in
a stronger way than may) or
reproach.
- exprimă ideea de
certitudine expresses
certainty
Well, I really
must go now.
(I know it’s
right to do so)
The plane
passengers must
first pass
through the
sanitary filter.
The passengers
must not open
their safety
belts unless told
to.
You mustn’t
speak to anyone
like that!
This must be
the way to the
hostel (I am
sure it is) The
train must have
56
already left the
station by now.
2. HAVE TO (for
‘external’
obligation/
imposition
it’s compulsory/
obligatory/mandatory
I have to open
the meeting
today.
They had to run
to catch that
bus.
The lecturer
will have to
give you the
information.
3. SHALL
-
- obligativitate legală it is
obligatory by law (a very
strong obligation, it is
stronger than must);
sometimes it is followed by
‘have to’
obligation/compulsion
All books shall
be returned in
due time.
The citizens
shall (have to)
pay their levies
before the close
57
of the year (if
they want to
avoid being
fined).
-
- ofertă de ajutor/serviciu
offer of help
Shall I carry the
bags for you?
-
- horârarea de a face ceva
dublată de certitudina
efectuării acŃiunii.
an action which the speaker
feels strong for and is
certain to happen.
I shall give up
smoking.
VII. 4. Shall – Should – Ought to
Verbul modal
Modal verb
Forma sininimică
Synonymous form
Sens
Meaning
Exemple
Examples
it is advisable/
recommendable;
it is met that…
- sfat, recomandare, uneori
reproş blând
advice, recommendation,
mild criticism
You should be
careful with
your money (!)
No one should
judge others!
One should
never judge
anyone!
1. SHOULD
- indecizie
hesitation
Should I stay or
should I leave?
You should
have completed
your project last
58
- expresses coincidence,
when doubled in meaning
by it is strange/funny/odd
that …
It is really odd
that George
should be here
now.
2. OUGHT TO - recomandare morală = s-ar
cădea, ar trebui să, ar fi bine
să.
moral/etical
recommenadtion
Laws ought to
be obeyed by
every citizen!
We ought to be
caring with
elder people.
VII. 5. Needn’t to – don’t have to
Needn’t to/ Needn’t have to Don’t/Didn’t have to
Needn’t = absenŃa obligativităŃii
lack of obligation
You needn’t do it = there is no need to do
it
Needn’t have to = acŃiunea a fost efectuată
desi nu era necesar sa fie efectuată
She needn’t have to come today = She
came today although it wasn’t necessary.
Not have to = absenŃa constrângerii
no compulsion
You don’t have to do it = you are not
forced to do it
Didn’t have to = acŃiunea nu a fost
efectuată dar nici nu era necesar sa fie
efectuată
She didn’t have to come today – She
didn’t come today and it wasn’t necessary
either
VII. 6. Will- Would
Verbul modal
Modal verb
Forma sininimică
Synonymous form
Sens
Meaning
Exemple
Examples
59
- promisiune
promise
I will write as
soon as I
arrive.(I
promise to
write)
încăpăŃânare
- încăapăŃânare
stubborn determination
If you will
refuse to attend
the course,
you’ll fail the
exam.
1. WILL
(willingness/
determination to
do something)
- deducŃie logică
logical deduction
This message
will be for me.
(I have been
expecting it, so
I know)
2. WOULD
- presupunere
supposition – similar to
could/may/might
Phoning the
station would
(may/
might/could)
spare you the
effort to go and
ask yourself.
VII. 7. Need ≠ need to
Need to nu este un veb modal, el se comportă la fel ca orice verb notional (primeşte –s la pers. III sg,
etc.) şi exprimă ideea necesitătii unei stări sau unei acŃiuni.
Need to is not a modal verb, it behaves like any notional verb (gets –s in III pers sg, etc.)and
expresses the necessity of a state or action.
They need to return as soon as possible.
60
Need este un modal şi este folosit în propoziŃii interogative sau negative.
Need is a modal auxiliary, and it is used only in interrogative or negative sentences.
Need she really show off like that? (Chiar trebuie să epateze astfel ?)
VIII. ConstrucŃii cu diateza pasivă
Passive Constructions
(Be + Past Participle; Have + Be + Past Participle; Will + Be/Will + Have + Been + Past Participle;
Be + Being + Past Participle; Modal + Be + Past Participle; Modal + Have + Been + Past Participle
S + Passive Voice + by…(agent) + with… (instrument) (Complement de agent ; instrumental)
The mistake was made by Helen. (agent)
The window has been broken with a rod. (instrument)
John will be given all the instructions for the project (Lui John i se vor da toate
instrucŃiunile…)
She might have been told, I don’t know (Se poate/S-ar putea să i se fi spus, nu ştiu)
ConstrucŃiile predicative care acceptă forme passive: Present Simple; Present Continuous; Past
Simple Past Continuous; Present Perfect Simple; ‘will’-Future, Future Perfect, Modal
Constructions.
(Acceptable Passive predications)
The plan is being discussed at the moment.(Deocamdată / în acest moment/ în momentul de
faŃă,
planul se află în discuŃie.)
Verbe dublu-complementare (cu două complemente)
VIII 1. Verbe cu două complemente
Verbs with 2 objects
Dacă într-o propoziŃie există două complemente, ordinea lor este persoană – obiect.
If there are two objects in a sentence, the normal word order is: person (p) – thing (t)
You should write your parents (p) a postcard (t) before you leave Paris.
With verbs such as say, present, explain, describe, report, we always put the person after the thing:
(t) + ‘to’→ (p)
I explain this rule to you.
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Mary will present the new programming technique to the staff.
If the thing is a pronoun, it stands behind the verb.
I must buy it for my sister (p).
These verbs generate two kinds of passive sentences, the subject of each sentence with indirect
object and direct object respectively:
The organisers have offered the participants a set of useful brochures.
a) The participants have been offered a set of useful brochures by the organisers.
b) A set of useful brochures have been offered (to) the participants by the organisers.
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
1. Present Simple
They always tell me to be careful.
2. Present Continuous
They are discussing the plan.
3. Past Simple
They didn’t open the museum last year.
4. Past Continuous
The Committee was amending the project.
5. will-Future
They will soon check my documents.
6. Future Perfect
They will have closed the office by the time
we get there.
7. Present Perfect Simple
They have passed the new ordinance.
8. Modal Simple
Any of us can easily do it.
9. Modal Perfect
I think they could have told me about the
schedule change.
I am always told to be careful.
The plan is being discussed.
The museum wasn’t opened last year.
The project was being amended by
the Committee.
My documents will be soon checked.
By the time we get there the office
will have been closed.
The new ordinance has been passed.
It can be easily done by any of us.
I think I could have been told about
the schedule change.
62
VIII. 1.1. Verbe care nu pot fi pasivizate
Verbs which do not take on a passive form
Iată câteva: arise, consist of, depend on, exist, fall, happen, lack (even if it takes a direct object)
occur, result from-in, rise.
În cazul în care verbul este urmat de un complement direct, el poate fi pasivizat. Dacă nu există
acest complement direct post-pus verbului, pasivizarea nu are loc.
If the verb can be followed by a direct, it can be made passive. However, if there is no direct object
to become the subject, the verb cannot be transformed to the passive.
Leaving England occurred to me many times.
VIII. 1. 2. Cazuri speciale al Diatezei Pasive
Special passive cases
VIII. 1. 2. 1. Have something done (to you by somebody else than you)
She will have her classes rescheduled next week.
(I se vor face schimbări în orar săptămana viitoare)
My boss has had his office redecorated. (Biroul sefului meu a fost redecorat)
VIII. 1. 2. 2. Get something done (ideea de urgenŃă)
Get your car serviced today!
VIII. 1. 2. 3. Impersonal Passive (used in news)
It is said/rumoured/thought/considered + that + ….. (se zice/zvoneşte/crede/consideră că…)
Passive sentence 1:
It is said that sometimes trains can arrive with great delays.
Passive sentence 2:
Trains are said to (be likely to) arrive sometimes with great delays.
It is said/rumoured/thought/considered that Mary is/was the best candidate for the job.
S + is/was said/rumoured/thought/considered + to be/ to have been….(Se zice(…)/s-a zis (…)că…)
Mary is said to be the best candidate for the job.(Se zice că Mary este…)
Mary is said to have been the best candidate for the job. (Se zice că Mary a fost/ar fi fost…)
Mary was said to have been the best candidate for the job.(S-a zis că Mary a fost/ar fi fost…)
63
IX. Vorbirea Directă şi Indirectă
Reported Speech
Cu ajutorul vorbirii indirecte, cuvintele unui vorbitor sunt preluate şi redate de către un alt vorbitor.
Astfel, se schimbă perspectiva (locul/poziŃia/timpul/persoana) din care este emis un enunŃ.
In indirect speech, someone’s words are reported by someone else. A change of perspective takes
place: the place, position, time and speaking person are modified.
Transformări:
Transformations
I/we/me/us �he/she/you/they/him/her/them
here � there
now � then
today � yesterday
this week � last/the previous week
last week � the last week
come � go Imperative � ‘to’-infinitive
Present (Perfect) � Past (Perfect)
Past � Past Perfect
will � would
Modalele – ramân neschimbate ca formă şi înŃeles, cu excepŃia lui can, care la Past devine, în
funcŃie de înŃelesul cerut de context, could sau was able to.
Modals don’t change, except the Past Tense of can, which is equally could and was able to.
Din punct de vedere semantic, timpul la care se face referire în vorbirea directă NU SE SCHIMBĂ.
Modificarea este doar una formală, pentru a se respecta legea concordanŃei timpurilor
din limba engleză.
Semantically speaking, the reference time from the Direct Speech statement DOES NOT CHANGE –
the change is only a FORMAL change, to obey the SEQUENCE OF TENSES law.
Vorbirea directă
Direct speech
Vorbirea indirectă
Indirect speech
64
“She is my friend”, Ann said
“Come here right now!”
“I can’t do it by myself right now."
You should think it over, don’t you
think so?”
“The session couldn’t have started.”
“How old are you; where do you live;
how many brothers and/or sisters do you
have?”
Ann said (that) she was her friend.
She ordered me/her/him/us/them to go there
in that very moment.
She said/complained (that) she
couldn’t/wasn’t able to do it all by herself in
that moment.
She advised me to think it over/ She said
(that) I should think it over.
They agreed/said that the session couldn’t
have started.
She asked me/wanted to know how old I
am/was, where I live/lived and how many
brothers and sisters I have/had.
IX. 1. Verbe raportoare
Reporting verbs
With if/whether
Peter asked whether/if anyone should leave
by the morning train.
ask, know, remember, say, see
With an object + long infinitive
My parents advised me to stay in tonight.
advise, ask, beg, command, forbid, instruct,
invite, teach, tell, warn
With that+(should) clauses or an
infinitive
He added that all candidates (should) wear
suits and ties.
The chairman expected everyone to be on
time.
add, admit, agree, announce, answer, argue,
boast,
claim, comment, complain, confirm, consider,
deny, doubt, estimate, explain, fear, feel, insist,
mention, observe, persuade, propose, remark,
remember, repeat reply, report, reveal, say,
state, suggest, suppose, tell, think, understand,
warn.
65
advise, beg, demand , insist, prefer, propose,
recommend, request, suggest.
decide, expect, guarantee, hope, promise,
swear, threaten
With question words
He asked me how we could explain all that.
I can’t say who could have imagined the
consequences.
decide, describe, discover, discuss, explain,
forget, guess, imagine, know, learn, realise,
remember, reveal
say, see, suggest, teach, tell, think, understand,
wonder.
X. Formele verbale nepersonale (infinitivul, gerunziul, participiul)
Non-finite verb forms (infinitive, gerund and participle)
Gerund = the –ing form of a verb (e.g. going, talking, writing, etc)
Infinitive = to + simple form of the verb (e.g. to talk, to dance, to write, etc)
Participle = forme participiiale – ele intră în compoziŃia anumitori timpuri verbale şi a unor
forme adjectivale ; alte utilizări: pentru a scurta unele propoziŃii
kinds of participles in English
present participle, past participle and perfect participle the first two are part of certain tenses and
adjective forms; additional uses: to shorten sentences.
Forma verbală
nepredicativă
Form of non-finite
verb
Caracteristici
Features
ConstrucŃie
Form
Exemple
Examples
- în combinaŃie cu
structuri ca:
we use infinitives in
combination with
structures such as:
(I’m) hono(u)red/
delighted/ pleased/
a) Verb + ‘to’
Infinitive
advise, agree, ask,
expect, intend, offer,
plan, pretend, hope,
promise, refuse,
want, would like +
She’s delighted to see
you again.
I’m surprised to meet
you here again.
I want to return there
one day.
They promised not to
66
1. INFINITIVE
surprised+ to meet y
- pentru a exprima
scopul:
- to express purpose:
b) Verb + (Pro)noun
+ ‘to’Infinitive
remind, invite, permit,
allow, warn, ask,
would like, expect,
invite, force, require,
encourage, advise, tell
+ someone + to do
‘to’ infinitive
be too late.
Mary hoped to pass
her exam.
Read the instruction to
be able to use this
device correctly.
She is here (because
she wishes) to learn a
new language.
She told me to be here
before 9 o’clock.
(passive : I was told to
be here….)
The policeman waved
the driver to pull
left.(no passive form !)
Compare:
They expect to pass
the test (expectation
about themselves)
and
They expect me/the
candidate to pass the
test.
(expectation about
someone else)
a) îndeplinesc
funcŃie de subiect sau
complement (ca şi
substantivele)
-can fulfill a noun
They enjoy staying
here (= they enjoy
their stay here)
Studying (= the study
of) this is fun.
67
2. GERUND
function (as a subject
or object)
b) Preposition +
Gerund
c) ‘to’ (= preposition,
not infinitive
particle) + Gerund
d) ‘not’ precede un
gerunziu
‘not’ precedes a
gerund
Verbe urmated de un
gerunziu:
Verbs followed by
Gernunds
avoid, consider (think
about), delay, discuss
(talk about), enjoy,
keep(on), mention,
I (don’t) like working
in large groups. (= the
work)
Compare:
Writing (subject)
essays is useful in
language study
They are writing
(present participle) an
essay.
This is writing (- adj.)
paper.
Mary talked about
leaving for Canada
soon.
He is in charge of
organizing the trip.
Are you interested in
joining us?
She is used to working
late.
They look/are looking
forward to meeting
you.
I do not object to
(their) postponing the
meeting.
I am already
accustomed to not
sleeping very much.
68
postpone(put off),
suggest, stop (e.g.
‘stop working’)
3. PARTICIPLE
a) Participiul Prezent
Present Participle
1. se foloseşte pentru a
forma timpuri
continue
- it is used to form
progressive /
continuous tenses (e.
g. Present Progressive)
2. as an adjective
3. se foloseşte
împreună cu verbe
senzoriale, mai ales
atunci când idea de
finalitate a acŃiunii nu
este implicită.
We use it with verbs of
the senses if we do not
want to emphasise that
the action was
completed. (see
Infinitive or Ing-Form)
: see, watch, notice,
feel, smell, hear, find,
listen to
b) Participiul trecut
Past Participle
forma a treia a
verbelor pentru
Ortografiere
Spelling:
- final -ie becomes –
y: dye – dying (=a
vopsi) ; lie lying
-final consonant
after short, stressed
vowel is doubled :
refer – referring;
permit – permitting
Ortografiere
Spelling:
- consonant + -y = -
i:
marry - married
- final consonant
after a short, stressed
I am listening!
The film is interesting.
Did you notice her
leaving the office?
69
formele verbale
perfecte
the third form of
verbs used either to
build up
- perfect tenses
(Present/Past Perfect
Simple
- passive forms
- adjective forms )
c) Participiu perfect
Perfect Participle
- uneşte propoziŃiile
care au acelaşi subiect,
atunci când acŃiunea
exprimată de
construcŃia cu
participiul perfect s-a
incheiat înainte de
începerea altei acŃiuni.
- joins clauses that
have the same subject
when the action
expressed by the
perfect participle was
completed before the
next action begins.
- exprimă o acŃiune
este în desfăşurare de
câtva timp şi o alta
începe.
one action has been
vowel:
permit→permitted
active voice: having
+ past participle
passive voice:
having been + past
participle
I have/had read this
book.
The book was edited
by….
It was well-written.
Having read the
bibliography, they
wrote an article (=
They read the
bibliography and
wrote an article. )
Having been looking
for a flat for a good
while, he wanted to
give up.(= He had
been looking for a flat
for a good while and
he wanted to give up.)
Having arrived at the
hotel, they checked in.
Having been
redecorated, the house
looked neat.
70
in progress for some
time, and another
action starts.
- face parte din
construcŃiile active si
passive.
it is used for active
and passive
constructions.
X 4. Like doing ≠ would like to do
Like/love to/prefer to do/doing Would like/love to
- exprimă plăcerea vorbitorului de a
face ceva.
expresses the speaker’s
fondness/preference to do something.
They like to spend their weekends in
the mountains. (le place să/ preferă
să…)
You prefer/like to spend/spending
yours at home.
exprimă dorinŃa vorbitorului de a
face ceva.
expresses the speaker’s
wish/desire to do something.
They would like to spend their
weekends in the mountains. (le-ar
place/ar dori să…)
XI. Structuri Sintactice: Coordonarea şi Subordonarea
Syntactic Structures: Coordination (Correlations) and Subordination
Cu ajutorul coordonării şi subordonării, unităŃile simple gramaticale de tipul expresiilor sau
propoziŃiilor simple se pot combina, obŃinându-se unităŃi complexe.
Grammatical units (phrases and the simple sentences) can be combined to make new, more complex
units by means of coordination and of subordination.
1. Subordonarea
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Subordination
Orice propoziŃie subordonată este introdusă de o conjuncŃie subordonatoare sau de către un pronume
relativ şi va avea în mod obligatoriu atât subiect cât şi predicat, fără însă să poată fi considerată
drept o propoziŃie de sine stătătoare. Pentru intregirea sensului este nevoie de precizari suplimentare.
A subordinate clause - also called a dependent clause - will begin with a subordinate conjunction or
a relative pronoun and will contain both a subject and a verb. This combination of words will not
form a complete sentence. It will instead make a reader want additional information to finish the
thought.
Notă
Note
Virgula se cere pusă în mod obligatoriu doar dacă subordonata apare în faŃa propoziŃiei principale,
altfel utilizarea ei nu este obligatorie.
When you attach a subordinate clause in front of a main clause, use a comma.
Not having been able to finish our task in time, we were frowned on by the project coordinator.
Were we to be busy on Tuesday, find someone to substitute for us.
but:
Nick needed additional explanations Ø because he had missed the past three courses indicated
in the course.
My team is very likely to win again the leading position in the district Ø since out entire
activity is
coordinated by real professionals.
Subordination is there to be used to combine ideas effectively, for example, two ideas in a single
sentence:
My son called. A woman asked about me.
Since the two simple sentences are related, you can combine them to express the action more
effectively:
My son called when a woman asked about me.
If the two ideas have unequal importance, save the most important one for the end of the sentence so
that your reader remembers it best. If we rewrite the example above so that the two ideas are
flipped, the wrong point gets emphasized:
When a woman asked about me, my son called.
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Subordinating conjunctions Relative pronouns
after once
until
although provided that
when
as rather than
whenever
because since
where
before so that
whereas
even if than
wherever
even though that
whether
if though
while
in oder that unless
why
that who whose
which whoever
whosever
whichever whom
whomever
2. Coordonarea
Coordination
COORDINATION
Conjunctions: or, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Punctuation: , and ;
Examples
Functions of ‘and’
- simple addition (2nd clause adds something
to the 1st clause)
- sequence (2nd clause comes after the 1st
clause)
- result (2nd clause results from the 1st
- This museum houses ancient items, and it
also has a collection of recent international
currency.
- Mark checked in, and (then) he went to
meet his colleagues.
- The maid found the wallet under the bed,
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clause).
- contrast (2nd clause is in contrast to the 1st
clause)
- concession (1st clause concedes something
while 2nd clause gives the actuality or truth)
- condition (1st clause is a condition for the
2nd clause)
- similarity (2nd clause makes a point similar
to that of the 1st clause) .
- explanation (2nd clause comments on or
explains the 1st clause)
and John cryed out for joy.
- Catleen prefers the seaside, and her
husband loves the Scottish mountains.
- Your ambition is to come up with a
breakthrough, and yet you always seem to
miss it in the last second.
- We should try harder, and you’ll reap your
success.
- The new subscribers benefit from a 20%
deduction, and the regular clients can enjoy
similar advantages with each renewal.
- He needs to take steps immediately, and
that’s to change completely both his food and
work habits.
XII. Fraza CondiŃională
Conditional Constructions
PropoziŃia CondiŃională exprimă o condiŃie necesară în vederea obŃinerii unui rezultat care apare ca
urmare a realizării condiŃiei.
It is a Subordinate Clause which contains a condition. Three major types of Conditional Clauses
are known according to the condition on which the clause is built.
AtenŃie! if = dacă dar even if = chiar dacă, cu toate că.
Note:
PropoziŃiile introduse de ‘if’ exprimă condiŃiile necesare prin care se ajunge la un anumit rezultat.
Aceste condiŃionale determină rezultate predictibile, care sunt motivate de însăşi condiŃia intrinsecă
care stă la baza acestora. Spre dosebire de ele, în cazul condiŃionalelor cu ‘even if’, rezultatul la care
se ajunge este unul neprevăzut.
ComparaŃi:
Compare
If she studies hard, she will pass the exam (Dacă se pregăteşte serios,va lua examenul)
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and
Even if she studies hard, she won’t pass the exam. (Chiar dacă/ Cu toate că se pregateşte serios, nu
va lua examenul).
‘If’ clauses express the conditions necessary for the result. If clauses are followed by expected
results based on the condition. In contrast to sentences with ‘if’ sentences with ‘even if’ show a
result that is unexpected based on the condition in the ‘even if’ clause.
În funcŃie de felul condiŃiei, se cunosc trei tipuri de propoziŃii condiŃionale.
Tipul I: sau condiŃionala posibilă şansele de realizare a condiŃiei sunt foarte mari.
În propoziŃia principală avem de regulă Future Tense (uneori Present Tense sau un Modal), iar în
propoziŃia condiŃională avem Present sau Present Perfect Tense.
Type I - often called the ‘real’ conditional because it is used for real - or possible - situations.
These situations take place if a certain condition is met; it contains a Possible (sometimes called
Probable or accomplishable) Condition.
We have Future/Present/Modal in the Main Clause and Present Simple/Present Continuous/Present
Perfect in the Conditional Clause.
Tipul II: sau condiŃionala puŃin probabilă deoarece exprimă situaŃii imposibile sau chiar nereale; în
acest caz, nu mai suntem atât de siguri de realizarea condiŃiei propuse. În cazuri, rezultatul la care se
ajunge este unul imaginar.
ObservaŃie : Forma verbului ‘to be’ este in acest context ‘were’.
În propoziŃia principală avem Past Tense (sau Past Continuous), iar în propoziŃia condiŃională,
Present Conditional (would + verb)
If he had a student card, he would travel cheaper.
I wouldn’t jump to conclusions if I were you.
Type II - often called the ‘unreal’ conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or
improbable - situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation.
Note : The verb ‘to be’, when used in the 2nd conditional, is always conjugated as ‘were’.
Tipul III – adesea e numit şi ‘past conditional’ deoarece se referă doar la situaŃii trecute cu rezultate
ipotetice.
Type III - often referred to as the ‘past’ conditional because it concerns only past situations with
hypothetical results
If Al Gore had been elected president, the situation would have been different/ would now be
different.
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XII. 1. Alte conjuncŃii care introduc Subordonata CondiŃională:
Other subordinating conjunctions
Whether or not – indiferent de condiŃiile propuse, rezultatul va fi acelaşi:
Whether they have money or not/whether or not they have money, they are determined to
leave.
(Indiferent dacă au sau nu au bani/fie că au bani sau nu, sunt hotărâŃi să plece.)
Unless – are aceeaşi valoare cu ‘if not’:
Unless she eats everything, she won’t get any better. E IDENTIC CA SENS CU: If she doesn’t
eat, she
won’t get any better. (‘Dacă (ea) nu mananca, nu se va simti mai bine)
AtenŃie! ‘Unless’ se foloseşte doar în CondiŃionalele de Tipul I.
In case şi in the event se folosesc atunci când nu ne aşteptăm ca un eveniment sa se aibă loc. Ambele
expresii se folosesc in special pentru exprimarea evenimentelor viitoare. ‘In case it rains, take the
bus.’ ‘I'll be studying upstairs in the event he calls’.
Only if – înseamnă ‘doar în cazul în care se întamplă ceva – şi numai atunci’. Are practic acelaşi
înŃeles cu ‘if’, dar pune accent pe îndeplinirea condiŃiei pentru a se ajunge la rezultatul scontat.
Dacă ‘only if’ se află la începutul propoziŃiei, atunci trebuie să inversăm propozŃia principală.
Certificates will be released only if the participants attend the entire section of the workshop.
If only (!) (o falsă CondiŃională) exprimă, de fapt, o dorinŃă ipotetică, o intenŃie prea puŃin
realizabilă.
PropoziŃia Principală se deduce din contextual semantic al ideii de dorinŃă:
If only they were given the right directions (they would be able to reach the hotel for the check in)!
Măcar dacă li s-ar fi dat instrucŃiunile corecte (ei ar fi reuşit sa ajungă la timp pentru cazare)!
Whether or not expresses the idea that neither one condition or another matters; the result will be
the same. Notice the possibility of inversion
Unlessexpresses the idea of ’if not and is only used in the first conditional.
In case and in the event usually mean that you don’t expect something to happen. Both are used
primarily for events.
Only if means ‘only in the case that something happens - and only if’. This form basically means the
same as ‘if’. However, it does stress the condition for the result. Note that when ‘only if’ begins the
sentence you need to invert the main clause.
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If only is a false Conditional, in fact, expressing a wish, a hypothetical desire or a hardly
accomplishable dream. The Main Clause is understood from the semantic context of the wish.
when=if
When (=if) I am not supposed to, I don’t interfere.
XII. 2. CondiŃionala de Tipul I (CondiŃia Reală – cu referire la viitor sau la prezent)
Type I Conditional –Probable Condition
- exprimă o situaŃie anticipată posibilă/foarte realizabilă. (Acest tip de condiŃională este identic ca
structură cu subordonată temporală introdusă de un adverb de timp: when, as soon as, the moment,
etc.)
If anything happens, I will stand by you. (Dacă ceva se întamplă, eu te voi sprijini.(în mod sigur!)
If/When/As soon as/ The moment Mark comes, I will talk to him.
- mai exprimă o situaŃie de tipul cauză-efect (în acest caz, avem Present Tense in PropoziŃia
Principală şi tot Present Tense în PropoziŃia CondiŃională):
If you work, you have money, if you don’t work, you starve.
Situations that are always true if something happens. This use is similar to, and can usually be
repleaced by, a Time Clause using a time adverbial.
TYPE I
PropoziŃia
Principală
Main Clause
ConjuncŃia
Conjunction
PropoziŃia CondiŃională
Conditional Clause
Îndeplinirea acŃiunii
are un grad mare de
certitudine -condiŃie
posibilă.
Probable, highly
fulfillable condition
-promise/prediction
- warning
FUTURE
You will get a room
I’m going to miss the
beginning
You’ll fall asleep
PRESENT
The plant grows
if
PRESENT
you check in in time.
you don’t leave now.
PRESENTCONTINUOUS
you are not working faster.
it is watered regularly.
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- cause-effect
MODAL
You can/may leave
You can’t/won’t take
the exam
you finish.
PRESENT PERFECT
you haven’t written the
essay. (stress on action
completion)
XII. 3. CondiŃionala de Tipul II (CondiŃia improbabilă sau nereală)
Type II Conditional (Imporbable, unreal condition)
- exprimă o condiŃie improbabilă, îndeplinirea acesteia nefiind la fel de sigură ca în primul cazde
condiŃie; este vorba mai mult de situaŃii ipotetice, imaginare. Traducerea in limba romană se face cu
ajutorul modului condiŃional-optativ prezent.
În PropoziŃia Principală avem would/could + verb, iar în PropoziŃia CondiŃională avem Past Tense/
Subjonctivul ‘were’.
Often called the unreal or hypothetical or even absurd conditional because it is used for unreal -
impossible improbable - situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given
situation.
NOTE: The verb ‘to be’, when used in the 2nd conditional, is always conjugated as ‘were’.
TYPE II
PropoziŃia Principală
Main Clause
ConjuncŃia
Conjunction
PropoziŃia
CondiŃională
Conditional Clause
AcŃiunea are
sanse mai mici
de indeplinire
decât în cazul
Tipului I –
condiŃie
probabilă
Improbable
condition, less
likely to be
PRESENT
CONDITIONAL
You would get a room
if
PRESENT
you checked in in time.
I were you/18 again
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fulfilled
- hypothetical
condition
-
unreal/absurd
condition
- past cause-
effect
I would try again
PAST
The plant grew
(unreal, because I can
never be you/ I no
longer 18)
PAST
it was watered
regularly.
XII. 4. CondiŃionala de Tipul III (CondiŃia imposibilă/nerealizată)
Type III Conditional
- exprimă o condiŃie neîndeplinită datorită faptului că timpul rezervat realizării ei a trecut. Este, de
fapt, un regret tardiv, exprimat foarte bine de constatarea consecinŃei acestei neîmpliniri. Aceasta
nouă frază este introdusă de ‘but…’ iar predicatele din ambele propoziŃii ale acesteia sunt la Past
Tense.
The Dean would have considered their proposal, if they had requested a meeting with him. (!but
/however they did not request a meeting with the Dean, therefore/ so, and consequently their
proposal was not reconsidered) (Decanul le-ar fi luat în considerare propunerea, dacă ei ar fi solicitat
o întrevededre cu el.)
She would be able to write much better (now), if she had practiced more. (!but she did not practice
enough, so she is not able to write any better now) (Acum ar fi în stare să scrie mult mai bine dacă
ar fi exersat mai mult.)
Often referred to as the ‘late regrets’ because it concerns only past situations with no fulfillable
perspectives.
Nothing can be done anymore to solve a past failure.)
TYPE III
PropoziŃia Principală
Main Clause
ConjuncŃia
Conjunction
PropoziŃia
CondiŃională
Conditional Clause
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AcŃiunea nu a
fost efectuată -
condiŃie
imposibilă
Impossibe
condition, not
fulfilled
Sometimes
called a ‘late
regret’ or a
‘missed chance’
(even if it is not
expressed, we
feel there is an
implied ‘but’)
PAST CONDITIONAL
You would have got a
room
if
PAST PERFECT
you had checked in in
time.
(but you did not check in
in time, so/therefore/in
conclusion/consequently,
you did not get a room;
but since you did not
check in in time, you did
not get a room)
XII. 5. CondiŃionale mixte
Mixed conditionals
I + II Mary will get the prize if she worked harder.
II + III Mary would be a winner now if she had worked harder.
XII. 6. Inversiunea în propoziŃia condiŃională
Inversion in Cconditional Clauses
Se foloseste cu scopul de a accentua condiŃia
It is used for emphatic purposes
Were she to come, I would talk to her. = If she were to come, I would talk to her.
Had we decided to leave sooner, we would have met Tom at the airport. + If we had decided to
leave sooner, we would have met Tom at the airport.
XII. 7. Alte moduri de a exprima o condiŃie
Other ways to express condition
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1. Supposing
I might give Mina the book, supposing she drops by (which I hardly think will happen)
2. If it weren’t/wasn’t for/ If it hadn’t been for = but for
Type II If it wasn’t for Michael, I would be lost! (daca n-ar fi Michael, as fi pierdut(a))
But for Michael, I would be lost
Type III If it hadn’t been for Michael, I would be lost (NOW) /I would have been lost.
(THEN)
(daca n-ar fi fost Michael, as fi pierduta (acum)/as fi fost pierduta (atunci)
But for Michael, I would be lost (NOW) /I would have been lost. (THEN)
3. If so
Ken may refuse to substitute for me. If so, (= in this situation) else.
4. Should (= it is rather unlikely to happen)
If Ken should refuse to substitute for me, which I doubt it will happen, I’ll have to find someone
else.
(with inversion) Should Ken refuse to…, I’ll have to resort to someone else.
5. Happen to – expressing chance
Tell Ann I won’t be able to be there in time, if you (should) happen to see her.
XIII . Alte tipuri de PropoziŃii Subordonate
Other Types of Subordinate Clauses:
1.Noun Clauses are classified into: Subjective, Predicative,
Direct Object, Prepositional, Appositive
2. Adjective Clauses or Attributive
3. Adverb Clauses (the most important of them): of Time, of Place, of Purpose, of Reason, of
Result, of
Manner (Comparison), Conditional (see ch. XI),
of
Concession (Contrast), Relative, Participle
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Type of clause Function Examples
1. Noun Clause
it fulfills the function of a
Direct Object
it fulfills the function of the
Object of a preposition
it fulfills the function of the
Apposition
- the conjunction that before a
noun clause may be omitted
in some sentences
The results are misleading.
What the results report, is
misleading. (Subject) I do not
know his address. I do not
know where he lives.
Give the statistical part of the
project to James. Give the
statistical part of the project to
whoever can manage it best.
That fact – the opposition’s
success (the fact that the
opposition won) discouraged
many.
I know (that) she is right.
2. Adjective
Clauses
- if it is not used as a subject,
the relative pronoun in an
adjective clause may
sometimes be omitted.
We need reliable employees
(= who are reliable).
We took the trodden path
(=which had been trodden).
There is no longer such a
thing as a safe neighbourhood
(= where people feel safe)
John is the person I trust.
(=whom I trust)
- may modify a verb, an
adjective, an adverb, an
infinitive, a gerund, a
Soon the lights went out.
When the windstorm hit, the
lights went out.
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3. Adverb
Clauses
participle, or even the rest of
the sentence in which it
appears. Many adverb clauses
can take various positions in a
sentence. Adverb clauses are
ordinarily introduced by
subordinating conjunctions.
Some adverb clauses may be
elliptical.
No alcoholic beverages are
sold locally (=sold where I
live.
Speak distinctly. Speak so that
you can be understood.
If I can save enough money,
I’ll go to Alaska next summer.
If not, I’ll take a trip to St.
Louis.
Types of Adverb Clauses
3.1. Adverb Clauses of
Time
Characteristics Examples
- relate other actions to
the activity in the main
clause.
- are introduced by
adverbs of time such as
before, after, while, as
soon as, by, when, as
which indicate the time
when something
happens.
John (had) made some
phone calls before he
answered his e-mails.
John answered his
e-mails talked to Anca
after he (had) made some
phone calls.
John opened his
mail box when he made
some phone calls.
John opened his
mail box while he made
some phone calls.
John had (already)
made some phone calls
by the time he started
reading his e-mails.
John will have
(already) made some
phone calls by the time he
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checked his mail box.
3. 2. Adverb Clauses of
Place
– indicate the place
where something
happens.
I remember where I put
the book.
You will find them
waiting exactly where
they are now.
I accept to live wherever
you decide (to).
3. 3. Adverb Clauses of
Purpose
- it states the purpose of
the action in the
independent clause.
- the most common type
of purpose clause is a
to-infinitive clause, but in
formal writing, in order
to and so as to, so that or
in order that are
preferred.
- the difference between
so and so that is that so
that implies that the
cause was deliberately
done by someone in order
to get a specific result.
- other ways of
expressing purpose are:
for the purpose of, with a
view to, with the intention
of, with the object/aim of.
- with these phrases the
verb must be in the -ing
form.
I tried to buy the car to be
able to come into the city
more easily.
The report was written
in order to give a brief
presentation of the
research results.
The lecturer came up
with additional
explanations so that the
students would be able
to/could get the
point more easily.
We offer new courses on
cultural matters with a
view to upgrading the
general public’s
knowledge in the domain.
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3. 4. Adverb Clauses of
Reason
- they say why
something happens
- are introduced by the
conjunctions because, as
or since, when(!) or the
prepositional phrases
because of and on
account of.
As I needed more
information on the
subject, I decided to
enroll for an extra
semester.
They didn’t buy the
house because it was too
deteriorated.
My room mate was
unable to work on his
project on account of a
malfunction in the
computer. (because the
computer malfunctioned.)
3. 5. Adverb Clauses of
Cause and Effect
Because
Notice how because can
be used with a variety of
tenses based on the time
relationship between the
two clauses.
As
means the same as
because but is used in
more formal, written
English.
As long as
means the same as
because, but it is more
informal, spoken English.
Since
means the same as
because.
They received a high
mark on their exam
because they had studied
hard.
I’m studying hard
because I want to pass
my exam/because I know
too little.
As the test is difficult,
you had better get some
sleep.
As long as nobody will be
in this house for a while,
why don’t you move in
yourself?
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It tends to be used in
more informal spoken
English. Important note:
Since when used as a
conjunction is typically
used to refer to a period
of time, while because
implies a cause or reason
Due to the fact
that
means the same as
because but is generally
used in very formal,
written English.
Inasamuch as
means the same as
because and is used in
very formal, written
English.
Since his application was
rejected , he decided to
apply soemhwere else.
It’s clear we shall have
get up earlier since work
starts at 8.
We will be staying for an
extra week due to the fact
that we haven not yet
finished.
Inasmuch as the students
had succesfully
completed their exams,
their parents rewarded
their efforts by giving
them a trip to Paris.
3. 6. Adverb Clauses of
Contrast (Concession)
- it is used with these
words or expressions:
despite + noun/possessive
adjective + gerund,
in spite of +
noun/possessive
adjective+ gerund
(al)though, even
if/though, however,
whoever (and the rest of
the words combined with
Although/even if/though
we are loadsed with
work, you can leave for a
few days.
You can leave for a few
days Although/even
if/though we are loaded
with work.
Despite the fact that we
loaded with work, you
can leave… Despite our
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–ever), yet, while,
whereas, at the same
time, all the same, or to
inverted structures:
adj. + as + S + may/might
be/was
being loaded with so
much work, you can
leave…
In spite of our being
loaded with work, you
can…/In spite of the fact
that we are loaded with
work, you can…..
However loaded with
work we may be/are, you
can leave all the same.
Loaded with work as we
are/as we may be, you
can (still) leave….
We are loaded with work
indeed, yet/but you can
leave….
We are loaded with work,
all the same, you can
leave….
We are loaded with work,
yet you can leave…
We are loaded with work;
at the same time you can
leave……
We are loaded with work;
nonetheless you can
leave…..
3. 7. Adverb Clauses of
Manner (Comparison)
- it tells us how to do
something.
- its connectors (all have
the same meaning): as, as
The directions should be
complied with as the
organizers indicated you
to.
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if, and as though.
- the comparison can be
either realistic or
unrealistic.
- in realistic
comparisons, are used
normal tenses of the
verbs to agree with the
main clause (here , we
use the present tense to
agree with the present
tense in the main clause.)
- in unrealistic
comparisons, we use
‘more past.
Note that as can be an
adverb clause connector
of time, manner and
reason.
Read the text aloud as if
you were an actor on
stage.
Apply for that college as
though it was/were the
ultimate solution.
She looks at me as if it’s
a joke. (it’s possible that
it’s a joke.)
The child trembles as
though he saw something
terrible.
Maybe he really saw
something terrible.
He cries as though he
were stabbed.
Nobody stabbed him.
He dances as if you were
Nureev.
He’s not Nureev.
As you refused to help
me, I asked someone
else.. (reason)
We will keep you
informed as the decision
is made. (time)
Behave as you were told
to. (manner)
3. 8. Adverb Clauses of
Result
- indicates the result of
an action or situation
- are introduced by
The lecture was boring
and irrelevant, so some of
the students began to fall
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conjunctions such as so,
so... that, or such … that
and some other words
that have the same
semantic coverage, such
as: therefore, thus, in
consequence,
consequently, for this/that
reason
- other ways of indicating
the result of an action or
situation are and as a
result or with the result
that.
asleep.
Peter was having
problems with
mathematics, so he went
to see his tutor to ask for
advice.
There were so many
books on the subject that
Cindy didn’t know where
to begin.
There was such a lot of
material to cover that
Ivan found it difficult to
keep up with his studies.
The lecture was boring
and irrelevant, and as a
result some of the
students began to fall
asleep.
The lecture was
boring and irrelevant,
with the result that some
of the students began to
fall asleep. As a result
can also be used at the
beginning of a new
sentence.
The lecture was
boring and irrelevant. As
a result, some of the
students began to fall
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asleep.
Causal relations can be
expressed by ing-clauses
of result.
The government
increased the duty on
wine. As a result, there
was a fall in demand.
The government
increased the duty on
wine, resulting in a fall in
demand.
3. 9. Participial Clauses
-is used in writing, in
order to include as much
information as possible in
the same sentence:
- if we use a participle
construction used to
combine or shorten
clauses, both clauses
should have the same
subject.
- it uses the conjunctions
as, because, since and
relative pronouns who,
which are left out.
- the conjunctions before,
when are obligatory in
the participle
clause,while the
conjunctions after and,
while are omissible.
I smelled them (namely,
my next door neighbours)
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Participle Clauses with
different Subjects
- if the main clause
contains one of the
following verbs:
see, notice, watch, smell,
feel, find, hear, listen to.
- apart from the
exceptions mentioned
above, participle clause
and main clause should
have the same subject,
otherwise the sentences
might sound rather
strange.
cooking roast.
Mary was writing an e-
mail, when her boss
entered the
office.(correct)
Writing an e-mail, her
boss entered the
office.(wrong)
3. 10. Subordonata
Relativă
The Relative Clause
Caracteristici
Features
Exemple
Examples
- este introdusă de un cuvânt
relativ-interogativ: who,
which, where, sau de that.
it begins with a question word
or the word that.
- adverbe relative
Students who can develop
independent learning skills often
achieve good academic results.
There will be a new rule that
addresses immigrants who enter the
country after 2008.
A university is a place where people
pursue advanced knowledge in
specific academic disciplines.
Anyone can tell the difference
between a public place or one in
which access is granted only by a
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relative adverbs
when (= in/on which)
where (= in/at which)
why (= for which reason)
- modifică un substantiv sau
un pronume aducând
informaŃii suplimentare despre
acesta.
it modifies a noun or pronoun
(it identifies or gives more
information about it).
- la combinarea propoziŃiilor
cu o relativă se câştigă în
fluenŃă şi se evită redundanŃa;
de asemenea, se pot introduce
informaŃii adiŃionale.
a text gains in fluency and
avoids word redundancy if we
combine sentences with a
relative clause. The insertion
of additional information can
also be done in this way.
- deoarece nu este de sine-
stătătoare, relativa are nevoie
de propoziŃia principală
it does not have complete
autonomy of meaning,
therefore it is joined to the
main clause.
- who, which, that introduc atât
Pronumele Subiect (pronumele
special permit or membership card.
It was on the night when they
arrived.
This is the shelf where I left the
papers.
Tell them why (the reason why/for
which) we have to meet.
She asks for the file which contains
the addresses reference information
of the candidate.
Ted was on the bus (which) I had
missed.
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relativ urmat de un verb) cât
şi Pronumele Obiect
(pronumele relativ urmat de un
substantiv)
who, which, that introduce
both the Subject and the
Object Pronoun; the relative
pronouns followed by a verb
are subject pronouns. They
are must always used. If they
are not followed by a verb (but
by a noun or pronoun), they
are object pronouns. Object
pronouns can be omitted in
defining relative clauses
(called Contact Clauses).
1.
Restrictive/Defining/
Identifying Relative
Clauses
- give details about the subject
- it is never put between
commas
. they are most often met in
definitions
- Contact Clauses have a
relative clause without the
relative pronoun
- if instead of a nonspecific
noun is used a specific one
instead, the relative clause
becomes nonessential and thus
requires commas to separate it
from the rest of the sentence.
- to make the style more
concise, we reduce the
The question which we usually
avoid asking refer to personal
matters.
A personal question is a question
that we always avoid asking.
The policeman (who/whom) we
asked our way didn’t know English.
Transportation (that is) arranged for
conference members will be paid for
by the host country.
The local members (who/whom) the
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defining relative.
- Participles can contract
relative clauses:
- the Infinitive is used in
Relative Clauses
- sub-type relative clauses:
essential and non-essential
clauses. They dis- ambiguate a
noun (mention which one of
many elements are/is meant)
- the same clause can become
non-restrictive.
president asked to supervise the
proceedings of the conference are
paid extra.
The lecturer who teaches Portuguese
is absent today = The lecturer
teaching Portuguese is absent today.
To be sure about the righ departure
hour, the receptionist phoned the
railway station, which, was very
helpful for us all.
The city where I graduated is a well-
known university centre in
Romania.
Sibiu, where I graduated, is a well-
known university centre in
Romania.
2. Non-
Restrictive/Non-
Defining/ Non-
Identifying Relative
Clauses
- give additional information
on something, but do not
define it
- are put between commas
- that, which is not used in a
non-defining relative clauses
- who and whose are used for
persons
- which and whose are used for
things
- object pronouns must be used
Policemen, who/whom we usually
ask for direction, are indispensable
in crowded places.
My highschool friend Lavinia, who
lives in France, was promoted in
April. (‘who lives in France’ is not
essential, which means that I only
have one highschool friend, whose
name is Lavinia,and she does not
need to be defined by the relative
clause)
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here.
- unlike defining clauses,
these clauses cannot be
reduced.
XIV. ConjuncŃii Subordonatoare care introduc PropoziŃii Adverbiale
Subordinating conjunctions Introducing Adverb Clauses
XV.
Con
stru
cŃii
cu:
as
if/th
oug
h;
‘wish’; I’d rather/sooner/better; I’d prefer; it’s (high/about) time;
Unreal Tenses
XV. 1. As if / as though + past tenses
Timpul de
referire
Reference time
ConstrucŃie
Form
SituaŃie reală
Real
(implication)
SituaŃie nereală
Unreal (implication)
Referire la
prezent
Present
reference
S + past tense
S + was
(real)/were
(unreal)
She behaves as
if/though she was
the boss. (she is) –
we use a regular
predicate
Se poartă de parcă/
ca şi când ar fi şefa
She behaves as if/though she
were the boss (she is not)
Mike speaks/sounds as
if/though he owned the land.
(he owns it or he does not,
according to the context)
we use the Subjunctive
Temporală
Time
Cauzală
Cause and
Effect
Contrastivă
Opposition
CondiŃională Condition
after, before, when, while,
as, by the time (that), as
soon as, since, until,
whenever, the first time
(that), the next time (that),
the last time (that), every
time (that)
because, since,
as, as long as, so
long as, due to
the fact that
although, even
though, though,
whereas, while,
in spite of,
despite
if, only if, unless,
whether (or not), even if,
providing (that), in case
(that), provided (that), in
the event (that)
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(chiar este).
Mike speaks/sounds
as if/though he
owned the land. (he
owns it or he does
not, according to the
context)
‘were’ for all persons
Referire la
trecut: S + Past
Perfect
Past refrence
The distinction
between the
Real and the
Unreal situation
is not marked
grammatically;
in both
situations we
use the Past
Perfect
She behaved/
behaves as if/though
she had been the
boss (she was )she
wasn’t, according to
the context)
Se poarta/Se purta
de parc/ca si cand ar
fi/ar fi fost sefa. (in
functie de cerinta
contextuala)
She behaved/ behaves as
if/though she had been the
boss (she wasn’t)
XV. 2. Wish
Meaning
‘want’/’intend’
wish and hope
+ verb
Formulaic
function
Regrets about
present
situation
Regrets about
past situation
Whoever wishes
to speak first, is
welcome to
begin.
She doesn’t wish
to see anyone
right now.
- with ‘will’ =
She never fails
to wish me luck
when I start
work.
(Moreover) She
says she hopes
that I have all
the luck in the
I wish you all
the best/many
returns of the
day!
Ted wishes he
had a car right
now (he doesn’t)
I no longer wish
I could be/ was/
were different.
-formal with Ist
and IIIrd
I wish (now) I
hadn’t tackled
(before/then)
this subject in
the first place.
I wished (then) I
hadn’t tackled
(then) this
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‘be willing to’ :
I wish you would
stop smokinh in
here! (you are
annoyed about a
habitual negative
behaviour/action)
world.
The pilot always
wishes the
passengers a
safe and
pleasant flight,
which means
that he hopes
they will have a
safe and
pleasant flight.
persons sg) :
I wish I were
(subjunctive)
somewhere else!
He wished he
had not been
here!
subject in the
first place.
The manager
wishes
(now)/wished
(then) he had
hired more staff.
XV. 3. I’d prefer (it); I’d rather
4. It’s (high/about) time
I’d prefer/I’d prefer it; I’d rather it’s (high/about) time
- preferences about oneself: would prefer
to/ would rather do (I’d prefer to do/I’d
rather do something)
Maybe you’d prefer to wait here/you’d rather
wait here.
I’d prefer to listen to you (rather than (to)
someone else).
- negative forms
I’d rather not listen to someone else.
I’d prefer not to work late tonight.
- to express preferences: prefer to (do) or
prefer + verb in -ing
They say they prefer to study/studying about
this topic some other time.
- prefer something to something else
Many people prefer self-training to gym
It’s (high/about) time + Past Tense
- an urge/ a reproach/ a warning – present
reference:
an action should already have taken place
I don’t believe you say it’s high time I was
ready with all this work!
The board decided (that) it was high time
they (had) started working on the new
project.
- a reproach - past reference: It is/it was
(high/about) time + Past Perfect
It’s/was high/about time Mark had taken on a
job.
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training.
They prefer to train by themselves rather
than pay fortunes to personal trainers.
Preferences about someone else – present
reference: Past Tense is used
I’d rather + Past Tense/ would
I’d prefer it if + Past Tense/ would
I’d rather you wouldn’t/didn’t interrupt me!
I’d perefer it if you didn’t/wouldn’t interrupt
me so often!
Preferences about someone else – past
reference: Past Perfect is used
I’d prefer it if you hadn’t bought that car
(you did!)
XVI. Inversiunea şi accentuarea retorică
Inversion and Emphasis
1. Inversia în propoziŃii afirmative
Inversion in statements
1. Inversia subiect-verbeste o caracteristică a propoziŃiilor interogative, însă poate apărea şi în
propoziŃii afirmative împreună cu anumite forme (expresii) adverbiale.
Subject-verb inversion is typical of interrogative sentences, yet it may be used in affirmative
sentences too in combination with certain adverbials.
2. Inversia după expresii adverbiale la forma negativă
Inversion after negative adverbial expressions
Formele adverbiale negative apar la începutul frazei pentru a se obŃine un efect emfatic. Unele
expresii adverbiale negative pot apărea şi la începutul unei propoziŃii, îndeplinind astfel un rol
emfatic. Ele caracterizează comunicarea scrisă, mai degrabă formală. Alte forme similare acesteia
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sunt: Never, Rarely/Seldom, Hardly /Scarcely… when, No sooner… than, precum şi unele forme
care îl conŃin pe ‘no’. Only se foloseşte în mod similar.
Some negative adverbial expressions can be put at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis. These
structures are usually found in formal, written contexts: Not only + auxiliary + subject (+ main
verb)
Not only do I possess a Computer Programming diploma, I also have one in Mathematics.
Other expressions that can be used in this way are Never, Rarely/Seldom, Hardly/Scarcely… when,
No
sooner… than, and a number of expressions including ‘no’. Only can also be used in this way.
Only much later could I get the meaning of his words.
Hardly/Scarcely had the film started when thjr transmission stopped.
No sooner are the forms handed out than everybody begins to fill them in(out).
Never will she (ever) return here.
Under no circumstances are you to arrive later than 1 p.m.
3. Inversia după neither, nor, so şi as.
Inversia dupa neither, nor si so indică faptul ca două lucruri sunt similare. Inversia subiectului cu
auxiliarul predicatiei se comportă astfel:
Inversion after neither, nor and so indicates that two things are the same.
Inversion of the subject and auxiliary is needed after these phrases when they are used in this way:
I can’t arrive in time and neither can you.
She doesn’t understand the indications. - Nor do I.
He was happy, and so were we.
They are very inquisitive, as tend to be most children nowadays.
4. În fraza condiŃională: ‘were’ şi ‘had’ sunt in deosebi utilizate în engleza cu caracter formal
pentru
a-l înlocui pe ‘if’.
In conditional sentences: inversion after ‘had’ or ‘were’, mostly in formal, written English, to
replace ‘if’:
Were you to meet Harry, tell him I’ll be expecting him on Friday morning.
Had I been able to attend the meeting, I would have presented that paper. (=If I had been able
to
attend the meeting, …)
99
5. Inversia după expresii ce indică locul (locaŃia)
Inversion after expressions of place
After expressions of place, inversion of the subject and the verb, not an auxiliary, is possible when
the expression starts the sentence:
Down there will you find a better parking place.
Off goes Mary. She’s in such a hurry!
2. Emphasis
In/when suggesting, expressing opinions or feelings such as irritation or annoyance, disagreement,
we resort to emphasis.
Some emphatic forms have already been treated. These are:
- the use of the Passive Constructions where the stress falls on what happens to something
rather than who or what does something.-
- Inversion.
- the Present/Past Continuous + always/forwevr/continually to express annoyance.
Others possibilities are:
- the use of (emphatic) do or did, often to express something contrary to what another person
believes.
I did call John last night. (Why don’t you believe me?)
- ‘cleft’ constructions
There are two forms of clefts: the It-cleft and the Wh-cleft. The It-clefts mark given information
that the listener is not necessarily thinking about, while with the Wh-clefts, we assume that the
listener is thinking about the given information
They are a form of embedded structures, which interpose noun phrases/adverb/prepositional phrases
between two clauses. They function as meaning indicators in a sentence ina an emphatic way, by
pointing out which element is new information and which is given information. One such examples
is the It-cleft. The clefted phrase stands for the new information
How did you (come to) meet your coordinator?
The answer to the question (i.e new information) is clefted:
It was when I was loking for a topic that I chanced to meet prof. Emerson.
a. It is/was/will be + S/Adv.of Place/Time/Cause … that
(Ist part) It will be you who (IInd part) will present the report. (emphasis on you)
100
instrad of
You will present the report
It is now that I’m telling you!
instead of
I’m telling you now.
This is another way of expressing an It-cleft
The paper (which/that) she meant is about anthropology not medicine.
meaning
It is the paper about anthropology that she menat not (the one about) medicine
b. ‘wh’-cleft constructions, the new information comes after the verb be.
(’wh’-word - is/was/ will + be)
In such constructions, however, the clefted noun phrases, prepositional phrase, or adverb follows the
verb be, and the rest of the clause is placed between the two parts of the construction. They are non-
defining relative clause versions.
The three students who were appointed to work on this project are X, Y and Z.
It is/was students X, Y and Z who were appointed to work on this project
The train where they met is not the Orient Express.
It was on the OE that they (had) met.
Where they (had) met was on the OE
Who your brother said he had given the money was Michael (and not (to)
someone else)
This is an alternative in Wh-constructiuon to an It-cleft:
When Peter said he would arrrive was at 3, not at 4.
Meaning: It was at 3 not at 4 when Peter said he would arrive.
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XVII. Subjonctivul
The Subjunctive
În mare, construcŃia subjonctivală şi cea cu indicativul sunt identice, singurul indiciu fiind faptul că
la subjonctiv nu se adaugă terminaŃia –s pentru persoana III sg ; la timpul prezent verbul be ramâne
be pentru toate formele, în timp ce la trecut are forma were.
In most cases, subjunctive and indicative forms of a verb are the same - often you would not notice
whether a verb is used in subjunctive or indicative mood. The only indicator for subjunctive is that
no ‘s’ is added in 3rd person singular and that the verb be remains ‘be’ for all forms in present tense
and becomes ‘were’ for all forms in past tense.
XVII. 1. Utilizări
Uses
Subjonctivul apare în anumite expresii, cum ar fi formulele de felicitare (Subjonctivul formulaic)
Subjunctive is used in some fixed phrases (formulaic subjunctive).
Happy birthday/ Many (happy) returns of the day! ; Be that as it may; Cheers!; Bless you !
Anumite verbe (demand, insist, recommend, suggest) precum şi unele adjective (essential,
important, vital) sunt însoŃite de ‘that’ + subjunctive (subjonctivul instrucŃional) pentru a indica
faptul că ceva trebuie neapărat făcut (aspectul directiv).
Certain verbs (e.g. demand, insist, recommend, suggest) and adjectives (e.g. essential, important,
vital) are followed by ‘that’ + subjunctive (mandative subjunctive) to indicate that something must
be done (directive aspect).
Students demand that the hostel be opened before the start of the univeristy year.
It is important that everyone register.
Deoarece construcŃiile cu subjonctivul sună foarte formal, adesea se preferă construcŃia cu un
auxiliar. În
cazul în care aspectul directiv al propoziŃiei este suficient de clar şi fără auxiliarul respectiv, e
sufcient să
folosim forma de bază a verbului la modul indicativ.
Sentences in subjunctive sound very formal, however, so often an auxiliary is preferred. If the
directive aspect of the sentence is clear enough without an auxiliary, it is also possible to simply use
the main verb in indicative mood.
People demand that the troops are / should be withdrawn.
102
It is important that everyone registers.
AtenŃie : În următoarele exemple se observă diferenŃa între construcŃile cu subjonctivul şi cele cu
indicativul
Note the difference of subjunctive and indicative in the following example.
She insisted that she participate too = She wanted to participate too. (directive aspect;
subjunctive)
She insisted that Anna participated too. = She knew and wanted to persuade others of the
fact tha
Anna really was there. (observation; indicative)
În exemplul de faŃă, subonctivul instrucŃional se foloseşte întotdeauna la infinitiv, chiar dacă se
referire la o acŃiune trecută. În cazul propoziŃiilor negative, la subjonctiv nu se foloseste auxiliarul
do.
In the example above, you can also see that mandative subjunctive is always used in infinitive, even
if we talk about a situation in the past. Note that in negative sentences, the auxiliary ‘do’ is not used
for subjunctive mood.
She insisted that he not be present.
În cazul dorinŃelor şi speranŃelor nerealizabile (subjonctivul voliŃional), se foloseşte construcŃia de
trecut a subjonctivului. Pentru toate verbele (exceptând verbul be) forma de trecut a subjonctivului
este aceeaşi cu cea de la indicativ.
For wishes and hopes that cannot be fulfilled (volitional subjunctive), subjunctive is used in past
tense. For all verbs (except be) past tense in subjunctive mood is the same as in indicative mood.
Past tense, subjunctive mood for ‘be’ is ‘were’.
I wish I were better prepared for the exam.
XVIII. Phrasal and Prepositional Verbs
These are verbal constructions which consist of a base verb and particle which is either a preposition
or an adverb. The meaning of such a verbal construction can be a combination of the meanings of
the two words (come in, run away, go on, come through, fall apart).
Sometimes, the base meaning is conveyed the verb while the preposition or adverb functions as an
intensifier (put up (with), work out).
In other cases, the new two-part verb has quite a different meaning from the two separate parts: give
(renounce), take after (resemble), blow up (explode), carry out (finish), etc.
103
Type of verbal
form
Characteristics Examples
1. Phrasal verbs
- Components: verb + word or
phrase/particle (an adverbial, which
can be a preposition with adverbial
function)
- meaning most often different from
the initial meaning of the constituting
lexical elements
- can be transitive (the two
constituting parts can be separated by
the direct object), e.g., bring up, call
off, carry out/off, get over with, grow
up, lock up, look up, make out, make
up, turn on/off/up, put trough, put off,
put (smb.) up tell off, throw away,
track down, try out, turn down, etc.
- or intransitive: break off, break
down, bring abourt, bring up, count
on, come up, count on, drop in, end
up, get along (with), get at, get on,
hang around, look into, point out , set
about, throw up, wear off/out, etc.
We must call off the
whole business as all our
plans have fallen
through/apart..
No, we just have to put it
off for a while, that’s all.
Look all the meanings up
in the reference
bibliography.
Don’t throw these papers
away yet.
They were locked up in a
room for two weeks. The
kidnappers locked them
up.
The couple broke off last
week.
I’m afraid you can’t count
on me in money matters;
lately I’ve been as poor as
a church mouse have
none.
104
It’s ahrd to understand
what you’re getting at. Be
more explicit, will you?
I’m sick. I think I’ll throw
up.
Just hang around for a
while till I come back.
The students all set about
working on te project.
2. Prepositional
Verbs
Verb + preposition (it cannot be
separated by the verb)
- always have objects (get over the
bridge)
- the meaning of this tandem (verb +
preposition) varies:
- it can be a combination of the two
words’ meanings.
- the meaning of the verb is
intensified by the preposition
- the new two-part verb has quite a
different meaning from the two
What is he thinking about?
You never look after
yourself.
She nearly fell off the
chair.
Will you get into the
house before you get wet?
The boy walked across the
classroom to the
blackboard.
I didn’t dare come in.
Moreover, I ran away
before he saw me.
They can’t break up, they
love each other too much.
(=separate completely)
We should have already
checked in. It’s late!
105
separate parts
Mark doesn’t take after
his parents at all.
3. Phrasal-
Prepositional
Verbs
verb + adverb +
preposition
verb + adverb + preposition
look forward to = anticipate with
pleasure
It’s always good to get on
with (have a friendly
relationship) your
colleagues, not just to put
up with (tolerate) them.
We look forward to our
next meeting.
We ran out of fuel/it.
XIX. TEXT ORGANISATION – STRUCTURE OF A TEXT
XIX.1. Linking words and phrases
Although some of these words have already been mentioned as sentence connectors, they can also
be used to develop coherence within a paragraph, that is linking one idea / argument to another.
Print off this page to keep as a reference of useful linking words and phrases.
Type of connector Connecting word Example
Sequence first / firstly,
second / secondly,
third / thirdly etc
next, last, finally
in addition, moreover
further / furthermore
another
also
I shall have to make a
rigorous plan regarding our
enterprise.
Firstly/First(of all) we will
sit down and find the best
strategy… .
Next, we will appoint a
secretary… Then, we’ll find a
manager…
106
Another step would be to…
Result in conclusion
to summarise
so
as a result
hence
consequently
as a consequence (of)
therefore
thus
It wasn’t so late to start it all
over again. Therefore, we
agreed to meet as soon as
possible and …
As a result, we managed to
get everything done in due
time.
To summarize / In
conclusion, the merger turned
out to be a success.
Emphasis undoubtedly
indeed
obviously
generally
admittedly
in fact
particularly / in particular
especially
clearly
importantly
Their suggestion was
admittledly unsubstantial but
Mary will undoubtedlycome
up with a better one. In fact,
we have always relied on her.
Addition
and
in addition /additionally/
an additional point
furthermore
also
too
as well as
Mary’s report turned out to
be exactly what we had all
expected. In addition, she
offered to write one for the
following session.
Reason due to
because
since
Due to the board’s constant
refusal to look into my
proposals, I will not try again
107
as
because of
Example for
for example
for instance
that is (ie)
such as
including
namely
These are not what we call
constructive contributions,
such as, for instance, your
colleague’s.
I will have to take into
account the needs of all our
member’s, including those of
their families’.
Comparison Similarity
similarly
likewise
also
like
just as
just like
similar to
same as
compare
at the same time
both
also
too
as well as
Difference (contrast)
(as ) compare(d) to / with
… differs from
in contrast to/ in comparison
(to)
on the one hand/ on the other
(hand)
Aviary flu is not at all similar
to any other viruses known si
far.
It likewise affects children
and adults, men and women
alike.
A protection campaign for
the population has already
began.
At the same time, a vaccine is
expected to be put to use
soon.
On the one hand, school
children will be inoculated
108
not only...but also
while
but
yet
still
whereas rather
though
although / even though
however nevertheless
nonetheless
contrary (to)/ in contra
conversely despite / in spite
of
with the latest vaccines on
the market, and on the other,
pregnant women will strictly
be monitored on weekly
basis.
Whereas/ While children will
be inoculated with the latest
vaccines on the market,
pregnant women, will strictly
be monitored on weekly
basis.
In spite of/despite/contrary
the so far efforts, no definite
conclusion has been reached.
XX. Academic Language Skills
A. Introductory considerations
Using the academic register means achieving a formal, direct language and clear expression. When
approaching texts that use this register, one should equally be able to recognise (when reading a
text) and employ (when writing a text) certain stylistic ‘devices’ such as:
- the use of the passive voice rather than the active and of nominalisation (nouns rather than
verbs)
The groups of researchers preferred an isolated venue (active voice) where they could
hold
(verbalization) the conference on inter- and outerspace contact exploration.
An isolated venue was preferred by the groups of researcher (passive voice) for the inter-
and
outerspace contact exploration (nominalisation)
109
Also, the Centre for Independent Language Learning of Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
suggests the following:
- the use of tentative rather than assertive language (possibly and pobably in front of verbs
and noun
phrases: This is possibly due to the use of …... or It will probably result in … .
- using the modal verbs may and might: This may be the cause of …..
- using appears to and seems to: This appears to have caused the extinction of … .
- avoiding always and every, and replacing them with often and many/much
- using formal vocabulary (employ rather than use)
- using more formal grammar, for example: - avoiding short, disconnected sentences
- avoiding the use of personal pronouns such as
you and we
to address the reader using One, There, It as
the subject of
the statement:
One may rarely find a better facility than… .
There are some further issues to be discussed ...
;
It is highly convenient to...
- avoiding the use of rhetorical questions : Can you imagine another means of reaching the
same result?
- avoiding the use of contractions such as won’t, didn’t, we’ll
- avoiding the overuse and misuse of certain logical connectors, especially besides,
furthermore and moreover. Besides is too informal, and both furthermore and moreover
mean that the following information is more important than the information before, which is
usually bad organisation. Use In addition or Also instead
- ensuring that grammar is accurate, that ideas link together smoothly and that a full range of
grammatical structures is employed, such as relative clauses
- referencing correctly, in both in-text references and bibliographical references.
(http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/eap/academicstyle.htm)
B. Using the Academic Writing Style
110
When writing, information, evidence and ideas, but must be incorporated into your work carefully.
Quoting, paraphrasing and summarising are all different ways of including the works of others in
your assignments.
1. Summarising – an indicator of the degree of one’s understanding of the proposed text
Used lavishly in research activities, summarising is one of the most important academic skills, if
not, indeed, the most important one.
Applications
in note-taking ,in writing abstracts, an aid in writing both introductions and conclusions, in
collecting and collected information management, when referring to original texts, in making
frameworks (subject to further detailed analysis), for brief proposals or progress reports.
It is a text-shortening operation to a maximum number of words/ a 10th of the source text.
The gist of a (longer) text is preserved unaltered in its shortened version without copying entire
statements from the original text.
Steps
- getting the the text’s main subject or purpose, usually in one sentence
- formulating the main ideas
- including them in brief paragraphs, each based on only one issue or topic.
- writing a paragraph to combine all the previous ideas/points.
- restoring the general idea (gist) concisely and accurately in the new shorter text (the
summary) without
copying out parts of the original.
Some
extra tips
- the layout should be easy to read, with spaces between each note
- always mention the source(s)
Examples
Original text
Everyone hoped that the weeks of planning and preparation would prove to
be worthwhile. The summer fete was the most important fund raising activity
in the school calendar. Last year’s event had raised over $ 1500 which had
been spent on improiving the outside play area. This year, the organising
committee had set an ambitious target of $1800 with the aim of purchasing
muych needed sports equipment for the school.
Altogether fourty different stalls had been advertised. There were a
Summary
A number of new
attractions and
perfect
weatherconditions
helped make thi
year’s summer
fete the most
111
number of exciting new activities, including pony rides and a bouncy castle,
both of which were to be introduced for the first time. It was hoped that they
would be as popular as some of the most traditional stalls like the coconut shy
and tambola. A large number of parents and children had offered their help
and the committee was confident that this would be the most successful fund
raiser to date.
On the day of the fete the day was perfect. It was sunny, but not too hot,
and best of all, no rain had been forecast. The new attractions went down very
well. There seemed to be a permanent queue of children waiting at the bouncy
castle. The committee was absolutely delighted when the final takings were
counted and announced as a record of $ 1900, exceeding all expectations.
Following such an outstanding success, everyone agreed that it was worth all
hard work and effort.
(model worksheets:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/words/reading/summarising/worksheet.shtml)
[237 words]
successful ever. A
record amount of
$1900 was raised.
The proceeds will
be used to buy
new sports
equipment for the
school.
[38words]
C. Organising Text
Organisational patterns have various functions: they provide a framework for connecting the main
idea with details, provide variety to writing, and help writers assist their readers in understanding the
logical development of ideas, staying on target and avoiding digressions.
In academic writing, several organisational patterns can be used at the level of the paragraph and of
the essay.
1. Defining
Defining is one of the major functions in academic writing. Definitions of key words, phrases, as
well as of terms used in academic writing are necessary in order to avoid misinterpretation.
The general structure of a simple definition (used for concrete items) can be
112
Concept is a/ an/ the
may be defined as
form of/ species of +
general class word
relative pronoun:
which/ who/ that special features
An
anthropologist is a person who studies people
general class
word
relative pronoun:
which/ who/ that special features is called/is known as concept
A person who studies people is called an
anthropologist
Relative clauses are often used to give more information.
On the other hand, in most academic pieces of writing, especially when dealing with abstract or
complex concepts, we need to resort to extended definitions of terms, by giving examples of their
use and/ or by stating their main characteristics. There will be obvious differences between a general
dictionary definition and a specialized one, for example
Sociology (n.) is the study and classification of human societies.
(Source: http://wordnet.princeton.edu)
Sociology is the study of human interaction and social organisation. (Consequently/ therefore) it is
the science that studies patterned, shared human behaviour.
Sociology is a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes that
preserve and change them. It does this by examining the dynamics of constituent parts of societies
such as institutions, communities, populations, and gender, racial, or age groups. Sociology also
studies social status or stratification, social movements, and social change, as well as societal
disorder in the form of crime, deviance, and revolution.
(Source: sociology. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 25, 2008, from
Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551887/sociology
113
General meanings
The term X has come to be used to refer
to ...
The term X is generally understood to
mean …
The term X has been applied to situations
where…
In broad sociological terms, X can be
defined as…
The broad use of the term X is sometimes
equated
with ...
Sociology has come to be used to refer to the
study and classification of human societies.
Sociology is generally understood to mean the
study of human interaction and social
organisation.
The broad use of the term sociology is
sometimes equated with the study and
classification of human societies.
Indicating difficulties in defining a
term:
In the field of X, various definitions of Y
are found.
Y is a commonly used notion in X’ and
yet it is a concept difficult to define
precisely.
A generally accepted definition of Y is
lacking.
James (2006) identified four … that might
be subsumed under the term Y: a) ..
The term Y embodies a multitude of
concepts.
In the field of sociology, various definitions of
media are found.
Media is a commonly used notion in journalism
and yet it is a concept difficult to define
precisely.
A generally accepted definition of sociology is
lacking.
Stating terms that are used in an
essay/thesis:
In this essay the term Y will be used in its
broadest sense to refer to ......
In this essay the term media will be used in its
broadest sense to refer to all means of
dissemination of fact, opinion, … such as…
114
Throughout this thesis, the term Y is used
to refer to…
While a variety of definitions of the term
X have been suggested, this paper will use
the definition first suggested by James
(1988) who saw it as…
In this paper, the term that will be used to
describe this phenomenon is X.
In this dissertation, the terms X and Y are
used interchangeably to mean…
Throughout this thesis, the term media is used to
refer to what the general public terms as "the
media,"…
While a variety of definitions of the term media
have been suggested, this paper will use the
definition suggested by McLuhan (1964) who
saw it as “extensions of man.”
In this paper, the term that will be used to
describe this phenomenon is mass
communication.
In this dissertation, the terms mass media and
mass communication are used interchangeably to
mean a means of public communication reaching
a large audience.
Referring to authors’ definitions:
Smith (1954) was apparently the first to
use the
term ......
X writes/ believes that “.....” (1957, p.11).
According to a definition provided by X
(2001:23), Y is „......”.
The term "…" is used by Smith (2001) to
refer to ......
X (2001) uses the term "…" to refer to
......
For X (2001), … means/refers to .......
… is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as
Marshall McLuhan (1967) was (apparently) the
first to bring up the idea that “the medium is the
massage.”
G. L. Kreps and B. C. Thornton believe media
extend "people's ability to communicate, to
speak to others far away, to hear messages, and
to see images that would be unavailable without
media" (1992, p. 144).
According to a definition provided by G. L.
Kreps and B. C. Thornton (1992:144), media
could be seen as an extension of "people's ability
to communicate, to speak to others far away, to
hear messages, and to see images that would be
unavailable without media".
115
"......................"
X defines … as "…."
Adapted from: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/definitions.htm. Retrieved 22.08.2008
Sample paragraph: extended definition pattern (with signal words underlined)
The sociologist, however, thinks of institutions in a deeper and broader sense than any
meaning connoted in the examples cited. To him, an institution is an established pattern and
framework of collective behaviour that exists to fulfil some basic and abiding human need. A social
institution, as defined by Harry E. Moore, is an enduring, complex, integrated, organized behaviour
pattern through which social control is exerted and by means of which the fundamental social
desires or needs are met. Institutions are the major components of a culture and may be further
defined as a complex of social patterns, roles, and relations which persons enact in certain
standardized ways for the purpose of satisfying basic social needs. In this sense of the term, the
sociologist distinguishes between the family institution, the religious institution, the educational
institution, the government institution, and the economic institution
2. Describing1
I Position, weight, structure, colour, composition, size, shape, function
Position
adjacent to/ alongside/ below/ beyond/facing
(diagonally)/ parallel to/underneath/ opposite/ in
the middle of/ on the right of/ on the left of/ near/
close to/ touching/ behind/ in front of/ under/ on
top of/ above/ below/ level with/ diagonally above/
vertically below
house The
road
The
tunnel
The
roof
is
between/ equidistant from B and C.
1 http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm
116
Examples
• The road runs alongside the house.
• The tunnel is under the road that is adjacent to the house.
• The roof is on top of the house that is facing the road in front of it and also above the tunnel
that is vertically below the road above it.
Structure
is nailed/ screwed/ fixed/ fastened/ linked/
welded/ tied/ connected/ attached
to furniture by staples
nails
screws
consists of
contains/ comprises/ includes
iron ore
alloys, carbon
held in place/ secured/ supported/ suspended by
joined
to
Wood
Metal
Brick
is
mounted/ placed/ pivoted
on
concrete, cement
Examples
• Wood is generally fixed to furniture with joints; sometimes it may be nailed or screwed.
• Metal cannot be nailed effectively; it is usually welded or screwed to other metals.
• Bricks contain/ comprise clay and sometimes straw and mud only.
Colour
Black
Shade
Night
is dark/ light/ pale/ bright/ dull when
compared to…
green.
blue.
red.
yellow.
117
Grass
Examples
• At night the grass does not seem to be green as it is dark
• In the shade, colours are not as bright as in sunlight; now they are dull.
• Black is the darkest colour we know and yellow is one of the brightest.
Composition
A/An
blend
alloy
mixture
is made of
metal./ steel./ aluminium./ an alloy of A and B./ cloth./
silk./
china./ wood./ plastic./ glass./ assortment.
Examples
• Sometimes a metal is a blend of metals known as an alloy.
• Plastic and glass are usually clear and come in an assortment of colours.
• Most structures today are a mixture of metal, wood and glass or plastic.
Size and weight
A pencil is 6 cm long/ high/ wide
6 cm length/ height/ width/ diameter A cube is
6 Kg
in
weight
length/ height/
width/ diameter
4 metres The
weight
of a small
car
is
600 Kg.
length/ width/ height/ diameter 90 cm. A table has a
weight
of
60 Kg.
118
A bag of potatoes weighs 10 Kg
Shape
A/An … is square/ round/ rectangular/ triangular/
semi-circular/ conical/ spherical/ hexagonal/
octagonal/ oval/ circular/ irregular
in shape
A/An … is is shaped like a square/ circle/ rectangle/ triangle/ semi-circle
hexagon/ octagon
A/An … is cubical/ cylindrical/ pyramidal/ spherical/
tubular/ spiral/ hemispherical/ conical
in shape
bulbous/ tapering/ concave/ convex in shape. A/An … is
diamond-shaped/ kidney-shaped/ U-shaped/ star-shaped/ bell-shaped/
dome-shaped/ mushroom-shaped/ X-shaped/ crescent-shaped/ egg-shaped/
pear-shaped/ Y-shaped.
Examples
• A football is round and never square or triangular in shape.
• A rectangle is measured in mass, and never shaped as tubular or like a pyramid.
• An arc can take many shapes diamond, kidney, star or even bell shaped, arcs form arches for
us to pass through.
Function
The function/ purpose
aim/ objective
of
the
thermometer
tripod
is to measure temperature.
hold a beaker.
The thermometer
tripod
is used for measuring temperatures.
holding beakers.
119
Properties
Copp
er
Lead
Glass
is
light/ tough/ soft/ elastic/ malleable/ flexible/ (in)soluble/ a good (bad)
conductor of electricity (heat)/ (not) corrosion resistant/ (non-
)combustible/ transparent/ smooth/ heavy/ brittle/ hard/ plastic/ ductile/
rigid/ opaque/ rough
II Describing Data
In academic writing, you may have to present data in various ways, such as charts, graphs, and
tables. Below, there is some of the basic vocabulary used to describe trends, express numerical
values, as well as the standard format for the structure of the data commentary. Finally, lexis
necessary in presenting data/ research findings in a cautious way is brought to attention.
Verbs
Adverbs Adjectives Noun
Up
go up, take off, shoot
up, soar, increase, rise,
grow, rocket, improve,
climb, escalate
increase, a rise, a
growth,
improvement,
upturn, surge,
upsurge, upward
trend
Down
go/come down, fall, fall
off, collapse, crash,
drop, slump, plunge,
slide, dip, decline,
decrease, plummet,
slip, shrink
Showing degrees of
change
dramatically,
considerably,
sharply,
significantly,
substantially,
moderately, slightly
Showing speed of
change
abruptly, suddenly,
rapidly, quickly,
steadily, gradually,
slowly
Showing degrees of
change
dramatic,
considerable, sharp,
significant,
substantial,
moderate, slight
Showing speed of
change
abrupt, sudden,
rapid, quick, steady,
gradual, slow
fall, decrease,
decline, drop,
downturn,
downturn trend
120
No
change
remain stable, level off, stay at the same level, flatten off, remain constant, stagnate,
stabilise, hold steady
At the
top
reach a peak/ high, peak, top out
At the
bottom
reach a low (point), bottom out
Recover pick up, bounce back, rally, recover
Prepositions
to increase by 50% / to fall by 30% a rise from $10 to $12 /an increase of
7.5 per cent over last year
Examples of Describing Movement in
Graphs
1. The market is showing some signs of
growth.
2. The market is extremely volatile.
3. The pound slipped back against the
dollar.
4. The Swiss franc is staging a recovery.
5. The lira lost ground slightly.
6. There's been a dramatic downturn in
the market.
7. There's been an upsurge of interest in
gold.
8. The share price bottomed out at 115p.
9. Sugar peaked at $400 a tonne.
10. Profits will level off at around
$10,000.
11. Sales hit an all-time low.
12. There hasn't been much movement in
the price of tin
121
Numbers
The following table shows a number in different years (2000-2005):
2000 2005
2200 3300
You could describe the above table using numbers, fractions or percentages:
The number went up by 600, from 2200 to 3300. (Number)
The number went up by half, from 2200 to 3300. (Fraction)
The number went up by 50%, from 2200 to 3300. Percentage)
The number went up 150%, to 3300. (Percentage)
2002 2004 2006 2008
500 1000 3000 12000
Use "trebled," "-fold," and "times:"
The number doubled between 2002 and 2004.
The number trebled between 2004 and 2006.
The number quadrupled from 2006 to 2008
There was a twofold increase between 2002 and 2004.
The number went up sixfold between 2002 and 2006.
The figure in 2006 was three times the 2002 figure.
The figure in 2008 was four times the 2006 figure.
2002 2004 2006 2008
1000 800 400 100
Use Fractions:
Between 2002 and 2004, the figure fell by one-fifth.
Between 2004 and 2006, the number dropped by a half.
The figure in 2008 was one-tenth the 2002 total.
122
Structure of Data Commentary2
A. location elements and/or summary statements
B. highlighting statements
C. discussions of implications, problems, exceptions etc.
a. Location elements and/or summary statements
Starting a Data Commentary
Location Summary Summary are shown in Table 5.
a. Table 5 shows are provided in
Table 2.
b. Table 2 provides are given in Figure
4.2.
c. Figure 4.2 gives
the results of the second
experiment.
OR
The results
of the
second
experiment
Note 1: we can also use linking as-clauses. Pay attention to preposition use!
As shown in table 5, home disks are the most frequent source of infection.
As can be seen in figure 8, infant mortality is still high in urban areas.
As revealed by the graph, the defect rate has declined.
As shown by the data in table 1
As described on page 34
Note 2: Some of the most frequently used verbs are show, provide, give, present, summarise,
illustrate, reveal, display, demonstrate, indicate, suggest.
b. Highlighting Statements
Highlighting statements are the central sections of data commentaries. They are generalizations that
can be drawn from the details of the data display, such as trends or regularities in the data, more
important versus less important findings, or data on which you can make appropriate strength.
2 Swales and Feak 1994: 80
123
c. Describing data: Degrees of Certainty
In presenting data/ research findings or supporting arguments/ viewpoints, academic writers/
researchers need to be cautious and sometimes critical. Learning to become “confidently uncertain”
is a slow but necessary process.
Degree of
certainty/
commitment
Verbs Adverbs +
adverbial
phrases
It is +
(determiner)
adjective
There is a +
determiner +
possibility +
that
complete Is (not)
Will (not)
Must
(not)
Certainly
Definitely
Clearly
Undoubtedly
Actually
It is certain
It is clear
that
strong
partial
less
strong
can/cann
ot
could(not
)
should
(not)
may (not)
might
(not)
probably
(is)
likely/unlikely
presumably
possibly
perhaps
It is almost
certain
It is very
(im)probable/
highly
(un)likely
that
It is probable/
likely
It is possible
There is a
strong
possibility that
good
definite
slight
remote
Phrases for
introducing
partially
correct
statements
to a certain/ limited extent (degree)
to some extent (degree)
in a way (sense)
this is partly true (but) there is some truth in (this)
in some cases
124
up to a point
Dealing with
“imperfect”
data
This discrepancy may be due to the small sample size.
can be attributed to
can probably be accounted for by
is probably a consequence of
would seem to stem from
People seem to have less confidence in the economy.
appear to
It would seem/ appear that people have less confidence in the economy.
Impersonal
(i.e. no
commitment of
self)
It is said that…
X reports that…
There is evidence to suggest that…
According to this preliminary study,… people have less confidence
Based on informal observations (made by)… in the economy.
In the view of some experts
On the limited data available
Generalisation - the verb tend
People tend to have less confidence in the economy.
- qualifying the subject
A majority of
In most parts of the world people have less confidence in the economy.
People in most walks of life
- adding exceptions
With the exception of
Apart from the administrative staff, people have less
confidence
Except for in the economy.
- choosing a weaker verb
125
Caused (stronger) -> contributed to (weaker)
- various phrases
as a (general) rule, generally, in general, on the whole, by and large, in most
cases
In the independent sentence
Except (prep.) + NP/ Pron. (objective case) = with the exclusion of; other
than
No one except Laura knew about it.
Everyone had come except her.
Except (verb)
Present company excepted.
N.B. Except for= different from, apart from
But
I have finished all courses but one.
Save
I enjoyed the trip save the flight.
Apart from
Apart from her, I did not really enjoy the company.
With the exception of
With the exception of the children, all were told what to do.
Bar/Barring
The crop will be excellent bar/barring a disaster.
Otherwise than
Without
Exception/
exclusion
In the sentence
Except (conj.)=if it were not for the fact that; otherwise than
I would buy the suit, except that it costs too much.
They did not open their mouths except to complain
126
D. Classifying and Listing
Classifying is an operation of grouping and naming things according to previously established
criteria of what they have in common. Classification helps writers and readers alike to understand
shared qualities and features as well as the differences between things. Along with definitions and
listing (i.e. a series of items), classifications are used to present information systematically and/or in
the order of importance.
There are several ways of building up classifications and lists:
General Classifications
X may be (generally)
divided into
X falls under
There are
The
of
X
consists of/
comprises/
can be divided into
three
main
two
classes/ sub-groups/ categories/
types/ sorts
varieties/ headings
X may be classified/ grouped according to
on the basis of
depending on
in terms of
Y (criterion/ criteria) into X’ and
X’’
Specific Classifications
In the U.S. system, X is graded according to whether .....
on the basis of ......
in terms of
Smith (1966) divided
classified
Xs into two broad types: Xi’s and Xii’s
127
grouped
Thomas and
Nelson (1996)
describe
four basic types of validity: logical, content, criterion and construct.
Sample paragraphs: classifying pattern (with signal words underlined)
1. In almost every society, marriage is recognized as the beginning of a new social group. There are
three types of marriage: monogamy, polyandry, and polygyny. Monogamy is the marriage of one
man to one woman. Polyandry permits the marriage of one woman to several men. Polygyny allows
a man the option to take and maintain several wives.
2. The vast majority of children in Britain (87%) attend state schools, which provide compulsory
education from the age of 5 to 16 years. These schools can be classified according to the age range
of the pupils and the type of education provided. There are two types of school: primary and
secondary, although in some areas there are also middle schools. Primary schools cater for children
aged 5-11, and secondary schools for ages 11-16 (and in some areas up to 18). Primary schools can
be sub-divided into infant schools (for ages 5-7) and junior schools (for ages 7-11).(…)
When pupils reach the age of 16 there may be three choices open to them. Firstly, they may
leave school. Secondly, they may stay on at school for two more years if it has a Sixth Form.
Thirdly, they may transfer to a Sixth Form College or a Tertiary College.
E. Comparing and Contrasting
Identifying and understanding similarities and differences between two things usually involve a
process of analysis, in which we compare the specific parts as well as whole. Comparison may also
be a preliminary stage of evaluation so by comparing specific aspects of X and Y, we can decide
which is more useful or valuable.
This pattern may organise an essay as well as a paragraph.
Comparison: Similarities
Within sentence
X is exactly/ the same as Y with
128
X and Y are precisely/
just/
virtually/
practically/
almost/
nearly about
quite
very
similar
comparable
respect/
regard/
reference to
in terms of
to that/
those
Compared
In
comparison
with X , Y is
Both X and Y
are
There are a number
of/ several/
two
similaritie
s
between X and Y
Numerous
studies
have
compared
in X and Y
Across sentences
X is
expensive
to produce.
Similarly,/
Likewise,/
Moreover,/
In addition,
/By the
same token,
Y …
Y, similarly,/
likewise,
Americans and French are quite similar with respect to cultural stereotypes regarding each other.
129
Numerous studies have compared the intercultural stereotypes in the Americans and the French and
found they are relatively similar.
Both Americans and French are adamant about each other being arrogant and conceited or
domineering, in the sense that they give lessons to others and do not take criticism.
Americans see the French as arrogant and conceited, always giving lessons to others. Similarly, the
French see the Americans as domineering, in other words not taking criticism from others.
Contrast: Differences
Within sentence
is unlike/
dissimilar/
different from
Y X
contrasts
with
Y
with respect to cost/size
etc
with regard to/ in terms
of price
in that X is larger than
Y
X and Y differ
are
different/
dissimilar
in many respects.
in every/each respect.
X produces
500
while/ whereas/ but/ although
in spite of
Y
produced 700.
producing 700
While/
whereas/
although/ in
spite of the
fact that/
Even
though
X produced 500,
it is true that X produced 500,
it cannot be denied that X
produced 500,
Y produced 700.
The main difference/One of the main
differences between X and Y
is is that X...................., whereas
Y.............
130
X
XX
is
are
a great deal
considerably
(very) much
somewhat
a little
slightly
hardly
bigger than Y.
Across sentences
X is difficult
to produce.
On the other hand,
However,/ In contrast,/
Conversely,
On the contrary,/
Even so,/
Needless to say,
Y…
Introducing other people’s opposing arguments
Opponents of
Y
Others
Many people
argue/ believe/ claim
that
oppose this viewpoint
strongly disagree
X…
Americans and French differ in many respects, such as their attitude to past, language, and social
identity.
Americans are different from French with respect to their attitude to the past.
Whereas Americans base their social identity on the individual, the French prefer being members of
a group.
The French are more likely than Americans to value their past.
The French are more likely to value their past than Americans.
The main differences between Americans and French people come from education. According to
psychoanalyst Pascal Baudry, schools help American kids become independent and autonomous
while French kids learn the principle of authority.
131
According to psychoanalyst Pascal Baudry, schools help American kids become independent and
autonomous. Conversely/ In contrast, French kids learn the principle of authority.
Sample paragraph: Comparison and contrast pattern (with signal words underlined):
There are more similarities between the French and the Japanese than with the French and
Americans. In both France and Japan the relation with the authority principle, the individual and the
group, and others are very similar. Likewise, the two countries have a long feudal history and are
tradition-bound. On the other hand, the French and the American share a long-standing tradition of
cultural stereotyping and clichés.
F. Cause and Effect
Understanding and suggesting solutions to problems is at the heart of much academic work.
However, solutions cannot be suggested unless the problem is fully analysed, and this involves a
thorough understanding of the causes and the effects. The cause may show what lead up to the event
or idea – that is, what caused to become what it is now. The consequences of the event or idea are
the effects of it. Cause or effect paragraphs are sometimes written separately; in this case, one
paragraph will state the causes, and the other will give the effects. Often, though, both the cause and
the effect are combined into a single paragraph. Some of the language that you may find useful for
explaining causes and effects is listed below:
VERBS
Lack of adequate
resources
may cause/ can lead to
can result in
poverty and
injustice
can give rise to
Much of the instability stems from the economic
effects of the war
Interpersonal and
community violence
caused by/ resulting from
produced by/ stemming from
NOUNS
poverty, ...
The most likely causes of X are poor diet and lack of health care.
A consequence of chronic deprivation is a feeling of insecurity.
Social advocacy is an important factor in helping people undo negative coping.
132
Many other variables have an influence on poverty levels.
Another reason why Xs are considered to be important is that ...
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
A great number of people
become poor
owing to/ because of
as a result of/ due to
wrong economic
policies.
ADVERBIAL PHRASES
Wrong economic policies
are often applied,
thus/ thereby a great number of
people become poor.
perpetuating the
poverty cycle.
SENTENCE CONNECTORS
Many people encounter
chronic deprivation.
Therefore,
Consequently,
Because of this,
As a result (of this),
they develop a
feeling of
insecurity.
Sample paragraph: cause and effect pattern (with signal words underlined)
Until World War I, the United States had always been a debtor nation. The value of the goods and
services we imported often exceeded the value of the goods we sold to foreigners, and foreigners
were investing far more in the United States than Americans were investing in other countries. Thus
we had to pay interest and dividends to investors abroad. During World War I, the situation was
reversed. The war-torn nations of Europe needed U.S.goods, so our exports more than doubled,
while the value of the goods we imported declined, By 1919 we had become a creditor nation –
foreign nations owed more to the United States than the United States owed to them. This net credit
position continued until 1985, at which time the United States once again became a net debtor
nation. The value of our imports greatly exceeded the value of our exports, and foreigners were
investing heavily in U.S. securities, largely because of the relatively high interest rates here. [Note:
A chronological listing is also evident in this paragraph, but the cause and effect relationship of the
events is the major emphasis.]
133
(Gordon, S.D., and George G.Dawson. Introductory Economics. 7th ed. Lexington:
D.C.Heath. 1991. 433
G. Exemplifying and Illustrating
Examples and illustrations are given to support the author’s claim (argument. They can also be used
to help the reader/ listener understand unfamiliar or difficult concepts, which are then easier to
remember. In their turn, students may be required to give examples to show they have understood a
complex problem or a concept.
In academic writing, many paragraphs show development from general statements to specific details
or examples.
Examples as the main information in a
sentence
Examples
This is shown/ exemplified/ illustrated by… This is shown/ exemplified/ illustrated by the
author’s choice of words.
For example/ instance,… 'There are a number of rules you must abide
by. For instance, you may not use the
swimming pool unsupervised.'
Several researchers wanted to prove this
thesis. For example, …
A key experiment shows/ exemplifies/
illustrates this.
‘Compulsory activity for over 50s job
seekers. Experiment shows good start.’
By way of illustration, X (2004) shows…
A classic/ well-known example of this is…
An example of this is the study carried out by
X (2005) in which…
X illustrates this point/ shows this point
clearly.
By way of concrete illustration Herbart
instances the common observation that the
properties of things exist only under external
conditions. (Wikipedia)
This is shown by the following examples, …
The following are examples of this:
The following is a case in point:
This can be illustrated briefly by…
134
Another example of what is meant by X is…
… is a case in point.
… institutions such as the family…
Examples as additional information in a
sentence
..., such as…
…, for example…
…, including...
H. Clarifying/Explaining/Putting it in other words
The lecturer will try to explain the meaning of difficult concepts. To do this he or she may repeat the
information using different words. It is important to recognise that this is the same information
expressed differently and not new information.
In other words, /Or rather,/ That is to say,/
Basically/ To put it another way,/ If we put
that another way,/ By which I mean/ Or you
could say/ The point I'm making is /That is to
say,/ That is, /Namely,/ i.e./ That means
What I
am suggesting
am trying to say
meant to say
should have said
is
Let me put it another way.
Foreign policy is the total involvement of the
American people with peoples and
governments abroad.
That means that, if we are to achieve a new
standard of leadership, we must think in the
total context of our situation.
The Argumentative/ Discursive Essay
135
The function of an argumentative essay is to show that a writer’s assertion (opinion, theory, and
hypothesis) about some issues is correct or more truthful than others' relating to the same/similar
topic.
Notice should be made that writers do not have to completely prove their point. Actually, they
should only convince reasonable readers that their argument or position has merit; i.e., that it is
somehow more accurate and complete than competing arguments.
There are two main types of argumentative essays, which are often organised in a 6-paragraph
format presented in the table below:
For and against
Authors present both sides of an issue,
discussing points in favour or against,
or the advantages and disadvantages of
a particular question.
Opinion
Authors present their personal opinion,
clearly stated and supported by reasons and/or
examples.
Introduction
Paragraph 1
State topic (without stating your
opinion)
Introduction
Paragraph 1
State the topic and your opinion
Main body
Paragraphs 2 – 3
Arguments for and justifications,
examples or reasons
Paragraphs 4 – 5
Arguments against and justifications,
Main body
Paragraphs 2 –4
Viewpoints and reasons/examples
Paragraph 5
Opposing viewpoint and reason/example
136
examples or reasons
Conclusion
Final paragraph
Balanced consideration or opinion
Conclusion
Final Paragraph
Summarise/restate your opinion
Useful Tips for Writing Essays
When writing a discursive essay, you should:
� use formal, impersonal style
� use topic sentences to introduce the subject of each paragraph
� write well-developed paragraphs, giving reasons/examples
� use generalisations
� use sequencing (e.g. First/ly, Second/ly, etc) and linking words/phrases (e.g. however,
although, etc)
� make references to other sources (e.g. Experts have proved that…)
� use quotations, either word-for-word or in paraphrase, being careful to identify the source
You should not:
� use short forms, informal/colloquial language, etc
� use very emotional language (e.g. I absolutely hate people who…)
� express personal opinions too strongly (e.g. I know…); instead, use milder expressions (e.g. All
politicians are…)
� refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source (e.g. “A recent study
showed…” – which study?)
� use clichés
� use personal examples
Compare and contrast 3 essay-structures
1. First compare, then
contrast (or vice versa).
Focuses on the comparison and contrast instead of on the two
ideas being compared and contrasted.
2. First do one idea, and then
do the other.
Compare and contrast ideas by treating one idea thoroughly
before taking up the second one.
137
Cause and Effect
Pattern
Introduction of general topic
Specific areas to be covered
Essay section A (Causes)
Cause 1
a) subsection
b) subsection
Cause 2
a) subsection
b) subsection
Essay section B (Effects)
Effect 1
a) subsection
b) subsection
Effect 2
a) subsection
b) subsection
Effect 3
a) subsection
b) subsection
Conclusion
3. Only compare or only
contrast.
Writers who only compare two ideas sometimes briefly
mention the contrast in the introduction and then move on so
that they do not lead readers to think they cannot make
relevant distinctions. Writers who only contrast ideas
sometimes briefly summarize similarities in the conclusion so
they do not leave the impression that they are thinking in
opposites.
138
Summary of main points (and look to future)
Classification Essay
1. Sort things into useful categories.
2. Make sure all the categories follow a single organising principle.
3. Give examples that fit into each category.
139
Useful expressions and linking words/phrases
Conclusion expressing balanced considerations/opinion indirectly
it can/must be said/claimed that …
In conclusion, it seems/appears that …
On balance, it would seem that …
All things considered, it is likely/unlikely/possible/foreseeable that
Taking everything into account/ it is clear/obvious that …
consideration, there is no/little doubt that …
To conclude, the best course of action would be to…
To sum up, achieving a balance between … would be…
All in all, it is true to say that …
Finally/Lastly, although it must be said that …
it may be concluded/said that …
All things considered, the obvious conclusion to be drawn is that …
There is no absolute answer to the question of …
In the light of this evidence, it is clear/obvious that …
In conclusion, clear/apparent above evidence
All in all, it is plain/obvious from the points
To sum up, evident foregoing arguments
Conclusion expressing opinion directly
In conclusion,
On balance, it is in my belief/opinion that …
All things considered, I (firmly) believe/feel/think that …
Taking everything into account/ I am convinced that …
consideration, I am inclined to believe that …
To conclude, I (do not) agree that/with …
140
To sum up,
All in all,
Taking everything in to account, I therefore conclude/feel/believe (that) …
For the above-mentioned reasons, therefore, I (firmly) believe that …
* * *
Appendix: Lista Verbelor Neregulate cel mai frecvent utilizate
List of most frequently used Irregular Verbs
Infinitive (base form) Past Simple Past Participle
be
become
begin
bend
blow
break
bring
begin
build
burn
buy
can
catch
choose
come
cost
cut
do
was/were
became
began
bent
blew
broke
brought
began
built
burnt/burned
bought
could
caught
chose
came
cost
cut
did
Been
become
begun
bent
blown
broken
brought
begun
built
burnt/burned
bought
could/been able to
caught
chosen
come
cost
cut
done
141
draw
dream
drink
drive
eat
fall
feel
find
fly
forget
get
give
go
grow
have
hear
hit
hold
hurt
keep
know
lay
lead
learn
leave
lean
lend
let
lie
light
lose
make
drew
dreamt/dreamed
drank
drove
ate
fell
felt
found
flew
forgot
got
gave
went
grew
had
heard
hit
held
hurt
kept
knew
laid
led
learnt
left
leant
lent
let
lay
lit
lost
made
drawn
dreamt/dreamed
drunk/drunken
driven
eaten
fallen
felt
found
flown
forgotten
got/gotten
given
gone
grown
had
heard
hit
held
hurt
kept
known
laid
led
learnt
left
leant
lent
let
lain
lit
lost
made
142
mean
meet
must
pay
put
read
ring
run
say
see
sell
send
show
sing
sink
sit
sleep
spend
stand
steal
swim
take
teach
tear
tell
think
throw
understand
wake
wear
weep
win
meant
met
had to
paid
put
read
rang
ran
said
saw
sold
sent
showed
sang
sank
sat
slept
spent
stood
stole
swam
took
taught
tore
told
thought
threw
understood
woke
wore
wept
won
meant
met
had to
paid
put
read
rung
run
said
seen
sold
sent
shown
sung
sunk/sunken
sat
slept
spent
stood
stolen
swum
taken
taught
torn
told
thought
thrown
understood
woken
worn
wept
won
143
withdraw
write
withdrew
wrote
withdrawn
written