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Major Psychological Thinkers

Psychoanalytic TheoristsSigmund Freud 

Psychology's most famous figure is also one of the most influential and controversial

thinkers of the twentieth century. Sigmund Freud's work and theories helped shape our views of childhood, personality, memory, sexuality and therapy. Other major thinkers

have contributed work that grew out of Freud's legacy, while others developed new

theories out of opposition to his ideas.

Freud's Major Theories

Freud's theories were enormously influential, but subject to considerable criticism both

now and during his own life. However, his ideas have become interwoven into the fabric

of our culture, with terms such as "Freudian slip," "repression" and "denial" appearingregularly in everyday language.

1. The Conscious and Unconscious Mind

2. The Id, Ego, and Superego - The Structural Model of Personality (To be

discussed further in Unit V)

3. Life and Death Instincts

4. Psychosexual Development (To be discussed in Unit V)5. Defense Mechanisms

6. Freudian slip?

Psychoanalysis

The founder of psychoanalytic theory was Sigmund Freud. While his theories wereconsidered shocking at the time and continue to create debate and controversy, his work 

had a profound influence on a number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology,

anthropology, literature, and art.

Freud’s ideas had such a strong impact on psychology that an entire school of thought

emerged from his work. While it was eventually replaced by the rise of behaviorism, psychoanalysis had a lasting impact on both psychology and psychotherapy.

 Psychoanalysis - is used to refer to many aspects of Freud’s work and research,including Freudian therapy and the research methodology he used to develop his theories.

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Freud relied heavily upon his observations and case studies of his patients when heformed his theory of personality development.

The Conscious and Unconscious Mind -The Structure of the Mind  

Psychoanalytic theory of the conscious and unconscious mind is often explained using an iceberg metaphor.Conscious awareness is the tip of the iceberg, while the unconscious is represented by the ice hidden below thesurface of the water.

Source : About.com, 2012

 James has just started a new relationship with a woman he met at school. While talking to her one afternoon, he accidentally calls her by his ex-girlfriend's name.

If you were in this situation, how would you explain this mistake? Many of us might blame the slip on distraction or describe it as a simple accident. However, a

 psychoanalytic theorist might tell you that this is much more than a random accident. The

 psychoanalytic view holds that there are inner forces outside of your awareness that aredirecting your behavior. For example, a psychoanalyst might say that James misspoke

due to unresolved feelings for his ex or perhaps because of misgivings about his new

relationship.

According to Freud, the mind can be divided into two main parts:

1. The conscious mind   includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect

of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. A part of this

includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrievedeasily at any time and brought into our awareness. Freud called this ordinary

memory the preconscious.

2. The unconscious mind  is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories

that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are

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unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. Accordingto Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience, even

though we are unaware of these underlying influences.

The Id, Ego, and Superego

According to Sigmund Freud's   psychoanalytic theory of personality, personality iscomposed of three elements. These three elements of personality- known as the id, the

ego and the superego--work together to create complex human behaviors.

The Id 

The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth. This aspect of 

 personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive behaviors. According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the

 primary component of personality.

The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all

desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state

anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce animmediate attempt to eat or drink. The id is very important early in life, because it

ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she

will cry until the demands of the id are met.

However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing thingswe want out of other people's hands to satisfy our own cravings. This sort of behavior 

would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to Freud, the id tries to

resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the  primary process, whichinvolves forming a mental image of the desired object as a way of satisfying the need.

The Ego

The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality.

According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the idcan be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. The ego functions in both the

conscious,  preconscious, and unconscious mind.

The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires inrealistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits

of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses. In many cases, the id's

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impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification--the ego willeventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place.

The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through the secondary  process, in which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental

image created by the id's primary process.

The Superego

The last component of personality to develop is the superego. The superego is the aspectof personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire

from both parents and society--our sense of right and wrong. The superego provides

guidelines for making judgments. According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at

around age five.

There are two parts of the superego:

1. The ego ideal  includes the rules and standards for good behaviors. These

 behaviors include those which are approved of by parental and other authority

figures. Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride, value and accomplishment.

2. The conscience  includes information about things that are viewed as bad by

 parents and society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to badconsequences, punishments or feelings of guilt and remorse.

The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all

unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standardsrather that upon realistic principles. The superego is present in the conscious,

 preconscious and unconscious.

The Interaction of the Id, Ego and Superego

With so many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the id,

ego and superego. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability tofunction despite these dueling forces. A person with good ego strength is able to

effectively manage these pressures, while those with too much or too little ego strength

can become too unyielding or too disrupting.

According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego,

and the superego.

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Freudian Slip

A Freudian slip is a verbal or memory mistake that is believed to be linked to the

unconscious mind . Common examples include an individual calling his or her spouse by

an ex's name, saying the wrong word or even misinterpreting a written or spoken word.

According to Freud, these errors reveal an unconscious thought, belief or wish. They are

unacceptable thoughts or beliefs withheld from conscious awareness, and these slip helpreveal what is hidden in the unconscious.

Defense Mechanisms and Ego Anxiety

In Sigmund Freud's topographical model of personality, the ego is the aspect of 

 personality that deals with reality. While doing this, the ego also has to cope with theconflicting demands of the id and the  superego. The id seeks to fulfill all wants, needs

and impulses while the superego tries to get the ego to act in an idealistic and moral

manner.

What happens when the ego cannot deal with the demands of our desires, the constraints

of reality and our own moral standards? According to Freud, anxiety is an unpleasant

inner state that people seek to avoid. Anxiety acts as a signal to the ego that things are notgoing right.

Freud identified three types of anxiety:

1. Neurotic anxiety is the unconscious worry that we will lose control of the id's

urges, resulting in punishment for inappropriate behavior.

2. Reality anxiety is fear of real-world events. The cause of this anxiety is usually

easily identified. For example, a person might fear receiving a dog bite when they

are near a menacing dog. The most common way of reducing this anxiety is to avoid

the threatening object.

3. Moral anxiety involves a fear of violating our own moral principles.

In order to deal with this anxiety, Freud believed that defense mechanisms helped shield the ego

from the conflicts created by the id, superego and reality

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Defense Mechanisms

Because of anxiety provoking demands created by the id, superego and reality, the ego

has developed a number of defense mechanisms to cope with anxiety. Although we may

knowingly use these mechanisms, in many cases these defenses work unconsciously todistort reality.

While all defense mechanisms can be unhealthy, they can also be adaptive and allow usto function normally. The greatest problems arise when defense mechanisms are overused

in order to avoid dealing with problems. In psychoanalytic therapy, the goal may be to

help the client uncover these unconscious defense mechanisms and find better, morehealthy ways of coping with anxiety and distress.

Researchers have described a wide variety of different defense mechanisms. Sigmund

Freud's daughter, Anna Freud described these different defense mechanisms used by theego.

1. Denial is probably one of the best known defense mechanisms, used often todescribe situations in which people seem unable to face reality or admit an

obvious truth (i.e. "He's in denial."). Denial is an outright refusal to admit or 

recognize that something has occurred or is currently occurring. Drug addicts or alcoholics often deny that they have a problem, while victims of traumatic events

may deny that the event ever occurred. Denial functions to protect the ego fromthings that the individual cannot cope with. While this may save us from anxietyor pain, denial also requires a substantial investment of energy. Because of this,

other defenses are also used to keep these unacceptable feelings from

consciousness.

2. Repression is another well-known defense mechanism. Repression acts to keepinformation out of  conscious awareness. However, these memories don't just

disappear; they continue to influence our behavior. For example, a person who

has repressed memories of abuse suffered as a child may later have difficultyforming relationships. Sometimes we do this consciously by forcing the unwanted

information out of our awareness, which is known as suppression. In most cases,

however, this removal of anxiety-provoking memories from our awareness is believed to occur unconsciously.

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3. Displacement Have ever had a really bad day at work and then gone home andtaken out your frustration on family and friends? Then you have experienced the

ego defense mechanism of displacement. Displacement involves taking out our 

frustrations, feelings and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening.

Displaced aggression is a common example of this defense mechanism. Rather than express our anger in ways that could lead to negative consequences (like

arguing with our boss), we instead express our anger towards a person or object

that poses no threat (such as our spouse, children or pets).

4. Sublimation is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable

impulses by converting these behaviors into a more acceptable form. For 

example, a person experiencing extreme anger might take up kick-boxing as a

means of venting frustration. Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity that allows people to function normally in socially acceptable ways.

5. Projection is a defense mechanism that involves taking our own unacceptablequalities or feelings and ascribing them to other people. For example, if you have

a strong dislike for someone, you might instead believe that he or she does not

like you. Projection works by allowing the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the ego cannot recognize, therefore reducing anxiety.

6. Intellectualization works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold,

clinical way. This defense mechanism allows us to avoid thinking about the

stressful, emotional aspect of the situation and instead focus only on theintellectual component. For example, a person who has just been diagnosed with a

terminal illness might focus on learning everything about the disease in order to

avoid distress and remain distant from the reality of the situation.

7. Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves explaining an unacceptable

 behavior or feeling in a rational or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for 

the behavior. For example, a person who is turned down for a date mightrationalize the situation by saying they were not attracted to the other person

anyway, or a student might blame a poor exam score on the instructor rather than

his or her lack of preparation. Rationalization not only prevents anxiety, it may

also protect self-esteem and self-concept. When confronted by success or failure,

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 people tend to attribute achievement to their own qualities and skills whilefailures are blamed on other people or outside forces.

8. Regressions - when confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon

coping strategies and revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in development.Anna Freud called this defense mechanism regression, suggesting that people act

out behaviors from the stage of psychosexual development in which they are

fixated. For example, an individual fixated at an earlier developmental stage

might cry or sulk upon hearing unpleasant news. Behaviors associated withregression can vary greatly depending upon which stage the person is fixated at:

An individual fixated at the oral stage might begin eating or smoking excessively,

or might become very verbally aggressive. A fixation at the anal stage might

result in excessive tidiness or messiness.

9. Reaction formation reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling, impulse or 

 behavior. An example of reaction formation would be treating someone youstrongly dislike in an excessively friendly manner in order to hide your true

feelings. Why do people behave this way? According to Freud, they are using

reaction formation as a defense mechanism to hide their true feelings by behavingin the exact opposite manner.

Since Freud first described the original defense mechanisms, other researchers have

continued to describe other methods of reducing anxiety. Some of these defensemechanisms include:

• Acting out - The individual copes with stress by engaging in actions rather than

reflecting upon internal feelings.

• Affiliation - Involves turning to other people for support.

• Aim inhibition - The individual accepts a modified form of their original goal

(i.e. becoming a high school basketball coach rather than a professional athlete.)

• Altruism - Satisfying internal needs through helping others.

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• Avoidance - Refusing to deal with or encounter unpleasant objects or situations.

• Compensation - Overachieving in one area to compensate for failures in another.

• Humor - Pointing out the funny or ironic aspects of a situation.

• Passive-aggression - Indirectly expressing anger.

While defense mechanisms are often thought of as negative reactions, some of these

defenses can be helpful. For example, utilizing humor to overcome a stressful, anxiety- provoking situation can actually be an adaptive defense mechanism.

Life and Death Instincts

Freud’s theory of drives evolved throughout his life and work. He initially described a

class of drives known as the life instincts and believed that these drives were responsiblefor much of behavior. Eventually, he came to believe that these life instincts alone could

not explain all human behavior. Freud determined that all instincts fall into one of two

major classes: the life instincts or the death instincts.

Life Instincts (Eros)

Sometimes referred to as sexual instincts, the life instincts are those that deal with basic

survival, pleasure, and reproduction. These instincts are important for sustaining the life

of the individual as well as the continuation of the species. While they are often called

sexual instincts, these drives also include such things as thirst, hunger, and painavoidance. The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido.

Behaviours commonly associated with the life instinct include love, cooperation, and

other prosocial actions.

Death Intincts (Thanatos)

Initially described in his book  Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud proposed that “the

goal of all life is death” (1920). He noted that after people experience a traumatic event

(such as war), they often reenact the experience. He concluded that people hold anunconscious desire to die, but that this wish is largely tempered by the life instincts.

In Freud’s view, self-destructive behavior is an expression of the energy created by the

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death instincts. When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed asaggression and violence.

Psychologists Influenced by Freud:

In addition to his grand and far-reaching theories of human psychology, he also left his

mark on a number of individuals who went on to become some of psychology's greatestthinkers. Some of the eminent psychologists who were influenced by Sigmund Freud

include:

• Anna Freud

• Alfred Adler 

• Carl Jung 

• Erik Erikson

• Melanie Klein• Ernst Jones

• Otto Rank 

Erik Erikson

1. Stages of Psychosocial Development (To be discussed further in Unit V )

2. Identity Crisis

Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of 

 personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud , Erikson believed that personality

develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's

theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.

One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of 

ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social

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interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to newexperiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition

to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and

actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area

of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which issometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the

 person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.

In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point

in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a

 psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potentialfor personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

• The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between

 birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.2 

• Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the

dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.

• If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the

world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejectingcontribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop

trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place

during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of  personal control.

• Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process.

However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson

 believe that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of controland a sense of independence.

• Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy

 preferences, and clothing selection.

• Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, whilethose who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Identity Crisis

Are you unsure of your role in life? Do you feel like you don't know the 'real you'? If you

answer yes to the previous questions, you may be experiencing an identity crisis. Theorist

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Erik Erikson  coined the term identity crisis and believed that it was one of the mostimportant conflicts people face in development.

According to Erikson, an identity crisis is a time of intensive analysis and exploration of different ways of looking at oneself. Erikson's interest in identity began in childhood.

Raised Jewish, Erikson appeared very Scandinavian and often felt that he was an outsider 

of both groups. His later studies of cultural life among the Yurok of northern Californiaand the Sioux of South Dakota helped formalize Erikson's ideas about identity

development and identity crisis.

In essence he described identity as a subjective sense as well as an observable quality of  personal sameness and continuity, paired with some belief in the sameness and continuity

of some shared world image.

Research on Identity

In Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, the emergence of an identity crisisoccurs during the teenage years in which people struggle between feelings of identity

versus role confusion. Researcher James Marcia (1966, 1976, 1980) has expanded upon

Erikson's initial theory. According to Marcia and his colleagues, the balance betweenidentity and confusion lies in making a commitment to an identity. Marcia also developed

an interview method to measure identity as well as four different identity statuses. This

methods looks at three different areas of functioning: occupational role, beliefs andvalues and sexuality.

Identity Statuses

• Identity achievement occurs when an individual has gone through an exploration

of different identities and made a commitment to one.

• Moratorium is the status of a person who is actively involved in exploring

different identities, but has not made a commitment.• Foreclosure status is when a person has made a commitment without attempting

identity exploration.

• Identity diffusion occurs when there is neither an identity crisis or commitment.

Carl Jung

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Analytical Psychology

Jung also shared an interest in the unconscious as Freud, but believed that its role was

underplayed in personality development. He believed that its role goes back to the “dawn

of human existence”.

 Archetypes

According to Jung, archetypes are models of people, behaviors or personalities. He

suggested that the psyche was composed of three components: the ego, the personalunconscious and the collective unconscious.

According to Jung, the ego represents the conscious mind while the personal unconscious

contains memories, including those that have been suppressed. The collective

unconscious is a unique component in that Jung believed that this part of the psycheserved as a form of psychological inheritance. It contains all of the knowledge and

experiences we share as a species.

The Origins of Archetypes

Where do these archetypes come from then? The collective unconscious, Jung believed,was where these archetypes exist. He suggested that these models are innate, universal

and hereditary. Archetypes are unlearned and function to organize how we experience

certain things.

Jung identified four major archetypes, but also believed that there was no limit to the

number that may exist.

1. The Self - is an archetype that represents the unification of the unconsciousness

and consciousness of an individual. The creation of the self occurs through a

 process known as individuation, in which the various aspects of personality areintegrated. Jung often represented the self as a circle, square or mandala.

2. The Shadow - is  an archetype that consists of the sex and life instincts. The

shadow exists as part of the unconscious mind and is composed of repressedideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts and shortcomings. This archetype is often

described as the darker side of the psyche, representing wildness, chaos and the

unknown. These latent dispositions are present in all of us, Jung believed,although people sometimes deny this element of their own psyche and instead

 project it onto others.  Jung suggested that the shadow can appear in dreams or 

visions and may take a variety of forms. It might appear as a snake, a monster, ademon, a dragon or some other dark, wild or exotic figure.

3. The Anima or Animus - is a feminine image in the male psyche and the animus

is a male image in the female psyche. The anima/animus represents the "true self"

rather than the image we present to others and serves as the primary source of 

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communication with the collective unconscious.  The combination of the animaand animus is known as the syzygy, or the divine couple. The syzygy represents

completion, unification and wholeness.

4. The Persona - is how we present ourselves to the world. The word "persona" is

derived from a Latin word that literally means "mask." It is not a literal mask,however. The persona represents all of the different social masks that we wear 

among different groups and situations. It acts to shield the ego from negative

images. According to Jung, the persona may appear in dreams and take a number of different forms.

Other Archetypes

Jung suggested that the number of existing archetypes is not static or fixed. Instead, manydifferent archetypes may overlap or combine at any given time. The following are just a

few of the various archetypes that Jung described:

• The father: Authority figure; stern; powerful.• The mother: Nurturing; comforting.

• The child: Longing for innocence; rebirth; salvation.

• The wise old man: Guidance; knowledge; wisdom.

• The hero: Champion; defender; rescuer.

• The maiden: Innocence; desire; purity.

• The trickster: Deceiver; liar; trouble-maker.

Karen Horney

Socio-cultural Approach

Karen Horney(1885-1952) also rejected the psychodymamic concept that “anatomy is

destiny”. She emphasized the importance of sociocultural factors of development. She

rejected the concept of “penis envy” as only hypotheses which could not be supported byobservable data.

Penis envy in Freudian psychoanalysis refers to the theorized reaction of a girl during her 

 psychosexual development to the realization that she does not have a  penis. Freud

considered this realization a defining moment in the development of  gender and sexual identity for women. In contemporary culture, the term sometimes refers metaphorically to

women who are presumed to wish they were men

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Horney pointed out that previous research about women functions were limited by thefact that those who described women, who influenced and represented the culture and

determined the standards for suitable growth and development, were men. She countered

the notion of penis envy with the hypothesis that both sexes envy the attributes of the

other with the men envying the women’s reproductive capacities. She also argued thatwomen who felt penis envy were only desirous of the status that men have in societies.

Alfred Adler

Individual Psychology

This suggests that people are motivated by purposes and goals, being creators of their 

own lives. Suggests that people strives towards being positive beings and their adaptationis enhanced by developing social interest and reducing feelings of inferiority

Unlike Freud Adler argued that people have the ability to consciously monitor their lives.

He also believed that social factors are more important in shaping personality than sexualmotivation.

Striving for Superiority – emphasis the human motivation to adapt improve and master 

the environment. It is the response to feelings of inferiority that we experience as infants

and young children when we interact with people who are bigger and more powerful.

Compensation – individuals attempts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities or 

weaknesses by developing one’s abilities. Adler believed that compensation was normal

and said that we often make up for a weakness in one ability by excelling in a differentability.

Overcompensation- individuals attempt to deny rather than acknowledge a real situation

or the exaggerated effort to conceal a weakness. He suggested two patterns:

• Inferiority complex- exaggerated feelings of inadequacy.

• Superiority complex- exaggerated self- importance designed to mask 

feelings of inferiority.

Behavioural Theorists

 Behaviorism - based on the assumption that learning occurs through interactions with the

environment. Two other assumptions of this theory are that the environment shapes

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 behavior and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings and emotionsinto consideration is useless in explaining behavior.

Ivan PavlovWhile Ivan Pavlov was not a psychologist, and reportedly disliked the field of 

 psychology altogether, his work had a major influence on the field, particularly on the

development of  behaviorism. His discovery and research on reflexes influenced the

growing behaviorist movement, and his work was often cited in John B. Watson's writings. Other researchers utilized Pavlov's work in the study of conditioning as a form

of learning. His research also demonstrated techniques of studying reactions to the

environment in an objective, scientific method.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an

environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

It's important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a

naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signalwas the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to

food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (the

 presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.

In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is importantto be familiar with the basic principles of the process.

The Unconditioned Stimulus

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically

triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may

immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditionedstimulus.

The Unconditioned Response

The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to

the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell

of food is the unconditioned response.

The Conditioned Stimulus

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The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associatedwith the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In

our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard

the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound

of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventuallytrigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned

stimulus.

The Conditioned Response

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. Inour example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the

sound of the whistle.

Classical Conditioning in the Real World

In reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however,numerous real-world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog

trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help people train their pets.

These techniques are also useful in the treatment of  phobias or anxiety problems.

Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive

classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety- provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings

helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these

situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.

John B. Watson

Best Known For:

• Behaviorism

• Little Albert Experiment

Contributions to Psychology

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Watson set the stage for behaviorism, which soon rose to dominate psychology. While behaviorism began to lose its hold after 1950, many of the concepts and principles are

still widely used today. Conditioning and behavior modification are still widely used in

therapy and behavioral training to help clients change problematic behaviors and develop

new skills.

The "Little Albert" Experiment:

In his most famous and controversial experiment, known today as the "Little Albert" 

experiment, John Watson and a graduate assistant named Rosalie Rayner conditioned a

small child to fear a white rat. They accomplished this by repeatedly pairing the white ratwith a loud, frightening clanging noise. They were also able to demonstrate that this fear 

could be generalized to other white, furry objects. The ethics of the experiment are often

criticized today, especially because the child's fear was never deconditioned.

In 2009, researchers were able to identify Little Albert as a boy named Douglas Merritte.

The question of what happened to the child had intrigued many for decades. Sadly, theresearchers found that the child died at age six of hydrocephalus, a medical condition in

which fluid builds up inside the skull.

In 2012, researchers  presented evidence that Merritte suffered from neurological

impairments at time of the Little Albert experiment and that Watson may have knowingly

misrepresented the boy as a "healthy" and "normal" infant.

B.F. Skinner

Best Known For:

• Operant conditioning• Schedules of Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning 

B.F. Skinner is famous for his research on operant conditioning and negativereinforcement. He developed a device called the "cumulative recorder," which showed

rates of responding as a sloped line. Using this device, he found that behavior did not

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depend on the preceding stimulus as Watson and Pavlov maintained. Instead, Skinner found that behaviors were dependent upon what happens after the response. Skinner 

called this operant behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement 

In his research on operant conditioning, Skinner also discovered and described schedulesof reinforcement:

Operant Conditioning 

Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs

through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, anassociation is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of 

human behavior.

Skinner used the term operant  to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the

environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory

explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.

 Examples of Operant Conditioning 

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of 

children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees

finishing projects to receive praise or promotions.

In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior,

 but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of an

undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent

undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in

disruptive behaviors.

Components of Operant Conditioning 

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:

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Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. Thereare two kinds of reinforcers:

a)  Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior 

is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.

Consider the following examples:

• After you execute a turn during a skiing lesson, your instructor shouts out, "Great

 job!"

• At work, you exceed this month's sales quota so your boss gives you a bonus.

• For your psychology class, you watch a video about the human brain and write a

 paper about what you learned. Your instructor gives you 20 extra credit points for 

your work.

Can you identify the positive reinforcement in each of these examples? The ski instructor 

offering praise, the employer giving a bonus and the teacher providing bonus points areall examples of positive reinforcers. In each of these situations, the reinforcement is an

additional stimulus occurring after the behavior that increases the likelihood that the

 behavior will occur again in the future.

An important thing to note is that positive reinforcement is not always a good thing. For 

example, when a child misbehaves in a store, some parents might give them extra

attention or even buy the child a toy. Children quickly learn that by acting out, they cangain attention from the parent or even acquire objects that they want. Essentially, parents

are actually reinforcing the misbehavior. In this case, the better solution would be to use positive reinforcement when the child is actually displaying good behavior.

 b)  Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomesafter the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by

the removal of something considered unpleasant.

Learn more by looking at the following examples:

• Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen in order to

avoid getting sunburned.

• You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen in order to avoid getting in a fight

with your roommate.

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• On Monday morning, you leave the house early in order to avoid getting stuck in

traffic and being late for class.

Can you identify the negative reinforcer in each of these examples? Sunburn, a fight

with your roommate and being late for work are all negative outcomes that wereavoided by performing a specific behavior. By eliminating these undesirableoutcomes, the preventative behaviors become more likely to occur again in the future.

NB#: In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

 Punishment  - , on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that

causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:

a)  Positive punishment   - sometimes referred to as punishment by application,

involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weakenthe response it follows.

 b)  Negative punishment  - also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an

favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.

In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

Negative Reinforcement versus Punishment

One mistake that people often make is confusing negative reinforcement with

 punishment. Remember, however, that negative reinforcement involves the removal of anegative condition in order to strengthen a behavior. Punishment, on the other hand,

involves either presenting or taking away a stimulus in order to weaken a behavior.

Consider the following example and determine whether you think it is an example of 

negative reinforcement or punishment:

Timmy is supposed to clean his room every Saturday morning. Last weekend, he went

out to play with his friend without cleaning his room. As a result, his father made him

spend the rest of the weekend doing other chores like cleaning out the garage, mowingthe lawn and weeding the garden, in addition to cleaning his room.

If you said that this was an example of punishment, then you are correct. Because Timmydidn't clean his room, his father assigned a punishment of having to do extra chores.

Schedules of Reinforcement

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In operant conditioning , schedules of reinforcement are an important component of thelearning process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic

impact on the strength and rate of the response.

A schedule of reinforcement is basically a rule stating which instances of a behavior will

 be reinforced. In some case, a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs.

Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at all. Either  positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement might be used, depending on the situation. In both cases, the goal

of reinforcement is always to  strengthen the behavior and increase the likelihood that it

will occur again in the future.

In real-world settings, behaviors are probably not going to be reinforced each and every

time they occur. For situations where you are purposely trying to train and reinforce an

action, such as in the classroom, in sports or in animal training, you might opt to follow a

specific reinforcement schedule.

Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations. Thereare two types of reinforcement schedules:

a) In continuous reinforcement , the desired behavior is reinforced every single time

it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learningin order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response.

Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a

 partial reinforcement schedule.

 b) In partial reinforcement , the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned

 behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is

more resistant to extinction.

Choosing a Schedule

Deciding when to reinforce a behavior can depend upon a number of factors. In cases

where you are specifically trying to teach a new behavior, a continuous schedule is often

a good choice. Once the behavior has been learned, switching to a partial schedule isoften preferable.

Realistically, reinforcing a behavior every single time it occurs can be difficult andrequires a great deal of attention and resources. Partial schedules not only tend to lead to

 behaviors that are more resistant to extinction, they also reduce the risk that the subject

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will become satiated. If the reinforcer being used is no longer desired or rewarding, thesubject may stop performing the desired behavior.