SCHOOL OF SCIENCE & ENGINEERING – AL AKHAWAYN UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

PRECISION AGRICULTURE: WATER USAGE

RATIONALIZATION

-Capstone Design-

April 2020

Anas Amalhay

Supervised by Dr. Kevin Smith

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PRECISION AGRICULTURE: WATER USAGE RATIONALIZATION

Capstone Report

STUDENT STATEMENT

I have used the knowledge and information imparted by and about the company we are working

with, in addition to public information shared by the government or else, that I made sure to cite.

Additionally, I held the public’s and environment’s safety in the highest regard during the design

process and selection of the final design.

Anas Amalhay

_____________________________________

Dr. Kevin Smith

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Kevin Smith, for guiding me through

the initial logic of this study.

I would also like to thank our mentor Mr. Ali Belhaj, CEO of Hippone Holding, as well as his

executive directors Mr. Nizar Azarkane and Mr. Khalil Chakour that showed great responsiveness,

reactivity, and willingness to help and guide us throughout our project.

I would finally like to thank my teammates, Tarik Cherradi and Mohammed Abdulkahar, that

showed a great support and enthusiasm despite the hurdles we had to go through.

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Tensiometric Sensor

Figure 2: Tensiometric Monitoring

Figure 3: Capacitive Probe

Figure 4: Water content through capacitive sensor monitoring

Figure 5: Leaf Clamp Pressure Probe

Figure 6: Leaf Clamp Pressure Probe

Figure 7: Personal Weather Station

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

PA - Precision Agriculture

AMEE - Agence Marocaine pour l'Efficacité Énergétique

HCP - Haut-Commissariat au Plan

MAPMDREF - Ministère de l'Agriculture, de la Pêche Maritime, du Développement Rural, et des

Eaux et Forêts

SD - Sustainable Development

SDI - Subsurface Drip Irrigation

WRM - Weather Risk Management

PWS - Private Weather Station

RPL - Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks

PA-RPL - Partition Aware - Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

STUDENT STATEMENT i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

LIST OF FIGURES iii

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

ABSTRACT vii

RESUME viii

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. LITERATURE REVIEW 3

II. 1. Water and Agriculture in Morocco 3

II. 2. Hippone Holding 4

II. 3. Citrus Needs 4

III. CURRENT STATE AND ANALYSIS 7

III. 1. Current state 7

III. 2. Analysis 8

IV. DESIGN OF THE AUTONOMOUS IRRIGATION SYSTEM 9

IV. 1. Irrigation system 9

IV. 2. Sensors and Probes 9

IV. 3. Monitoring and Management system 16

IV. 4. Layout of the system 17

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V. STEEPLE ANALYSIS 19

VI. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED 21

VII. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 23

VIII. APPENDIX 24

IX. REFERENCES 25

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ABSTRACT

This capstone project is part of the pilot multidisciplinary group projects. Teamed up with students

from different schools, we worked on a professional project with Mr. Ali Belhaj, owner of large

farms in the citrus capital of Morocco, as our mentor. The aim of this project has been to rationalize

the use of water in his farms using sensors that track the needs of the plants, then provide the

necessities, which would be a first in Morocco. Resulting in a responsible usage of the natural

resources and a decrease the overexploitation of the groundwater and helping to manage the

extremely worrying water stress in the country.

This project has been worked on and presented into three complementary parts by my teammates

and I: The business-related research by Tarik Cherradi, the software programming by Mohammed

Abdulkahar, and the design of the solution itself by myself, Anas Amalhay.

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RESUME

Ce projet de fin d’études fait partie des projets pilotes de groupe multidisciplinaire. Associés à des

étudiants de différentes écoles, nous avons travaillé sur un projet professionnel avec comme

mentor Mr. Ali Belhaj, propriétaire de grandes exploitations agricoles dans la capitale des agrumes

du Maroc. L'objectif de ce projet est de rationaliser l'utilisation de l'eau dans ses exploitations en

utilisant des capteurs qui suivent les besoins des plantes, puis de fournir les nécessités, ce qui serait

une première au Maroc. Cela se traduira par une utilisation responsable des ressources naturelles

et réduira la surexploitation des eaux souterraines pour aider à gérer le stress hydrique extrêmement

préoccupant du pays.

Ce projet a été travaillé et présenté en trois parties complémentaires par mes coéquipiers et moi-

même : la recherche liée aux affaires par Tarik Cherradi, la programmation logicielle par

Mohammed Abdulkahar et la conception de la solution elle-même, Anas Amalhay.

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I. INTRODUCTION

Morocco’s economy has always been associated with its important sector: agriculture. With 46%

of the active population working in the fields and agricultural activities, its social importance is

paramount. It represents 15% of the national wealth produced each year. The sector’s evolution

has as such a multiplying and growing effect on the rest of the nation’s economy, but it is also

determining in the equilibrium and lack thereof in 40% of the population, 80% of the rural society.

On the other hand, the agricultural sector puts significant pressure on water with the use of 85%

of the resources available [1]. Cereals like barley and wheat can be raised without irrigation in the

rainy sections of the northeast, but 100% of citrus fruits grow in irrigated lands. Irrigation systems

have been increasing the possibility of causing immense long-lasting consequences that take

longer to develop, like ecological damage and soil salinity [2]. Environmentally, it is to be taken

into consideration the impact these methods have on the ecological system, for it touches every

direct and indirect water user and can influence socioeconomic activity. Agriculture is the main

user and manager of resources and natural environments, especially water, which will become the

key to the country's development [3].

Water stress is a huge issue that plagues our planet, and especially Morocco as it is considered a

country with high water stress. This potential is nearly 650 m3 per inhabitant per year [4] while the

recommended level is 1700 m3 per inhabitant per year, which classifies Morocco as the 22nd in the

national water stress rankings. As the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) is the most water-

stressed region on Earth, the world bank found that this region has the greatest expected economic

losses from climate-related water scarcity, estimated at 6-14% of GDP by 2050 [5].

Water saving has been a major goal to operators in the agricultural sector. To successfully achieve

that, drip irrigation systems have made it easier to responsibly use water, and work on fulfilling

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specific plantations needs throughout their life cycle. Partnering up with Clem2B, we wanted to

work on implementing a subsurface drip irrigation system to exploit diligently the resources

needed for a sustainable production. After studying the requirements for a good citrus cultivation,

we identified the essential needs that should be provided to the trees. We designed an autonomous

system that can regulate and monitor the delivery of said needs and detect issues and anomalies.

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II. LITERATURE REVIEW

II. 1. Water and Agriculture in Morocco

Agriculture is of a great social and cultural importance because it remains the repository of values,

know-how, landscapes and diversity that constitute the backbone of the country's heritage. It is

also the main user and manager of resources and natural environments, especially water, which

will become the key to the country's development [6].

The main concern of water and agricultural authorities is water scarcity. Countries are faced with

water stress issues due to a lack of efficient water management strategies working in favor of

agriculture, industry, and municipalities that are drinking up to 80 percent of the world’s available

water a year. When it comes to agricultural needs, 60% of the water usage is wasted due to

problems in irrigation systems, mistakes in application methods and the nature of the cultivation

of crops that can have different needs than what the environment they are put in can provide [7].

Morocco’s water resources suffer from a large irregularity in space and time. Currently, 91 to 94%

of the resource is mobilized for agriculture and only 6 to 9% for drinking water supply and

industry. Which clearly shows the desire for development of the agricultural sector. Despite this

policy, the long droughts combined with the increase in water requirements generate imbalances

in most aquifers [8].

According to the World Resources Institute (WRI), Morocco is threatened to face high baseline

water stress as it comes 22nd internationally and 12th in Arab countries. The expansion in demand

for water and the insufficiency in precipitation may lead to a significant water shortage in the

future. Morocco uses water mainly for irrigation, with up to 87% of water withdrawal [9].

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II. 2. Hippone Holding

Hippone Holding is a Moroccan company founded in 1930 by Abdelkader Belhaj, and it addresses

activities in the agriculture, real estate and land sectors. We will focus on the agricultural activities

in this project, working with a subsidiary of Hippone Holding: Clem2B. Clem2B is a Moroccan

family group operating in the citrus industry, particularly oranges and clementines from Berkane

and Agadir. After opening offices in Hamburg, Rotterdam and Marseille, the company began

exporting its products to Europe. In 2006, and with the privatization of SODEA, Clem2B acquired

other lands in the same region and expanded its surface to 900ha. The company has a permanent

field workforce of 83 people, 2 agricultural engineers, 4 agricultural technicians, and an

administrative and financial director to guarantee the structured management of their activity. Its

total production is at 22,500 tons a year. 70% is exported and the rest is sold locally. Clem2B’s

network includes France, Italy, China, Canada and Brazil as of 2019 [10].

II. 3. Citrus Needs

Citrus is one of the world's most commonly grown fruit crops. Mostly cultivated in regions with

limited nutrient holding capacity and insufficient natural organic matter, citrus is an evergreen

perpetual tree characterized by its long period of fruit-growing. For optimal production, citrus

nutrition management faces multiple challenges because of its complex sensitivity to various

factors, such as climate, soil types, and production methods. Presenting a good fertilization

program all year round is essential to improve in efficient production and eliminate threats that

could result in negative outcomes [11].

The essential needs for the different citrus varieties reared by Hippone’s Clem2b are as follows:

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II. 3. a. Sunlight

The leaves have the ability to capture and store light as energy. It is thanks to this that the

photosynthesis process will take place: By absorbing light, carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and

minerals found in the earth, plants produce the organic matter they need to grow: glucose. This is

what will allow the plants to feed [12].

Photosynthesis general formula: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O —› C6H12O6 + 6 O2

II. 3. b. Soil

The soil provides:

- Anchorage: stabilizes the plant through its root systems.

- Nutrients: the soil supplies some nutrients depending on its nature and holds the nutrients added

as fertilizers.

- Oxygen: the soil’s porous structure provides some space among the particles that contains

oxygen, which is used by the plant cells to produce the energy necessary for living and growing

through the breaking down of sugars.

- Temperature: soil possesses the quality and feature of insulating the roots from radical changes

in the ambient temperature.

- Water: the soil’s structure bears water as well, which will not only carry the essential nutrients

and take part in the photosynthesis but will also cool the plant and keep the plant from wilting [13].

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II. 3. c. Water

Water is an essential element in the life of plants. It penetrates through the roots and passes through

the vessels of the plant to the leaves. Water is the major constituent of plants. However, most of

this water is transpired through the leaves, in the form of water vapor through multiple small holes

(stomata). This transpiration is not only used for regulating the plant’s temperature, but without a

pump (heart) to circulate its liquids, it also uses this perspiration to suck water from the earth and

bring it up to its leaves [14].

II. 3. d. Nutrients

Plant essential nutrients are specific elements that a plant needs to grow and develop. To ensure

that it completes its life cycle, the plant should be provided with these essential nutrients to be able

to develop roots, stems, leaves, flowers, or even produce seeds for new plantations.

Scientists grouped the 16 essential nutrients they identified as per the relative amount of each

needed by the plant : nutrients required in important amounts are called primary nutrients,

Secondary nutrients are needed in smaller amounts than primary nutrients, and micronutrients that

are used in small amounts on the plant. The combination of these is important to have a good

productivity and quality in the yield.

A plant’s development and its specific functions are directly affected by each essential nutrient [15]

(See Appendix).

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III. CURRENT STATE AND ANALYSIS

III. 1. Current state

The needs of plants seem straightforward, but they vary depending on the species and variety of

the plant, its stage of growth, and on its environment. The sunlight and soil are basically

immovable variables that we do not have much power upon, and that we should adapt and respond

to. The exception is soil fertility. According to [16], while trees are better at keeping the soil’s

fertility compared to other plants, the degree and manner differ depending on the species of trees.

The solution to keep the soil’s fertility is to associate different plant species with complementary

properties.

The soil and weather in the lands Clem2b owns are very suitable for growing citrus.

As for water, not only is rainfall unreliable at best [17], but it is unable to provide the plants with

the optimal input for an optimal yield. Clem2b currently uses drip irrigation for the entirety of their

crops. The decisions for irrigation are made by their own team of agronomists using their

knowledge and their experience built on the field and the data collected on their farmlands in the

previous years.

The nutrients needed are supplied to the plants in the form of fertilizers through different mediums.

The decisions are made by Clem2b’s agronomists through the knowledge of the crops and

observations of the state of the plants.

Clem2b exports around 70% of its yield while the rest is sold locally. This rate is not decided by

the company: they are limited by the quality of their products. Their earnings in the international

market is a lot more significant than in the local markets. One of their goals is to increase the

quality and homogeneity of their products in order to maximize their exports.

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III. 2. Analysis

My team’s goal is to find an efficient sustainable solution that will not only help the environment,

but that will also be economically viable and serve the financial interests of Hippone Agriculture.

Sustainable development is an important condition to be abided by as a more efficient use of land

is critical for keeping up with the rising demand of food production by 2050 [18].

The components we can optimize are the intakes of water and fertilizers. Water use rationalization

and optimization will be our most important goal as the water stress levels in the world and

especially in Morocco are very worrying [19]. Furthermore, both too little and too much water are

dangerous for the plant and reflect negatively on the yield volume and quality [20].

According to [21], conserving water and fertilizer is a key advantage to drip irrigation, which can

be an issue in other irrigation and fertilization systems. Drip irrigation can save up to 80% of water

in comparison with other irrigation practices. It works by providing exact fertilizer nutrients’

application and exact timing for that. Throughout the season, small amounts of fertilizers are

applied. This application is more efficient than the large amounts of fertilizer nutrients placed, at

the beginning of the season, within the bed or on it and under the plastic mulch. Improved

efficiency affects the costs of production and work on reducing groundwater pollution caused by

excess irrigation periods, or heavy rain that causes fertilizer leaching.

The results of [22] also praise the efficiency of drip irrigation in saving both water and fertilizers

through the drip irrigation’s attribute of delivering the resources directly to the root zone.

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IV. DESIGN OF THE AUTONOMOUS IRRIGATION

SYSTEM

IV. 1. Irrigation system

The direct upgrade to drip irrigation is the subsurface drip irrigation system. As indicated by its

name, this technology consists in burying the system’s pipes around 30cm underground. These

pipes use a different material (e.g.: polyethylene) than the conventional ones as they are less

vulnerable to clogging and root intrusion by opposing intrusion into the drippers of soil and root

particles [23].

The SDI’s advantages go further than the avoidance of clogging and staying out of the way during

plowing. Its main edge resides in water saving. According to [24], [25], and [26], the saved water

compared to surface drip irrigation for different plants resides generally between 17% to 22.8%.

The water distribution uniformity for the SDI is of 88% compared to 80% for its predecessor

technology [27].

However, the implementation cost of the SDI will be too important considering that the crops we

are working with are tree types, and that the system works best for and is easily implemented in

smaller crops. We will thus keep the existing surface drip irrigation system as the cost will not be

worth the benefits for tree-based crops.

IV. 2. Sensors and Probes

Knowing the exact needs of the plants at any given moment is paramount for precision agriculture.

As only with precise knowledge can we make accurate decisions. Considering the various

differences in the planted land, there will be a need for specific decision-making for various parts

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of farmland. The land will thus be partitioned into different homogenous parts while applying a

PA-RPL (Partition Aware - Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks) that will reduce

the network load and energy consumption compared to regular RPL [28]. This partitioning will

ensure the optimal inputs and management of big plots such as the 1000 acres we are working on.

The information needed:

- The exact output and pressure going out from the source of water.

- The water levels available to the plant.

- The water levels in the plant.

- Precise weather forecast.

- System for a 24/7 access to the real-time information and taking control.

Knowing the exact hydraulic output and pressure of the water delivered is a principal goal of this

system. This will also serve in knowing the exact dosage of fertilizers that will be administered to

the crops. But knowing the precise amount that arrives and is available to the plant is not only as

important, but the comparison of the two will show the efficiency and the exact location of a leak

for example if there comes to be one.

The soil-based probes will allow the quantitative detection of the water levels available to the

plant. This information will allow us to evaluate the availability of water in the soil. It will give

the agronomist the information needed to decide whether to start the irrigation, to irrigate after

rain, and to remain within the optimal levels of water for the roots to absorb it without wastage.

There will be a need for 2 - 3 probe levels depending on the depth, not only because of the inherent

characteristic of probes that can mostly detect changes in their immediate to close surroundings,

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but also to monitor the change and spread of the supplied water and the subsequent response of

the plant [29].

The water levels in the plant will be the most precise measurement of the water intake of the plant.

This precise quantitative and qualitative information combined with the knowledge and insurance

that the available levels of water that will be able to be counted as a constant, will allow us to make

conclusions about the plant’s response to the effects of relative humidity, illumination, wind, and

temperature on the plant’s acceptance and use of the resources available to it. It will also allow the

detection of abnormal changes in the plant’s behavior that could be attributed to a disease which

will be diagnosed early [30].

Instead of merely being responsive, it is important for our system to be proactive. Apart from

Weather Risk Management (WRM) [31], knowledge of the weather in the next few days or few

hours is a valuable information to be taken into consideration. The decision to irrigate less if there

will be rain in the close future, or the decisions related to the amount of sunlight that the plants

will be subject to are not to be neglected especially since the weather fluctuations are bound to

escalate due to the climate change [32]. The installation of a weather station will thus take place.

The various easy to implement Private Weather Stations (PWS) provide the various information

needed [33].

IV. 2. a. Tensiometric and Capacitive Probes

The tensiometric and capacitive probes make it possible to assess the water availability in the soil

while considering its type. Knowledge of this key parameter of irrigation control will effectively

help the farmer or agronomist to answer the following questions: When to start irrigation? What

dose to supply? When to resume irrigation after a rain?

12

The tensiometric probes measure the tension on water in the soil. A high tension would mean a

difficulty to mobilize water for the roots, while a low tension would mean an easy mobilization of

water by the roots. Generally, 6 probes should be installed per site at 2 -3 different depths

depending on the surface of the partition and on the model and the type of crop. The statement of

measurements could be manual or automatic. In the first case, we will use a portable reading which

gives an instant measurement in the second case, a fixed monitor which will record the data at a

defined time interval.

Figure 1: Tensiometric Sensor [34]

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Figure 2: Tensiometric Monitoring [35]

A capacitive sensor per homogeneous site will measure the soil’s water content on several

depths. It is thus possible to know the water stock (in mm) on the depth of soil explored by the

probe. Their principle is to measure the soil moisture via the "Dielectric permittivity of soil"[36].

Figure 3: Capacitive Probe [37]

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Figure 4: Water content through capacitive sensor monitoring [38]

IV. 2. b. Leaf Clamp Pressure probe

The affordable leaf patch clamp pressure probe is an advanced, non-invasive, field-friendly sensor

for the digital monitoring of water content through testing a leaf's pressure as a reaction to an

externally applied magnetic input pressure. The response of the leaf is detected by a pressure sensor

inserted in the magnetic clamp [39]. The farmers will then receive timely updates about the status

of their plants, allowing them to set the timing of the irrigation as well as the volume of water to

be applied very accurately [40].

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Figure 5: Leaf Clamp Pressure Probe [41]

Figure 6: Change of the response detected by the Leaf Clamp Pressure Probe depending on the

irrigation [42]

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IV. 2. c. Personal Weather Station

The station notifies the farmer on instant weather updates directly through a mobile device or a

database. It is a cloud-based weather station that stores data on any device and allows viewing it

anywhere and at any time using a monitoring system [43].

The data collected by the station concerns details about rain gauge, radiation exposure, the speed

and the direction of the wind, relative humidity percentage, the temperature of the air and

evapotranspiration rate from the reference surface in question [44].

Figure 7: Personal Weather Station [45]

IV. 3. Monitoring and Management system

Considering and processing the conditions of the soil, weather and the crop itself as well as the

crop’s environmental and hydraulic settings and data will require a Monitoring System that is fast,

accurate, and efficient. The processing of data and its display, as well as the control and

management of the farms, will be done in real time through an app accessible on the farmer’s PC

or mobile device accessible anytime, anywhere.

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This monitoring and management system has to be user-friendly and incorporate graphic maps and

graphs to facilitate easy and efficient decision making.

Through this system, the agronomist will also be able to control the irrigation valves manually or

create simple programs to be followed by the system, which can also detect and notify the user of

any anomalies detected and the possible explanation. The user will then be able to either ignore,

act on the situation, or set a command to follow when there are similar occurrences.

IV. 4. Layout of the system

This system will be built on a complex grid fully managed by the monitoring system. It will be

based on a simple hierarchy. Going from the bottom to the top:

IV. 4. 1. Land Partition

The farmlands will be partitioned into plots small enough that the information reported can be

generalized. Each of which will have their own array of sensors and probes. As mentioned

previously, there will be around 6 soil probe systems with each one developed into two to three

depth levels for the tensiometric probe, a single capacitive sensor, and 6 leaf sensors on different

trees. The average result will be the one taken into account.

All the data gathered in the partition will be sent wirelessly or through a wire to the partition’s

sensor hub.

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IV. 4. 2. High level Hub

The data gathered in each hub will be relayed to a higher-level hub through radio frequency, which

will in turn transmit all the data by General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) through a

telecommunication company.

IV. 4. 3. Computations

All the computations and use of the data will be done in an online server that will then make it

accessible to the farmer on a device of their choice after the data processing. This will allow the

ease of updating the system and its pre-built data.

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V. STEEPLE ANALYSIS

V. 1. Societal:

- Fewer resources to produce more yield is an opportunity to help farmers (direct

beneficiaries) have a comfortable income and lead their communities to more sustainable practices

that are beneficial for them, but also for the agricultural sector that represents a pillar for rural

employability.

- Adopting the sustainable development goals to help achieve the balance in following an

efficient plan of action that focuses on the direct beneficiaries and their different needs.

V. 2. Technological:

- Our project includes designing a viable solution for irrigation, in addition to creating an

app that will monitor everything.

V. 3. Environmental:

- The use of fewer fertilizers and limited water use. The change in farming practices will

help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and its importance for less pollution. The sustainable change

in the techniques will help with soil conditions and increase productivity as well as quality.

- Reducing water usage will also delay the advent of “day zero” when water will become

“blue gold”.

V. 4. Ethical:

- All information used has been acquired from ethical sources and practices and respect the

privacy of the people involved.

- The ethical implications of the project itself are positive taking into consideration all the

other implications aforementioned.

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V. 5. Economical:

- Positive impact on both direct beneficiaries’ financial situation as well as their economic

growth by piloting the resources and expenses, and on the agriculture sector to focus on the

evolution of its own economy.

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VI. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED

I have encountered during my work two main issues that I think should be addressed and could be

constructive for similar future works.

First, finding research papers regarding precision agriculture and the technology involved was very

difficult. The AUI libraries did not grant access to the related information.

The other issue is that being part of this “alpha-version” capstone project, the multidisciplinary

capstone, and being a pioneer in the program, meant going through many unplanned issues and

unannounced changes, which was extremely disturbing for the course of the project.

In this program, students from the different schools of AUI are to team up and be assigned to a

mentor and company that will either give them a subject, or to whom they’ll propose a solution.

After which, they will be working under the supervision of their mentor and supervisor. And

present their work at the SIAM and to the committee.

The idea got me hooked. However, being and initiative from the SBA school, the program was not

made to fit SSE students:

Engineering students are supposed to be working on their subject from day one. However, the

planning tailored by the business school combined with unplanned issues made it so the first two

months of the semester were spent creating the teams and trying to make contact with the

companies.

As the semester has a duration of three and half months, we were left with a month and a half to

make a proposition and design our solution. The start of this period coincided perfectly with the

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coronavirus outbreak and the start of the confinement. My team and I thus lost contact with our

designated company.

I am however glad we still managed to pull through and make a decent work despite the

aforementioned and the omitted issues.

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VII. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

Agriculture has not only always taken a huge part of Morocco’s workforce, it is also the biggest

consumer of the water resources. Due to the high-water stress levels in this country, water use

rationalization has become essential. This capstone project, in collaboration with Hippone Holding

has as a goal to design a sustainable solution for the management of their irrigation system.

The system is designed to use sensors and probes for the soil, the plant, the hydraulic valves, and

the weather in order to have an accurate overview of the whole situation. The comparison between

the data gathered by the different sensors also gives insight for the different issues that could

happen and crop up, be it technical or related to plant health.

The future work consists of integrating the rationalization and optimization of the use of fertilizers;

and of upgrading the irrigation system to subsurface drip irrigation, and to design specifically made

devices for a better control of the system and to avoid issues due to the performance of the user’s

devices.

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VIII. APPENDIX

Source: T. Provin and M. McFarland, “Essential Nutrients for Plants”

Source: T. Provin and M. McFarland, “Essential Nutrients for Plants”

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quels-avenirs-pour-le-Maroc_a849.html [Accessed 2 Mar. 2020].

4 J. Crétois, “Maroc : quand les origines du stress hydrique font débat”, 24-Oct.-2019.

5 Hofste, R., Reig, P. and Schleifer, L., 2020. 17 Countries, Home To One-Quarter Of The World's

Population, Face Extremely High Water Stress. [online] World Resources Institute. Available at:

<https://www.wri.org/blog/2019/08/17-countries-home-one-quarter-world-population-face-

extremely-high-water-stress> [Accessed: 02-Mar.-2020]

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2030 : quels avenirs pour le Maroc ?. [online] Available at: https://www.hcp.ma/Agriculture-2030-

quels-avenirs-pour-le-Maroc_a849.html [Accessed 2 Mar. 2020].

7World Wildlife Fund. 2020. Water Scarcity | Threats | WWF. [online] Available at:

<https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/water-scarcity> [Accessed 20 March 2020].

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Maroc . Science et changements planétaires / Sécheresse. 2004;15(2):187-194.

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