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REPORT RESUMESED 016 354 ET 000 924PLUMBING FIXTURES FOR EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES.BY- MACCONNELL, JAMES D. ODELL, WILLIAM R.STANFORD UNIV., CALIF., SCHOOL PLANNING LAB.

PUB DATE 59EDRS PRICE MFS0.25 HC -$2.24 54P.

DESCRIPTORS- *PLUMBING, *SANITARY FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT,EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS, LABORATORY EQUIPMENT,

A STUDY OF PLUMBING FIXTURES FOR USE IN EDUCATIONALFACILITIES WAS MADE TO PROVIDE MANUFACTURERS, ARCHITECTS, ANDEDUCATORS WITH A GUIDE TO THE NECESSARY SANITARY FACILITIESREQUIRED FOR-(1) MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH STANDARDS, (2)IMPROVED SUPERVISION, (3) REDUCED MAINTENANCE, AND (4)ENRICHMENT OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM. THE STUDY IS PRESENTEDIN THREE SECTIONS- -(1) A DISCUSSION OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS,FACILITIES, AND PLUMBING REQUIREMENTS FOR FIVE GRADE GROUPSFROM KINDERGARTEN THROUGH HIGH SCHOOL, (2) A DISCUSSION OFDATA OBTAINED IN A SURVEY OF 10,000 TEACHERS, PRINCIPALS, ANDMAINTENANCE PEOPLE IN 33 CITIES, AND (3) RECOMMENDATIONS FORSELECTION, INSTALLATION, AND MAINTENANCE OF PLUMBING FIXTURESIN EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES. A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RELEVANTLITERATURE IS PROVIDED. (JT)

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PLUMBING FIXTURES FOR EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES

Plumbing Fixtures

forEducational Facilities

Prepared for thePLUMBING FIXTURE MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

by

JAMES D. MAcCONNELL WILLIAM R. ODELLProfessor of Education Professor of Education

Stall

JON S. PETERS CHARLES COX

JAMES MORGAN HARRY SCHWILKE

JOHN SUTTHOFF STUART MARSHALL

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

SCHOOL PLANNING LABORATORY, SCHOOL OF EDUCATIONSTANFORD UNIVERSITY, STANFORD, CALIFORNIA

1959

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED

BY James MacCoAne..11,_Savo! Plartini LaborakoelTO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATING

UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U.S. OFFICE OF

EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSIDE

THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMISSION OF

THE COPYRIGHT OWNER."

SCHOOL PLANNING LABORATORYSCHOOL OF EDUCATIONSTANFORD UNIVERSITY

STANFORD, CALIFORNIA

© 1959 by the Board of Trustees ofthe Leland Stanford Junior University

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 59-10006

Contents

SECTION PAGE

FOREWORD vi

INTRODUCTION viii

I THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM AND PLUMBING FIXTURE REQUIREMENTS 1

II SUMMARY OF SURVEY AND FIELD WORK 19

III RECOMMENDATIONS, GENERAL 36

BIBLIOGRAPHY 42

ILLUSTRATIONSTABLE

1 PERSONAL INTERVIEWS-POSITION AND STATE xi

FIGURE

I KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY ROOMS 1-2-3

2 MIDDLE GRADES 4-5-6 AND ART CRAFTS

3 HOMEMAKING

4 INDUSTRIAL ARTS

5 MULTI-USE AREA

6 ADMINISTRATION AREAS

3

5

II

13

15

17

TABLE

2 NUMBER OF RESPONSES TO PLUMBING FIXTURE SURVEY

BY GRADE GROUP, ENROLLMENT AND SIZE OF SCHOOL 21

v

FOREWORD

The publication of this study, Plumbing Fix-tures for Educational Facilities, is a noteworthymilestone in the history of relations between in-dustry and education. "Career days" and "openhouses" have typically marked the relationshipbetween the nation's schools and the cDmmer-cial and manufacturing organizations within theUnited States. Ordinarily, for only a single dayeach year, industry and education join hands tolink the needs of children and youth to the needsand experience of industry.

This investigation, entered into jointly by thePlumbing Fixture Manufacturers Association andthe School Planning Laboratory, Stanford Univer-sity, considers educational program and schoolplant facilities, specifically in the relation of edu-cational program to plumbing fixture needs. Thisreport, condensing a significant body of data, isintended to provide manufacturers, architects,and educators in all levels of our educationalsystem with a guide to the necessary sanitary fa-cilities to maintain adequate health standards, toenrich educational program, to provide for im-proved supervision and convenience, and to re-duce maintenance throughout the entire year.

The contributors to this study are not to befound solely among the members of the Associa-tion and related industries or within the SchoolPlanning Laboratory. Recommendations and sug-gestions were received from over 10,000 teach-

vi

ers and hundreds of architects, school buildingprincipals and superintendents, planning commis-sions, and custodians. Consultants were broughtin from outside agencies. In particular, extensivecontributions to this report were made by Dr.Henry Magnuson, Chief, Bureau of EducationalResearch, California State Department of Edu-cation, and Oliver E. Byrd, Ed.D., Profes-sor of Health Education at Stanford University.The former aided in the over-all research designand tabulation while the latter was consulted onall phases of the report regarding the health as-pects of the various plumbing fixture installationswithin the school plant. Mr. Charles Cox aided inthe design and tabulation of the questionnairesused.

Throughout the past year, outstanding assist-ance was received from the Sub-Committee onRecommended Plumbing Practices of the Plumb-ing Fixture Manufacturers Association: R. S.Wylie, Chairman, and Ray A. Pape and Stanley S.Backner.

Among the members in the School PlanningLaboratory who were assigned to work on theproject, particular commendation should be givento Dr. Raymond C. Schneider, Dr. 0. KennethO'Fallon, Dr. Walter Garcia, Dr. Wm. H. Strand,Clyde T. Gilley, Don Keller, Sam Buchanan,Wade R. Squire, Arthur Newcomb, R. DudleyBoyce, and Stacy Hertsche.

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SPONSORS

The sponsors of the study, both members ofthe Plumbing Fixture Manufacturers Associationas well as members of related industries who havejoined forces to make this study possible, are listedbelow:

Plumbing Fixture ManufactuersAssociation Members

Alliance Ware, Inc.

Plumbing and Heating DivisionAmerican Radiator &Standard Sanitary Corporation

Borg-Warner CorporationIngersoll-Humphryes Division

Briggs Manufacturing Company

Case Manufacturing Corp.

Chicago Pottery Company

Crane Company

Gerber Plumbing Fixtures Corp.

Kohler Co.

Eljer DivisionThe Murray Corp. of America

Peerless Pottery, Inc.

Richmond Plumbing Fixture Div.Rheem Manufacturing Company

Universal Rundle Corporation

Plumbing Fixture ManufacturersAssociation

vii

Related industryMembers

Bradley Washfountain Co.

C. F. Church Division of American-Standard

Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute

Coyne & Delany Co.

Halsey W. Taylor Co.

The Imperial Brass Mfg. Co.

Jay R. Smith Manufacturing Company

Lawler Automatic Controls, Inc.

Leonard Valve Company

Modern Kelly Corporation

Olsonite Seat Division ofSwedish Crucible Steel Co.

Sloan Valve Company

Speakman Company

J. A. Zurn Mfg. Co.

INTRODUCTION

There is an increasing awareness that the edu-cational program determines the kind of s:loolbuilding which a community needs and shouldsupply. A good school building starts with soundeducational planning as a forerunner to archi-tectural planning. The kinds and sizes of roomsand their relationship to each other are deter-mined first from the standpoint of educationalutility. The same is true of lighting, classroomfurniture, heating and ventilation, and plumbing.When educational planning is done as the firststep in building construction, school buildingsprovide the kinds of spaces and facilities requiredfor the different teaching-learning experienceswhich are essential to the modern educationalprogram.

Today there is considerably more emphasison the youngster as an individualaccepting himfor what he is and valuing him for what he maybecome. There is concern not only for the intel-lect of children, but with their physical, emotional,social and spiritual growth as well. Experiencepatterns have been formulated to enable teachersto make a maximum contribution to each child'stotal development.

Programs of instruction vary widely fromcommunity to community, but there are broadcommon requirements based on cultural, social,and psychological constants. Effective curricu-lum planning must recognize these constants, butstill be flexible enough to be in harmony with localneeds and conditions.

Teaching methods have also changed as thefindings of research have given a better under-standing of how children learn. From a rigidassign-study-recite pattern, the methodology has

changed to active planning by pupils, group workon projects, individual researcha more activeparticipation in the learning process.

Both the changes in the curriculum and inmethods of instruction have demanded a differ-ent kind of school building than the kind whichserved the educational needs of fifty years ago.In addition, there is an increasing community useof school buildings. This added use must also bereflected in the design and construction of mod-ern school buildings. Both curriculum and teach-ing methodology plus the demands for commu-nity use of a school building have been changingover the years. This change can be expected tocontinue as technological advancement createsnew needs which must be met and as researchpoints the way to improved teaching methods.Flexibility and expansibility must, therefore, beincorporated into educational and architecturalplanning to the end that the constantly evolvingprogram is not hampered by inflexible spaces andrelationships.

As the concept of educational planning ofschool buildings has come to the fore, there hasbeen extensive study concerning curriculum arearequirements, the optimum sizes and relationshipsof the classrooms in these areas, and the types oflighting, heating, ventilating, furniture and roomfixtures which best contribute to the realizationof specific educational programs. Similar atten-tion has not been focused on the school plumb-ing and fixture needs and requirements. This situ-ation is reflected in a wide variety of practices andregulations from locality to locality. The lack ofconsistency and direction in this area is made ap-parent by the variations between code restric-

viii

tions and actual practices among school districtswhich have similar educational programs and en-rollments. Building and plumbing codes gener-ally provide adequate protection to consumers ofdomestic water supplies through provisions regu-lating cross-connections, back-siphonage, venting,materials and other items related to health andsafety. They have not been concerned with thesizes, numbers or locations of fixtures as they ap-ply to the educational activities and their require-ments.

Since school buildings are designed and con-structed for one purposethe education of thechildren who occupy themplumbing facilities forschools and classrooms may be considered satis-factory only to the extent that they meet criteriaof :

i. Educational utility

2. Ease of supervision

3. Sanitationa. Efficiency and safety in disposal of soiled

water and wastesb. Ease of maintenancec. Protection of health

4. Locationa. Within the buildingb. Within regular classroomsc. In special rooms

5. Functional designa. Internal arrangementb. Specific units

6. Size of fixtures

7. Number of fixtures

8. Safetya. Locationb. Designc. Control

INITIATION OF THE STUDY

Since this is a problem to fixture manufactur-ers as well as to school planners, exploratory meet-ings were held during the autumn of 1955 by rep-resentatives of fixture manufacturing firms andSchool Planning Laboratory staff members. Othermeetings were held, including those at the School

ix

Planning Laboratory. During the summer of 1956,specific areas of concern were defined and an over-all plan was formulated.

The major areas of concern were:

1. Types and kinds of school plumbing fix-tures.

2. Educational justification for special instal-lations.

3. Status of the self-contained classroom.

4. The ratios of fixtures to school enrollments,particularly as regards group installations.

PATTERN OF THE STUDY

This study is an attempt to state in an organ-ized, logical manner the needs of the various edu-cational programs and grade levels --,ithin theAmerican school system with respect to plumb-ing fixture installations. Thus, the investigationhas been concerned with current practice andstandards. The study was concentrated on schoolpersonnelteachers, principals, superintendents,directors of maintenance, and others. From thispopulation a sample of over ten thousand re-sponses was drawn. Present usage and needswere determined by means of a questionnaire dis-cussed in Section II. Responses from 9,645 teach-ers and from 404 building principals to this ques-tionnaire were received.

One Staff member of the School PlanningLaboratory traveled extensively throughout theUnited States to interview one hundred fortykey individuals in pertinent educational, govern-mental, and professional positions.

Thirty-three cities in twenty states are repre-sented by those interviewed and include, amongothers: Birmingham, Alabama; Berkeley, Los An-geles, San Diego, and San Francisco, California;Denver, Colorado; Atlanta, Georgia; Chicago, Illi-nois; New Orleans, Louisiana; Baltimore, Mary-land; Boston, Massachusetts; Detroit and Sagi-naw, Michigan; Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minne-sota; St. Louis, Missouri; Las Vegas, Nevada; NewYork City, New York; Cincinnati, Ohio; Portland,Oregon; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Memphis,Tennessee; Dallas, Texas; Salt Lake City, Utah;and Seattle, Washington.

The persons Interviewed represent thirty-onedifferent job-titles but may be classified roughlyinto the following categories: architects ( 17 ),building and plumbing inspectors ( 18 ), mainte-nance and operations personnel ( 41 ), miscella-neous (8). The accompanying table hives thedetailed data concerning these people; their job-titles anet the states in which they were employed.

An addition more than fifty building andplumbing codes from state and city governmentagencies were analyzed for content pertaining torequirements in school buildings. School build-ing blueprints and specification sheets from ma-jor school systems including New York City,Denver, Oakland, Los Angeles, Chicago, and NewOrleans were examined to determine the stand-ards held in these systems.

The data from the questionnaires and inter-views, from the analysis of codes, blueprints andspecification sheets, and from faculty rr embershave been synthesized into 1 his report which hasbeen written in three sections.

SECTION I

The educational program contains a concisedescription of the educational activities and thespecial plumbing requirements in each instruc-tional area for the five commonly accepted gradegroupings; Kindergarten, Primary grades ( 1, 2,3 ), Middle grades ( 4, 5, 6 ), Junior High School( 7, 8, 9 ), and Senior High School ( 10, 11, 12 ).

SECTION II

The Findings section is concerned with theorganization and enumeration of data obtainedfrom the personal interviews, questionnaire re-sponses, and analyses of building and plumbingcodes.

SECTION III

This section is based on the preceding sectionsand presents the recommendations of the surveystaff un the kinds, numbers, design, sizes, and lo-cations of plumbing fixtures necessary for an ade-quate educational program.

Early in the study a thorough investigationwas made of the available literature on educa-tional programs and their relation to school plantneeds. Certain conclusions were reached on what

x

constitutes a good educational program, what ac-tivities are carried on for educational purposesin the various general and special rooms of aschool building, and what plumbing fixtures arenecessary to Larry on these activities.

Throughout this report the emphasis has beenupon the educational aspects of the ph....!...)ing fix-ture problem. It does not deny the fact that wherea comparatively large number of persons are gath-ered together, as in a school building, certainsanitary facilities must be supplied. From thepublic health viewpoint these facilities must bedesigned and installed so as to prevent transmis-sion of disease and for ease of maintenance. Butthere are other implications to their installationwhich must ,ot be overlooked, physiological re-lationships between plumbing fixtures and thehealth of the school child. The number, size, de-sign, and location of toilets, showers, urinals, lava-tories, and drinking fountains have a definitebearing upon the health habits of the child. Thehealth aspects of plumbing fixtures are treated inthe section on findings.

In addition to the sanitation, health, and safetyaspects of plumbing fixtures in schools there areoverriding educational aspects which must bekept in the forefront of any study such as this.The educational aspects range from the inculca-tion of good habits through training in the properuse of toilets and lavatories to the wider educa-tional usage of plumbing fixtures in special areassuch as science or home economics. The findingsof this study as presented in the recommendationsshould be useful to educational and architecturalplanners, and to fixture manufacturers and in-stallers in providing plumbing Extures which helpeducate children for life in an increasingly com-plex world.

By presenting a number of school, classroom,and toilet area diagrams in the report, it is hopedthat suggestions for better placement of toilet,drinking fountain and shower facilities will result.Throughout this investigation a need for bettereducational use of these facilities was stressed bythe users. If this study results in these facilitiesbecoming more recognized as a part of the learn-ing process, it will have been worth the time andeffort it has taken.

TABLE I. Personal Interviews: Position and State

persons interviewed and the statesin which they were employed.

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Architect 17

Assistant Superintendent of Schools 6

Building and Safety Inspector, City 1 I IBuilding inspector, Board of Education 2

Business Manager, Board of Education 14

Custodian-Engineer, Individual Schools 4

Director, City Plumbing Testing Laboratory 2

2

IIIIll IIDirector, Construction Supervision, City

Director of Curriculum, Board of Education 1

Director of Health and Sanitation, State III IDirector of Maintenance and/or Operations,

Board of Education 29

Director of Plumbing, Board of Education 2

Director of Research, Board of Education 2 III IDirector of Sanitation, Board of Education 111111

10Director of School Planning, Board of Education

Director of School Planning, State

Mechanical Engineering firm 1

Plumbing Inspector, Board of Education 2 Ill IPlumbing Inspector, City 6 IIIPlumbing Inspector, County 1

Plumbing Maintenance Foreman, City Public Schools 111111 IIISchool Planning Consultant, County 1

School Principal 6 * III IState Director of SurvOys 1 III IState Division of Sanitary Engineering 1

Superintendent of Schools, City 10

Superintendent of Schools, County 11111Superintendent of Schools, State 111111Supervisor of Construction, Board of Education 1

Supervisor of Custodians, Board of Education 7 IIIUniversity Professors of Education 2

xi

The Educational Programand Plumbing Fixture Requirements

The principle that the only justification forplumbing installations in school buildings lies inthe contriLution they make to the educationalprogram and to the health and welfare of the chil-dren has been set forth in the introductory state-ment as the basis of this study. It follows that theeducational program common to each of the vari-ous grade levels must be examined, the activitiesoutlined, and conclusions reached as to theplumbing installations necessary for the facilita-tion of these activities and the consequent learn-ing process.

For the purposes of this analysis the twelve-year program has been divided into four parts:the kindergarten and primary grades ( grades 1-2-3 ), the middle grades ( grades 4-5-6), thejunior high school (grades 7-8-9), and the senior

high school ( grades 10-11-12 ). Each of thegrades in a given division has enough in commonwith the other grades in that division in curricu-lum and methodology to warrant such a groupingand to render unnecessary a grade-by-grade an-alysis.

The description of the educational programat the various levels which follows has been gar-nered through observation and experience andthrough review of the literature by the surveystaff. The listing of plumbing requirements tofacilitate the program has been arrived at byanalysis of the learning activities and by observa-tion of best practice in many schools throughoutthe nation. The listing of plumbing requirementsthus arrived at serves as one of the bases of thefinal recommendations.

THE KINDERGARTEN

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM

The kindergarten program provides a widevariety of learning experiences. The child learnsto help other children, and to participate in classand group decisions; he develops work habits anda sense of responsibility commensurate with hisown maturation. His natural curiosity is used toteach him more about nature and natural forces.He is taught desirable health habits, and is pro-vided a physical environment in which he canpractice them. He learns to compare differentobjects as to size and shape, and develops num-ber competency in relation to his problems ( howmany glasses of milk ). Vocabulary and oral com-munication are extended through sharing, tellingstories and experiences, and identifying objects.

He is given the opportunity to sing, to listen tosuitable music, and to participate in various rhyth-mic activities. He develops and expresses crea-tivity through the various art media and othermanipulative materials, all of which aid in theimprovement of fine muscle co-ordLiation as well.

The various learning experiences are providedin well planned but loosely structured activitieswhich occur during the identifiable periods of thekindergarten "day." These include the work pe-riod, which consists of planning, working, clean-up and discussion; the free play; story-time andlibrary; music and games; relaxation and rest.Equipment includes raw materials-clay, wood,paints-pattern toys, blocks, housekeeping equip-ment, wheel equipment, picture books, puzzles,

rhythm instruments, a piano, relaxation mats, andmany other items.

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS

Physical areas within the kindergarten usuallyinclude: a wet corner for clay manipulation andpainting as well as play with floating toys; a play-house or housekeeping area; a building and con-struction area; a library or book corner whichcontains picture books and puzzles; a science areawhich contains an animal cage, aquarium, ter-

rarium, planting boxes and display space; a mu-sic area; and outdoor play areas; with drinkingfountains and toilet room facilities which are ac-cessible to both the indoor and outdoor areas.

Since many of the activities in the kinder-garten require water, a work sink readily access-ible to the clay and painting area isyessential. Suchinstallations should be designed for the use of thechildren. Foot operated controls are desirable.Interceptor traps are recommended where sinksare used for clay work.

THE PRIMARY GRADES (GRADES 1-2-3)

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM

Education in the primary grades is a continua-tion of the kindergarten program, and is quitesimilar initially. The program emphasizes grad-ual development so as to include the more formalaspects of learning and instruction, but the breakis not sharp. Informality generally prevails, andgroup movement within the teaching space is pos-sible with a minimum amount of interference anddisturbance. The educational program consistsof "listening and doing" activities; short periodsof concentration are followed by physical move-ment. Expression and appreciation activities, restand relaxation, attending to body needs, workingindividually and in small groups are all a part ofthe day.

The primary school program provides mean-ingful experiences from many different areas. Artactivities extend from a relatively simple two-dimensional drawing with paint, chalk, and cray-ons to more comprehensive and inclusive three-dimensional expression in dioramas, mobiles, andpuppetry. Emphasis is continued on proper healthhabits, such as use of the handkerchief, washing,toilet training, putting things away, and obeyingtraffic rules. Children learn to listen and to under-stand directions, to enjoy music, poetry, andstories. There is an increased facility in speak-ing, talking, and conversing, while readir , skillsand competencies are initiated and strengthened.Expression of ideas through the written word isdeveloped in harmony with the maturity and de-velopment of the child, accompanied by the be-

2

ginnings of correct spelling and the use of simplepunctuation marks.

Normal and meaningful number experiencesare extended to counting up to approximately 200,telling time by at least five minute intervals, useof rulers and yardsticks, recognition of coins andthe ability to make simple change, addition andsubtraction through the two and three figurenumbers, and multiplication and division of 2's.From the simple musical experiences an aware-

nes of high and low sounds, rhythm, and timingis developed. Children learn to move to music, toplay rhythm instruments, to create new songsfrom their experiences, and to interpret music.

The guided play of building things, sand-boxactivity, make-believe, the simple ball skills, thesmall group games, and the rhythmic activities ofthe first grade gradually become more complexand extensive. Primary children learn about thedifferent kinds of animals, rocks, plants, soils, theseasons and sound. Simple experiments in mag-netism, plant growing and feeding, seed distribu-tion, feeding pets and reflection of light are ob-served and conducted by the children. Displays,aquaria, terraria, observation of natural phenom-ena, as well as experiments with rust, statics, andsimple machines are an integral part of the sciencesequence. In social studies, they learn about thefamily, the school, the neighborhood, the farm,the community, occupations, history, life else-where, use of maps and globes and geographicconditions. In all of the various activities of theprimary school, construction of models, maps,

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murals, mobiles, mats, pictures and other projectsare necessary parts of the program.


Children ale given increasing responsibilityin the use of toilets, and less direct teacher super-vision is required.

Since the educational program requires aready source of water for use in various class-room activities, for clean-up and disposal of liquidwaste, teachers and elementary administrators arealmost universal in their demands for a work sinkin the primary school work areas.

The lavatory or washfountains for use aftertoileting and the work sink within the teachingspace serve different functions which do not lendthemselves to multiple use of a single installa-tion. The work sink, therefore, ought to be lo-cated in close proximity to those activities re-quiring water, preferably in the art-constructionarea, and should be fairly accessible to the out-door play area.

Primary grade children should not be requiredto share toilet-room facilities with older childrenso special provision for these children should bemade.

THE MIDDLE GRADES (GRADES 4-5-6)

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM

Middle grade educational programs build on,continue, and extend the learnings of the primarygrades. Exploration and experimentation are thekeynotes to the program. The children are on thethreshold of social awakeningthey are aware ofhow other people live and what other people want,and are adjusting their own lives accordingly.They need classrooms which are real learning lab-oratories for all of their activities. Their curricu-lum continues to provide direct experiences, ex-perimentation, and dramatization. They cling toestablished patterns as they boldly strike out fornewer ones. These are years of rapid growth forchildren, and the span of differences is greater.Some are hardly larger than primary children,while some are entering puberty.

Educational experiences are both broader anddeeper. Art activities include work with two-and three-dimensional expression with variousmedia. Murals, decorative maps, cartooning, bul-letin boards, displays, sculpture, and masks havegreater scope and complexity. Health educationcontinues to emphasize behavioral evaluations,and provides more information about the body,the eyes, the teeth, ears, nose and skin. Eatinghabits, habit-forming substances, bacteria, minorfirst aid, and general care of the body are allcovered.

In the language arts there is an expansion ofcritical and analytical listening and the develop-

4

ment of greater organization in speaking. Vo-cabulary extension continues and children learndictionary use, organization of ideas, use of suchthings as indices, glossaries, and initial libraryand reference materials. Emphasis is on varietyof purpose and structure in sentences. Correctusage is taught and spelling and punctuation pro-ficiency are emphasized. Children learn to readand write numbers of one million or more andto appreciate fractional time. They can recog-nize rectangles, and develop a concept of area.They can add and subtract fractions, can multi-ply two and three figure numbers, and learn longdivision.

They learn to sing parts and to harmonize.They listen for the story in music, and sharpentheir understandings and interpretation of it.They learn to play more complex music and in-striments, and engage in folk dancing. Largegroup games are more important, while thestunts and rhythms are constantly extended tothe age and maturity of the children.

Science education entails a good deal ofmodel making and experimentation which re-enforces learnings about the rotation of theearth, causes of wind, simple classifications ofplants and animals, the uses of water, fc-niztuffs,the solar system, life cycles, sound, magnetism,erosion, and adaptation. Social studies lay fur-ther stress on how other people live, and to thedevelopment of insight on the influence of the

MIDDLE GRADES 4-5-6 ASchematic No scale

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1

past on present day life. Skills are developed inthe use of maps, globes, reference materials, andin the discrimination and evaluation of conflict-ing materials. There is sustained and intensifiedpractice in dramatic living through group activi-ties. Dramatization, reporting, class newspapers,supplemental readings, writing and telling sto-ries, making maps and graphs, painting murals,making models and pictures, dramatic play, andmany other activities are a part of the socialstudies program.

Although middle grade children are capableof and do actually concentrate on tasks for longer'periods, the program is one of varied activities.Group enterprises, construction projects, panelpresentations, and any of the many other kindsof learning experiences require a fluidity andflexibility of space. There are again identifiableareas within the space, including the science

area, the construction and painting areas, andothers.


The nature of the educational program re-quires a readily available supply of water forclean-up after painting and construction, as wellas for the science activities. Hence, the need fora classroom sink in the middle grades.

Although individual classroom or two class-room-shared toilet rooms are still to be preferredat this age level, the increasing self-reliance andindependence of the children leads to general ac-ceptance of group toilet-lavatories. Where grouptoilet-lavatories are provided, they should berelatively small and dispersed through the build-ing. Urinals should be provided for boys at thislevel and they should be designed, as all toiletfacilities should, with the age and size of theusers in mind.

THE JUNIOR-SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL YEARS (Grades 7-12)

Educational programs for 7-12th grade youthare developed in terms of the fundamental ob-jectives for education in a democracy. These pro-grams are designed to make substantial contribu-tion to the production of better citizens, betterworkers, better parents, and better human beings.They help to improve daily living at school age,as well as adult living later. The programs helpstudents meet some of their social and personalproblems, and provide both leadership and fol-

lowership experiences. The curriculum stimulatesthe desire to learn, and makes students increas-ingly better able to direct their own learning. At-tention is given to meeting the broad objectivesof self-realization, human relationships, economicefficiency and civic responsibility. These objec-tives are met through a variety of curricular pat-terns, and can be achieved in any kind of gradeorganization but are subject to limits often Un-posed by inflexible facilities.

THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL (Grades 7-8-9)

GENERAL EDUCATION

PROGRAM

The educational program for grades seven,eight, and nine is often set up on the basis of acore program, characterized by a body of relatedcourse work under one teacher for a substantialpart of each day. Although there are countlessvariations of such programs, they have the com-mon need for teaching spaces adaptable to a widevariety of different kinds of activities. During the

6

block of time, youngsters may do such things asread, listen, write, look up information, engage inpanel discussions, work in small groups, makedemonstrations, prepare maps, do related artwork, construct models, and prepare displays.


Many of these activities are dependent on aready source of water and most teachers in suchprograms consider the classroom sink as a neces-sity.

ART

PROGRAM

For the most part, art instruction for grades7-9 is based largely on orientation and explora-tion. Students are not expected to attain a highdegree of skill and proficiency in any of the sev-eral areas and media explored, although certainindividuals will possess considerable skill. Gen-erally, many art media are explored althoughpractice will vary from school to school. Workwill range from relatively simple line drawing,pictorial painting, lettering, and simple sculpturethrough beginning commercial art, display, ad-vertising, and the various crafts.


Work sinks, designed with the special needsof the art program, are necessary in art rooms.Handwashing facilitieslavatories, counter-typesinks ( hand or foot operated ), or wash-fountainsare also required.

BUSINESS EDUCATION

PROGRAM

Business education for grades 7-9 is usuallyconcerned with a general exploration of thevarious business functions, services, and oppor-tunities with some few introductory courses inelementary business procedures offered. Personaltyping is often offered on the eighth or ninth gradelevels, although some systems will provide coursesin grade seven.


Although many business education courseswill be offered in standard classrooms, typingclasses require specialized rooms in which a lava-tory is considered necessary. If the school paperis produced in this space, there is need for eithera service sink or a classroom work sink for wash-ing stencils and similar clean-up activities.

FOREIGN LANGUAGE

PROGRAM

Many systems have introduced beginning for-

7

eign languages prior to seventh grade, and by theninth grade almost all systems have introducedforeign languages. The nature of the material ofthe course, e.g., vocabulary, grammar, literature,and the activities of the students, e.g., oral-aurialpractice, reading, writing, do not require plumb-ing fixture installations in the classroom.


No plumbing fixture installations required.

MATHEMATICS

PROGRAM

Typically, students in grades seven and eighttend to take a common-learnings, required arith-metic course, while students in grade nine may begiven a choice of electives or be required to carryone of several possible courses including algebra,basic mathematics, practical mathematics, busi-ness arithmetic, general mathematics, or remedialarithmetic.


No plumbing fixture installations required inthe classroom.

LANGUAGE ARTS

PROGRAM

Basic common-learnings courses are usuallyrequired of all seventh, eighth, and nine graders,although there may be electives available in addi-tion to the basic requirements. Required coursesare typically listening, speaking, reading, andwriting activities, which will include class dis-cussions, chorus reading, dramatization, practicein parliamentary procedures, preparing and pre-senting repOrts, writing articles, and a variety ofother activities.


Specialized classes within the language artsarea require plumbing fixture installations.Speech-drama rooms, which usually have a plat-form or dias, require drinking fountains and jour-nalism classes, if they publish the school news-paper, require a service sink..

SCIENCE

PROGRAM

Science programs in grades 7-9 generally em-phasize effective learning in contemporary societyand often are a part of an integrated science pro-gram extending through all levels of the schoolsystem. Problem-solving techniques and the de-velopment of scientific thinking are emphasized,and there is a discernible trend away from spe-cific subject-centered values. Science learningactivities take place through reading, displaying,discussing, experimenting, conferring, visualiz-ing, studying, listening, creating and a wide va-riety of other methods of participation.

Usually seventh and eight grade science se-quences will include health and safety, the sur-face of the earth, the atmosphere, water, plantsand animals, astronomy, weather and climate,magnetism and electricity, energy, and other re-lated items. Ninth grade units usually emphasizelife science, although biology and a continuationof general science are offered in many schools.

The dynamic nature of science instruction sug-gests the desirability of providing teaching spaceswhich are flexible and adaptable to different kindsof programs and offerings. The multi-purpose sci-ence space adapts to several offerings.


An acid resisting sink, if chemicals are used,

ART

and water supply faucets with hose connectionsprovided with vacuum breakers would be mini-mum facilities for a junior high school scienceroom. Further needs would depend on the ac-tivities planned for students. Ninth grade scienceclasses typically rLquire a more extensive multi-purpose laboratory with a number of student workstations than would be true for seventh and eighthgrade science classes.

SOCIAL STUDIES

PROGRAM

Social studies programs for grades 7-9 are con-cerned with the further development of under-standings and appreciation of social structures.This may take the form of a study of the contribu-tions from the last or from other cultures, or itmay emphasize local, state, and national struc-tures. Instruction may be conducted both indi-vidually and in groups.


The social studies is typically a part of thecore program in which all students are involved.The classroom sinks recommended for that in-structional area are in particular demand by thesocial studies teachers in the junior high schoolas aids in the expression and construction phasesof the program where clean-up and liquid wastedisposal are necessary.

THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL (Grades 10-11-12)

PROGRAM

Art programs in grades 10-12 are an extensionand refinement of previous art experiences. In thegeneral education program art is emphasized asan important social force influencing many aspectsof daily living. An attempt is made to developmaximum creativity in each person through awell-balanced program providing a wide varietyof experiences. Activities may vary from ratherelementary design, lettering, sketching, coloring,

8

layout, jewelry, metal craft, ceramics, weaving,sculpturing, cartooning, illustration and other me-dia to advanced and extended studies in theseareas.


Clean-up, storage, toilet and lavatory facili-ties of sufficient amount and proper kind to servethe program and the enrollments must be pro-vided, although specific art laboratory plumbinginstallations are dependent on the different kindsof pibgrams offered and the various media whichare employed.

BUSINESS EDUCATION

PROGRAM

Business education in the secondary schoolgenerally, and in the senior high school especially,is designed to serve at least three somewhat over-lapping purposes: (1) Personal use skills, such asfunctional typewriting, are developed for manydifferent students having varying interests andvocational objectives; (2) General education con-tributionsdevelopment of an awareness and un-derstanding of the business world and its relationto everyday lifeare made through such coursesas general business and consumership; (3) Vo-cational training( salable skills for initial jobplacement and subsequent growth on the job )is given for those students having the aptitude,inclination, and the need to go directly to workin the field of business.


In spaces where stencil work, ribbon chang-ing, duplication, and related activities take place,there is need for a lavatory, washfountain or awork sink.

FOREIGN LANGUAGES

PROGRAM

The study of modem foreign language is un-dertaken to gain a communicating competence inthe language, while Latin and Greek are takenlargely to provide background for the understand-ing of English and to meet certain later collegerequirements.


Neither the material nor the methods and theactivities require plumbing fixture installations,although classes structured around cultural stud-ies of the respective foreign nations in which cos-tumes may be prepared, and paintings made mayrequire classroom sinks.

LANGUAGE ARTS

PROGRAM

Traditional language arts courses. often tightly

9

structured around listen-read-write-discuss gram-mar and literature activities, have little occasionto use plumbing fixture installations. However,changing methods and activities, involving con-siderable informal dramatization as well as con-struction and design, are creating a need forplumbing fixtures. Certain language arts elec-tives which should be conducted in special lab-oratories rather than regular classrooms are:Drama, Stagecraft, Speech and Journalism.


No special plumbing fixtures are needed inregular classrooms. The dramatics laboratory re-quires grooming sinks for make-up instruction andactivities and the stagecraft laboratory requiresa work sink or hand-washing facilities. The speechlaboratory requires a drinking fountain. A hand-washing sink is necessary in the journalism lab-oratory.

MATHEMATICS

PROGRAM

Mathematics offerings are usually of two orthree types: the college preparatory sequence,consisting of algebra, geometry, advanced alge-bra, solid geometry, trigonometry, and, for thegifted, analytics and beginning calculus; the gen-eral mathematics sequence consisting of appliedarithmetic, general mathematics, consumer math-ematics, etc.; the specialized offerings such asbusiness mathematics, mathematics for shop.


The nature of the materials covered and themethods used do not require plumbing installa-tions, although in certain situations using varietiesof manipulative and constructed materials, wash-sinks would be needed.

SCIENCE

PROGRAM

At least one year of science is required gen-erally of all students in the senior high school,with the trend toward a requirement of two yearsin grades 9-12. Often, biology or other life sci-

ences are offered during the ninth year, with phys-ical science of some sort offered in the tenth year,while chemistry and physics and advanced lifesciences are offered to eleventh and twelfth grad-ers. Class sizes in the laboratory sciences havebeen moving upward until now it is quite com-mon to plan for 28 students in each class ratherthan 24.


Spaces providing perimeter installations ofsinks, water, gas, and electricity are both moreflexible and more economical than are single pur-pose rooms providing island work stations.

Biology and general science require a labora-tory furnished with a minimum of 14 two-placestudent stations, a demonstration table with sink,water, electricity, and gas, and a counter ( perim-eter ) station containing not less than two sinkswith gas, water and electrical outlets.

Physical science requires essentially the samekind of laboratory as biology.

Chemistry requires 28 work stations, perimetermounted, with movable student stations which

would be used in the center of the room forlecture, demonstration, etc., and which wouldmove to the perimeter stations for the laboratoryactivities. Each perimeter station requires accessto sink, water, gas, and electricity.

Physics could be offered in a general purposeroom, or in a room used for some of the chemistryclasses.

SOCIAL STUDIES

PROGRAM

Senior high school social studies programs aregenerally designed to further develop the basicsocial concepts through both depth and breadthextensions of content. Students are assisted toacquire the ability to analyze and interpret eventsand to assume the rights and responsibilities ofcitizenship in a dynamic society.


In those classes in which construction projectsare widely used, a work sink in the classroom isrequired.

SPECIALIZED AREAS COMMON TO JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS

HOMEMAKING

PROGRAM

At the junior high school level homemakingis an exploratory course for girls and, to an in-creasing degree, boys as well. Experiences areprovided in:

Selection, preparation, service, conservationand storage of food for the family;

Selection, care, renovation, and constructionof clothing;

Maintenance of satisfying personal, family,and community relationships;

Care and guidance of children;Selection and care of the home and its fur-

nishings;Selection, use and care of home equipment;Maintenance of family health;Home care of the sick;

10

Selection and purchase of foods, clothing,equipment and housing, and furnishings.

Homemaking courses at the senior high schoollevel tend to explore the same areas in greaterdepth and breadth.


In all-purpose homemaking laboratories, sinkinstallations, a food waste disposer and a clotheswasher are required. In the more extensive home-making suites a sink is necessary in the clothingarea and two wall lavatories should be providedin the fitting and grooming section. The bedroomarea requires a tank water-closet and a wall lava-tory. In specialized foods classrooms unit kitchensfor each four to six pupils are supplied. Each unitrequires a sink with hot and cold water, and onesink equipped with a waste disposer. In someclassrooms a dishwasher is installed.

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INDUSTRIAL ARTS

PROGRAM

Instructicn in industrial arts is designed tointerpret the machine age to the students and toprepare some of them for vocations in industry.

In beginning courses there is a broad develop-ment of skills and acquisition of knowledge whichis valuable to any student, regardless of his fu-ture occupation, whereas more advanced experi-ences provide pre-vocational training which mustusually be followed by specific vocational train-ing in technical-industrial institutions, on-the-job,or through an apprenticeship situation.

Some of the general concerns of industrial artsinstruction include : planning and completion ofprojects which require a variety of tools and ma-terials; developing an increasing understandingof the contribution of industry to ordinary liv-ing; reading and making working drawings ofvarious projects at different levels of skill and ma-turity; developing the ability to recognize qualitymaterials, thus leading to more effective consum-ership; learning to service some of the commonproducts normally used in the home; developingthe communications competencies applicable toindustrial arts; developing competency and inter-ests related to the various media and areas forlifetime avocational and hobby benefits; and aug-menting the social understandings through work-ing with others.

Basically, industrial arts instructional experi-ences depend upon manipulative learning withsuch things as demonstrations, reading, visualaids, and field trips comprising less than a fifth ofthe time. The project approach, with its conse-quent analyses of processes, is widely used. Theusual pattern is to provide general exploratoryexperiences in the junior high school, often in acomprehensive general facility. These generaland wide experiences are usually followed bymore specialized experiences in both compre-hensive general shops and in unit shops.


Educators are unahimous in requesting hand-washing facilities in each shop and many prefertoilet-lavatory facilities within the shop area, es-

12

pecially for the use of instructors who, becauseof the necessity for constant supervision, maynot be able to use more distant facilities. Studenttoilet-room facilities in a readily accessible loca-tion ill the general shop area are necessary forstudent control and for adult use during nightschool programs.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

PROGRAM

The physical education program is directedtoward the development of general health andphysical well being, proficiency in certain skillareas, discovery of interest areas possessing carry-over into later recreational activities, experiencesin working and playing with others, and relaxa-tion from tensions.

There is an increasing emphasis on individualand dual activities and on co-educational pro-grams.

Gymnasium facilities are seldom provided inelementary schools designed to serve K-6 young-sters, although they are often provided in K-8schools and in junior high schools. Playrooms arecommonly planned for the K-6 schools. They alsoserve as lunchrooms and as dramatic and musicalproduction centers for the schools.

Joint endeavor by the community, the recrea-tior. department, and the school district often re-sults in the development of various recreationalfacilities usable by many different groups through-out an extended day and an extended year.


Showers are considered essential for grades7-9, as well as for the senior high school. Thereshould be a sufficient number of individual showerheads to enable everyone u a physical educationclass to have a shower during the time allowed.Group showers for boys and for girls are satis-factory, although it is typical practice to providesome individual shower stalls for the girls. Fromthe students' standpoint, it is desirable to haveshower heads of a type and at a height that makesit possible to shower without getting the hair wet.

The type of shower controls used dependssomewhat on local policy and philosophy, but

Figure 4

INDUSTRIAL ARTSSchematic No scale

Key to symbols

0 WATER CLOSET (FLOOR)

13- WATER CLOSET (WALL)

In-URINAL

12"LAVATORY

13

SHOWER

"tarDRINKING FOUNTAIN

147 CUP FOUNTAIN

0 WORK SINK (SINGLE)

00 WORK SINK (DOUBLE)

gni KITCHEN SINK

Din CUSTODIAL SINK

Si WASH FOUNTAIN

all should have a non-scald feature. In groupshower installations it is important that the soiledwater from one shower station not drain to an-other. The separate drying area requires a floordrain.

Toilet rooms adjoining the locker rooms arenecessary. If the gymnasium is used for specta-tor sports, provision is usually made for public

toilet rooms. Drinking fountains near outdooreAercise areas and in the gymnasium are necessary to meet physiological needs. Quite often acuspidor is installed in the gymnasium. Plumb-ing fixtures in the gymnasium must be protectedfor the safety of rapidly moving students. A sepa-rate toilet, lavatory and shower are often suppliedfor the teachers of each sex.

SPECIALIZED AREAS COMMON TO ALL GRADE LEVELS

ADMINISTRATION

PROGRAM

Practice varies widely in terms of actual ad-ministrative spaces provided and their location.Size of school, district policy, administrative serv-ices provided, and comniunity standards all affectthe extent and arrangement of facilities. In somesituations the administrative unit will contain of-fices for the principal, his assistants, e.g., vice-principal, assistant principal, deans, receptionareas for the public and for students, a base ofoperations for specialists, e.g., reading and speechcorrectionists, psychologists, psychiatrists, cur-riculum specialists, and supervisors, completehealth facilities, general office and workroomfacilities, space for the public address system andthe programming system. In other situationsminimum facilities are provided and some of theservices are not available or are provided inshared facilities.

Even with minimum or dispersed facilities,the administrative area is the focal point for theroutine business of the school. Teachers pick upmail and other communications in the area, whilestudents will come to the area for attendance de-tails, programming, and other reasons. Peak stu-dent and teacher loads are before school starts,after school, and during the noon hour, whilepublic visitors may arrive at any time.


Until recently it was standard practice to pro-vide a principal's toilet-lavatory immediately ad-jacent to the administrative office. It is nowcommon practice for the principal to utilize the

14

teachers' facilities and an attempt is usually madeto locate the lounge and workroom in close prox-imity to the administrative area.

The health room or suite requires toilet-roomfacilities as well as work sinks. In larger schools,which provide complete health services with afull time nurse on duty and scheduled hours fordoctors and dentists, fairly elaborate facilities willbe required.

The teachers' lounge and workroom will re-quire separate toilet-room facilities for each sexand a work sink.

The guidance area usually has private confer-ence rooms and a waiting room for students. Thearea should be readily accessible to toilet-roomfacilities as well as to drinking fountains.

LIBRARY

PROGRAM

The library is located most effectively in aprominent and easily accessible area of the plant.The library is tl.e service center for the distribu-tion and utilization of all kinds of instructionalmaterials, including books, periodicals, maps,models, recordings, and other audio-visual ma-terials. Although many elementary schools do notprovide central libraries of this type, there is adefinite trend toward such provision. Regularinstruction in the use of the library is usually apart of the educational program for all students.


When the librarian is responsible for book re-pairs, binding, receiving, and loaning it is con-venient to provide a work sink having both hot

DRESSINGRO

CAFETERIA AND ASSEMBLY AREA

Flora 5

MULTI -USE AREASchematic No scale

Key to symbols

1-0 WATER CLOSET (FLO)R)

zrWATER CLOSET (WALL)

lirURINAL

in-LAVATORY

1S

ETSHOWER

"Zr DRINKING FOUNTAIN

72/31 CUP FOUNTAIN

0 WORK SINK (SINGLE)

DO WORK SINK (DOUBLE)

MI KITCHEN SINK

Cle CUSTODIAL SINK

OP WASH FOUNTAIN

or tempered and cold water, with collateral workspace.

A drinking fountain may be desired withinthe main reading space, or at least one shouldbe readily accessible.

CAFETERIA

PROGRAM

Wide variations in solution to the hot lunchproblem exist, depending in part on the servicesanticipated, scheduling practices, and the num-ber of meals to be served. Many systems providea central food preparation and eating space whereall of the children who participate in the programare served. Other schools have their own kitchen,but provide smaller eating spaces rather than asingle large space, while others transport the foodsfrom the kitchen to the classrooms. In other dis-tricts, a central kitchen is provided for the prepa-ration of all the food for several different schools,and the food is then transported in suitable con-tainers to the various schools for consumption.


It is desirable to provide drinking water withinthe main eating space; usually both drinking foun-tains and glass fillers are provided at the seniorhigh school level. Student toilet-room facilitiesshould be located conveniently to the cafeteria,but not within the cafeteria space. Handwashingbefore eating is an integral part of functionalhealth; consequently, handwashing facilities mustbe readily accessible and of sufficient capacity toaccommodate the numbers of students involved.Some school systems provide hand-washing facili-ties within the main eating space, or in the cor-ridors immediately adjacent, although some sys-tems believe that conveniently located toilet-roominstallations are sufficient.

Toilet-room and shower facilities are desirablefor use of the kitchen workers and in some statesare required.

AUDITORIA OR MULTI-USE ROOMS

PROGRAM

Fewer auditoria are appearing in elemen-

16

tary school plans than formerly, although moremulti-purpose rooms are being constructed. Gen-erally an auditorium or multi-use room is pro-vided in junior and senior high schools. There isno common pattern, however, and facilities pro-vided and justified vary from elaborate auditoriato minimal spaces. School districts and otheragencies are more often developing facilities, likeauditoria, co-operatively, with the expectationthat they will be used during the day for theschool's educational program and for communityactivities in the evening.


For the most part, K-6 dramatic activity doesnot require elaborate dressing rooms, or toilet-room facilities.

If junior or senior high school dramatics, stage-craft, and related activities are to be housed in theplant, it is necessary to provide the dressing roomswith lavatories, work sinks, or grooming sinksneeded for make-up. Stagecraft requires .a worksink or other handwashing facilities. With regu-larly scheduled classes in the area, lavatory fa-cilities are often included as a total part of theschool needs.

Drinking fountains should conveniently beprovided for both the seating and stage areas.

If the facilities are to be used for public per-formances and gatherings, it is necessary thattoilet-room facilities be available in the vicinity,although it is fairly common practice to utilizeconveniently located student facilities.

MUSIC

PROGRAM

Music offerings for grades K-6 and grades 7-9vary from relatively unstructured and informalhomeroom singing up though harmony; frombeginning instrumentation to relatively finishedperformances.

Senior high school music experiences are de-signed to provide the opportunities for emotionaloutlet, creative expression and performance skilldevelopment. Offerings are planned to serve stu-dents who will range widely in both interest andperformance competency.

COUNSELLING11111111-111111111111

WAITING AREA

AlIF A

WORK ROOM

WAITING AREA

Figure 6

ADMINISTRATION AREASSchematic No scale

Key to symbols

WATER CLOSET (FLOOR)

WATER CLOSET (WALL)

vsURINAL

LAVATORY

17

ErSHOWER

DRINKING FOUNTAIN

T2I17 CUP FOUNTAIN

WORK SINK (SINGLE)

WORK SINK (DOUBLE)

II KITCHEN SINK

123 CUSTODIAL SINK

Kr7 WASH FOUNTAIN


Music teachers desire drinking fountains with-in the teaching areas. Soaking reeds, felting, andinstrument repair require a work sink with aneedle spray as well as a faucet in the depart-ment, usually in an office or workroom. Boys' andgirls' toilet-rooms are advised for the departmentor the immediate area when the music facilitiesare isolated from other components of the schoolplant and especially if they are used evenings forstudent productions and adult classes.

MAINTENANCE AND OPERATIONS

PROGRAM

Physical facilities are needed for the regularcustodial and maintenance staffs. Routine opera-

tional tasks require tools like mops, brooms,brushes, dust cloths, cleaning materials, wax, lad-ders, etc. These materials should be convenientlystored on each floor or in each wing so that thecustodians will not spend too much valuable timerunning after tools and supplies.

Maintenance crews, whether school stationedor district stationed, require a base of operationswithin the school, usually a small work shop.


Water is needed for many of the daily opera-tional tasks, and must be readily available; theusual practice is to provide a custodial closet, withrealistically planned storage space for the nor-mally used tools and equipment, and with eithera service sink or a mop sink.

MC

18

t

Summary of Survey and Field Work

GENERAL

Knowledge concerning present practice andcurrent regulations in building and plumbingcodeP with respect to plumbing installations inschools was needed as a base point in this study.Also needed were the opinions of school adminis-trators and architects on the adequacy of presentpractice and regulations with respect to thehealth, safety and educational worth of schoolplumbing installations, and the ideas of these per-sons on what should be done to correct existinginadequacies.

Accordingly an extensive program of informa-tion seeking was initiated. Simple questionnaires.were sent out to thousands of teachers through-out the nation. More extensive questionnaireswere sent to building principals. In addition, arather wide distribution of superintendents anddirectors of maintenance in school systems, andarchitects and educational planners were inter-viewed. A wide selection of plumbing and build-ing codes, and recommendations of recognizednational organizations was analyzed for content.

As a further check on adequacy of presentpractice a time-use study of toilet-room facilitieswas made in representative school buildings at allthree levelselementary, junior high school andsenior high school.

It was not the intention in setting up the de-sign of this study to make it a statistical study ofdata gathered by the questionnaire method. Itwas rather to bring to bear on the study a varietyof research procedures including questionnaires,interviews in depth, code analysis, observation,field study, time-use study, logical analysis, an-alysis of correspondence, and review of the litera-ture.

The variety of research procedures made it

19

possible to develop cross checks, to fill in gapsin information, to check on maintenance prob-lems, to develop and then test hypotheses, and,by consultation with experts, to answer questionswhich arose.

Questionnaire to Teachers

A questionnaire designed to reveal factual andattitudinal information was distributed to teach-ers in school districts which were contacted in ad-vance and had agreed to cooperate.

This first questionnaire, which was pre-testedin school districts in the neighborhood of Stan-ford University and corrected where ambiguitiesappeared, sought four sets of responses: (1) Whatplumbing fixtures are now in your classroom?;(2) What plumbing fixtures do you need to carryout your educational program?; ( 3 ) How wouldthe installations requested contribute to the edu-cational program?; ( 4) What suggestions do youhave for improving plumbing fixture installationsthroughout the entire school?

Responses from 9,236 classroom teachers werereceived. The number of pupils enrolled in theresponding schools numbered more than 270,000.The totals indicate that the sample can be con-sidered representative.

As the study progressed a second question-naire was prepared to reveal more detailedopinions from teachers on such aspects of theproblem as the desirability of certain plumbingfixtures and the height of toilets and urinals, lava-tories and work sinks. There were 409 responsesto this questionnaire.

A summary of the total number of responsesfrom both the first and second questionnaire cate-gorized by grade group and by size of school is

presented in Table 2. Also given is the numberof children in the classrooms of the teachers re-sponding.

The table indicates that responses in signifi-cant numbers were received from teachers in allsizes of schools and at all grade levels. The larg-est group of responses came from teachers of theprimary grades in schools with enrollments of501-1000. In total there were 9,645 respondeesfrom schools with a total enrollment of 282,567pupils.

A much more complete questionnaire was sentto building principals in elementary, junior high,and senior high schools across the United States.There was a total of 404 returns. The numbers ofreturns was almost 100 per cent, since the formswere sent only to those who had been selectedon the basis of geographical areas, grade levels,and size of community and who had previouslyindicated a willingness to participate in the study.

Examination of these principals' reports indi-cates a range of ratios for toilets for boys at thesecondary level of 1:10 to 1:118. The modal re-sponses for actual use fell in the 1:35 to 1:39 cate-gory. Sixty-three per cent of those reporting hadno urinals for the boys, which accounts in part forthe relatively high ratios.

One hundred per cent of those stating thatpresent facilities were inadequate indicated loca-tion as a factor of inadequacy. Ninety per centalso included supervision as a factor.

The ratios of toilets for girls ranged from 1:10to 1:24, with the modal responses evenly distrib-uted from 1:15 to 1:35, and with another clusterat 1:40 to 1:49.

Two of those indicating dissatisfaction withthe number of toilets for girls had existing ratiosof 1:25 to 1:33. The ratios of the others who in-dicated dissatisfaction ranged from 1:45 to 1:90.

Of those reporting dissatisfaction with the toil-ets in use for bcys, one had a fixture : pupil ratio

of 1:34, the rest had ratios ranging from 1:80 to1:118.

Elementary ratios in use ranged from 1:10 to1:80 for boys and from 1:10 to 1:79 for girls. Apattern similar to that at the secondary level wasevident; dissatisfaction in number of facilitiesbeing very closely related to poor location andpoor supervision.

The principals' reports did not include thosefacilities which are normally recommended toserve industrial arts, auditorium, and outside playareas. Instead of increasing the number of fixturesnecessary, these peripheral area facilities shouldprovide a better distribution of the total facili-ties and allow for a more uniform pattern of use.This reduces the peak loads for which the num-ber of fixtures have to be planned.

Also, the present trend for single story build-ings and the dispersion of facilities cut down thedistances and times necessary to reach the facili-ties and return. When a pupil passes within a fewfeet of the facilities, he can use them then. On theother hand, should he have to go to the center ofthe building or down or up one, two, or threeflights of stairs, he has to wait until a longer pe-riod of time is available than that permitted be-tween classes. If this is true for just half thestudents, congestion and nearly =manageablepeak loads must necessarily result. This is areiteration of the principle that the number offixtures is, to a large degree, a function of thelocation and the school program.

Far too often rehabilitation of plumbing facili-ties in existing school buildings has consisted ofincreasing the number of fixtures in the presenttoilet areas rather than dispersing the fixtures tomake for a more uniform and satisfactory patternof use.

Greater flexibility in the high school programsuch as the staggered lunch periods and morningrecesses make for better utilization.

THE TIME-USE STUDY

A time-use study of toilet rooms and the fix-tures in them was made in three elementaryschools, a junior high school and a senior high

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school in the San Francisco Bay Area. The studywas undertaken to get a measure of actual prac-tice in school buildings, all of which were less

TABLE 2. Number of Responses to Plumbing Fixture Survey by Grade Group, Enrollment and Size of School

GRADE GROUP

SIZE OF GRADES GRADES TOTAL JUNIOR HIGH SENIOR HIGHSCHOOL KINDERGARTEN 1-3 4-6 1-6 SCHOOL SCHOOL

NO.11 ENROLL2 NO. I ENROLL NO. I ENROLL NO. I ENROLL NO. I ENROLL NO. I ENROLL0-250 17 537 237 6866 172 5118 409 11984 20 454 41 642251-500 78 2685 755 22224 560 16561 1315 38785 140 2773 136 2269501-1000 151 4955 1558 50137 1209 38916 2767 89053 506 12190 365 77311001-1500 32 1001 305 11323 221 7706 526 19029 340 9819 680 17494Over 1500 8 246 169 6883 81 3165 250 10048 498 12542 1246 35305Totals 286 9424 3024 97433 2243 71466 5267 168899 16248 40803 2468 63441

Grand Total 96458 28256781 Number of teachers responding to questionnaire.2 Number of pupils enrolled in classrooms of responding teachers.8 Includes responses from 120 teachers with 3025 pupils in elementary grades 7-8 not otherwise totaled.

than seven years old at the time of the study andwhose fixture : pupil ratios equalled or exceededthe standards of The National Council on School-house Construction.

The data were collected by observation ofutilization of all plumbing fixtures in toilet roomsfor each minute during a single day ( April 10,1957) within one high school ( 1,364 pupils ), onejunior high school (1,740 pupils) and three ele-mentary schools (350, 376, and 837 pupils ). Thefive schools had a total of 4,667 pupils. A time-usechart was made for each fixture and these werethen summarized for each toilet room, indicatingthe actual simultaneous use at any time and show-ing the day-long pattern with times of maximumand minimum use.

Elementary School A

School A has two kindergartens and 12 class-rooms. Each room has a sink and a fountain andthe two kindergarten rooms have a self-containedtoilet room with two toilets and a single lavatory.There were toilets adjacent to the multi-purposeroom and to teachers' lounge. Pupils in grades1-6 used two gang facilities centrally located tothe classrooms.

The existing ratios were:

BoysToilets 1:52Urinals 1:20Lavatories 1:39

GirlsToilets 1;25Lavatories 1:37

Elementary School B

School B contains two kindergartens and 12classrooms and is similar to School A.



GirlsToilets 1:17Lavatories 1:26

Elementary School C

School C has two kindergarten rooms and 23classrooms. Classrooms are equipped with sinkand drinking fountain. The two kindergartenrooms share two toilet rooms each with one toiletand lavatory. There are toilets adjacent to themulti-purpose room and the teachers' lounge.Three separate pupil toilet rooms are availablefor each sex.




21

FINDINGS

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

It was found that a crucial factor in judgingthe adequacy of plumbing fixture installations ina school is the pattern of use and not only thefixture : pupil ratio. The pattern of use was foundto depend directly on the school program. At theoutset of recess, at class breaks, and during thelunch hour, particularly at the beginning and end,the toilet facilities maximum use was observed.

In the three elementary schools, even at peakusage, in the girls toilet rooms, there was alwaysone toilet unused. There was waiting observed inone toilet room, but this occurred when toilets inother rooms of the school were not in use. Ade-quacy also depends on location.

No waiting was observed in the boys' toiletrooms. Urinals were used four to five time moreoften than toilets. All of the boys' toilets were inuse for at least one minute of the recess period.

Lavatory usage in both boys' and girls' toiletrooms varied directly with the use of toilets andurinals.

It was concluded that the number of toilets,urinals, and lavatories in the three elementaryschools was adequate for the enrollment.

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

The junior high school building contains 48teacher stations and is organized on a semi-de-partmentalized basis. The building has a capacityof 1500-1600 students but enrollment amountedto 1,740 on the day of the time-use study. Thereare four toilet rooms for each sex.




FINDINGS

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

The data reinforce the conclusion that pro-gramming has an important effect on toilet, urinal,and lavatory needs. Peak loads for both sexes oc-curred at the class breaks (every 50 minutes) and

22

during the three lunch periods. In spite of heavyusage at regular times, toilet facilities were nevertaxed to capacity except in the gymnasium wherethe number of fixtures was about half that foundin the other toilet rooms.

Except for the gymnasium area where therewere only two toilets, at no time were all of thethree toilets in the other three boys' toilet areasutilized simultaneously. At peak utilization ofurinals the ratio of u inals in use to the numberof boys enrolled was 1:54. At peak moments onlyabout half the lavatories in the boys' rooms werein use.

The girls' toilets were utilized at highest ratesduring the five minute class breaks. There wassome waiting in the toilet room of the physicaleducation area. However, at peak utilization theratios of toilets in use to girls enrolled was only1:54. Peak utilization periods showed only halfthe lavatories in use.

The rates of utilization of toilets and urinalsin this junior high school seemed low. It was feltby many that he presence of the observers andtheir charts inhibited usage. Such an inhibitaryeffect, if it exists, could probably be overcome bycontinued obsen,ition until pupils become usedto procedure. The observer would probably, how-ever, continue to inhibit use by those who come tosmoke or avoid supervision.

The number of toilets, urinals, and lavatoriesin total were sufficient for the enrollinent, butthere was a shortage in the physical educationsections.

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

The senior high school, first occupied in 1954-55 has a capacity of 2,000 but enrolled 1,364.However, two toilet rooms were closed off andare not included in the study. For the pupils ingrades 9-11 (the building has not been in uselong enough to enroll a twelfth grade) there are60 pupil stations.

Existing ratios were:



These fixtures were found in three toilet roomsfor each sex. There is one large central toilet roomfor each sex in the f:oneral academic area, anotherpair in the cafeteria area, and a third pair in thephysical education area.

FINDINGS

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Patterns of heaviest utilization coincided withclass breaks and lunch hours. Utilization of thetoilet rooms in the cafeteria area was confined tothe lunch periods. The four girls' toilets in thisarea were used to capacity during lunch hours,and for one period of 13 minutes there was wait-ing on the part of eight girls. There was a secondwaiting period of six minutes. Boys also had towaiting period of six minutes. Boys as well hadto wait for toilets in the cafeteria area at the be-ginning*of lunch periods. There was continuoususe of urinals and lavatories by boys during thesame time.

Peak use of toilet rooms in the physif.21 educa-tion section occurred at the time of class breaks,but there was no evidence of overloading.

In the central academic area the girls' toiletswere not used at capacity except for a ten minuteperiod coinciding with the beginning of one lunchperiod and the ending of another. The lavatorieswere also all in use at this time. Congtstion atthe lavatories occurred and may have been due tothe fact that the mirrors are located over the lava-tories.

In the boys' toilet room in the central academic

area facilities were ample, for there was no timewhen all toilets were in use.

On an all-school basis the number of fixtureswas adequate to serve the enrollment, but inade-quacies in distribution were noticeable. The con-clusion that plumbing installation ratios must takeinto account the programming of the schooldayand the consequent peak loads was reinforced bythe study in the senior high school.

With particular reference to the use of toiletsin the schools visited, the Time-Use Study showedratios for the elementary schools that ranged from1:17 to 1:25 for the girls and from 1:49 to 1:63 forthe boys. They were found satisfactory in all in-stances except for a short waiting period for thegirls in Grant School during the peak loads.

The study showed a satisfactory ratio in thejunior high school of 1:87 for toilets for boys, and1:41 for girls, even though the principal was con-cerned that "the number of sanitary facilities isinadequate for current enrollment."

In the senior high school, there were ratios of1:46 for boys' toilets, 1:26 for girls'. There wassome waiting observed but two factors becomeclear. Some fixtures in the central toilet area couldhave been moved to the cafeteria area to eliminatethe ordinary waiting periods there. Also, the toiletfacilities in the cafeteria area were so located thatonly during each lunch period were they used; therest of the day they were unused. It is suggestedthat better planning of school areas and attendanttoilet areas could have better served the studentbody and with fewer facilities.

CODE ANALYSIS

Fifty -ore Wilding cock.; from twenty-sevenstates have been analyzed and summarized by theSchool Planning Laboratory in an attempt to as-semble the latest data on this important elementof school ilant cons iruction.

These analyses reveal a wide margin of vari-ance in their minimum requirements. Ratio re-quirements for drinking fountains range from oneunit per thirty pupils to one unit per two hundred-fif$ i pupils; the range for lavatories is one unit pertwenty pupils to one per one hundred-fifteen pu-

pils; for each toilet, one unit per fifteen pupils toone per one hundred pupils; and for each urinal,one unit per twenty pupils to one per one hun-dred.

This study of over fifty codes further revealsa conspicuous lack of concern in regard to the ac-cessibility of the major plumbing facilities, a mat-ter considered by educators to be of prime im-portance. Fewer than twenty -five per cent of thecodes analyzed require that drinking fountains beprovided on each floor and fewer than ten per cent

23

recommend that drinking fountains be installedon playgrounds, in gymnasia, and in auditoria.Fewer than ten per cent require installation oftoilets and urinals on each floor and only five percent require such accessibility to lavatories.

There is evidence that slightly more attentionhas been directed to the sanitation aspect of theplumbing program. Almost fifty per cent of thecodes require that major fixtures be constructedof vitreous china or other impervious material andprohibit installation of drinking fountains insidetoilet rooms. More than thirty per cent requirethat drinking fountains be so constructed that themouth cannot touch the nozzle and that the wastewater cannot fall back onto the nozzle. Water-proof materials are often specified for toilet roomfloors and floor type urinals are frequently pro-hibited. Usually, the elongated, extended lip, andopen front seat are required for toilet units.

The most frequently specified heights recom-mended for drinking fountains are 24", 28", 32",and 36" for primary, middle junior high, and sen-ior high school grade levels, respectively. Require-ments for toilet seat heights vary from 10"-15"for the primary and middle grade pupils with the13" requirement predominating. For the juniorand senior high schools the specifications areequally divided among 13", 14", and 15".

The initial fixture installation seldom meets thecode requirement on the fixture-per-pupil ratio.For instance, a code categorized as requiring onetoilet per each sixty pupils usually provides agraduated scale for the initial segment of enroll-ment, such as: a minimum of one fixture for thefirst fifteen, or fewer, pupils; a second fixture forthe next twenty or fraction thereof; a total of threefixtures for any number between thirty-five andsixty; and one additional fixture per each sixty pu-pils thereafter.

The ratios in practice are consistently higherthan those specified most frequently by the codes.

Summary of Findings by Fixture

All of the various sources of information gavea wide variety of information which, together withthe analysis of educational program and conclu-sions as to the needed plumbing fixtures, servesas the basis of the recommendations. This infor-

24

mation has been collated and is summarized be-low for each of the plumbing fixtures which cancommonly be expected to be useful in a school.

For this report a standardized nomenclaturehas been adopted. The terms used have the fol-lowing meanings:

Toilet rooma room having a toilet (watercloset ), a lavatory, and, in the boys' rooms,a urinal, or multiples of these fixtures.

Toileta water closet.Lavatorya wash basin, a hand washing sink,

primarily for washing of the person.

Work sinka sink for water, for washing ob-jects, located primarily adjacent to edu-cational project areas.

All other terms are self-explanatory.

TOILET ROOMS

GENERAL

There is a consensus that separate toilet roomsbe provided boys and girls from kindergartenthrough grade twelve although some school sys-tems provide but one room for kindergarten andsometimes first grade. Urinals were found to bedesirable in even the kindergarten boys' toiletrooms for better sanitation and for training pur-poses.

If dual facilities are not provided for eachkindergarten and first grade classroom, a singletoilet room is desirable for each classroom to serveboth sexes. The third alternative is that of havingdual facilities shared by two adjacent rooms.

Above grade one, centrally located toiletrooms with gang installations are favored. Con-siderations of supervision, age differences, trafficflow, and time utilization suggest optimum ratiosof one toilet room for each four to six classroomsfrom grade three to grade six, and one for eachsix to eight classrooms from grade seven to gradetwelve. In schools covering different grades andmaturity levels, it is desirable to provide separatefacilities at least for kindergarten-primary, middlegrades, junior high school, and senior high school.

Special requirements for toilet rooms havebeen found to exist in the following areas:

1. Health suite. A toilet room is necessary forthe nurse and patients.

2. Teachers' lounge. Men's and women'stoilet rooms are necessary, preferred withentrances from a corridor rather than fromthe lounge itself.

3. Auditoria, gymnasia, music centers. Theseareas require toilet rooms in the immediatevicinity for student use. If they are to beused for public performances or gatherings,it is necessary that toilet rooms be availableto the public. It is common practice to util-ize student facilities which are located con-veniently, or to make public facilities avail-able for student use during the regular in-structional day. In any case, facilities mustbe adequate to care for the peak occupancyand must be located so the rest of the schoolplant does not have to be open to the public,in order to limit custodial service.

4. Art, Industrial Arts. These two areas andothers, on occasion, are located on the pe-rimeter of the school plant and requiretoilet rooms in the immediate area withoutregard to the number already provided else-where. The particular situation would in-dicate the need for toilet rooms for teachersand also for boys and/or girls.

5. Physical Education. Toilet room installa-tions must be provided within the dressing-locker-shower areas in proportion to thepeak occupants of these departments irre-spective of other toilet room installationsin the plant.

A toilet, lavatory, and shower have been founddesirable in both the girls' and boys' physical edu-cation departments to serve the needs of theirteachers.

Gang toilet rooms at best present difficultproblems of maintenance and operations as wellas supervision, and consequently should be de-signed with these problems in mind. The roomshould be well lighted, preferably with some di-rect sunlight, in order to encourage proper usageand to discourage loitering, smoking, and "artwork." Likewise, it is easier to discover cleaning

needs and consequently to keep the room ship-shape, if lighting is adequate.

Ventilation should be accomplished by nega-tive pressure rather than by forcing fresh air intothe room, although exhaust fans may not be re-quired. Temperatures need not be kept above60° F., during the heating season.

The rooms must provide proper screening fromthe corridors, although it is not necessary thatthere be doors on the main toilet-lavatory entry;some systems have realized better supervision( and provided a degree of protection of pupilsfrom being molested) by utilizing screen bafflesrather than doors.

LOCATION AND SIZE

Toilet rooms should be no larger than neces-sary to accommodate the required fixtures andthe anticipated traffic, in order to cut down loiter-ing. A toilet stall, with doors, requires a space ap-proximately 23 feet wide, 41/2 feet long, with 5 feetof passageway running along the row of stalls.Lavatories and wall hung urinals each require ap-proximately 3 square feet of floor space. Lava-tories or washfountains should be located near theexists while urinals should be nearer the door thanthe toilets.

Mirrors should be locatednear but not directlyover lavatories in order to get fuller use of lava-tories and to cut down on hair clogging of drains;on the junior high school and senior high schoollevels, a book shelf should be provided near theentry. There should be no drinking fountains intoilet rooms. A sanitary napkin dispenser and dis-posal should be provided in girls toilet roomsabove sixth grade.

FLOORS, WALLS AND TOILET STALLS

The investigation of the advantages and dis-advantages of specific materials which are usedfor floors, walls and toilet stalls was not a majorpurpose of this study. However, the followingparagraph includes both solicited and unsolicitedcomments, oh rvations, and opinions expressedby the interviewees and respondents to the ques-tionnaires concerning materials. Satisfaction withany material would depend upon the additionalinformation necessary for a thorough understand-

ing of its relationships to other materials in termsof initial cost, maintenance costs, and the condi-tions under which it is to be used.

These surfaces should be of impervious ma-terials which will not absorb odoriferous material.Ceramic tile, marble, quarry tile, terrazzo, handplaster, metal, porcelain enamel, tempered glass,concrete plaster and transite, or combinations ofthese materials, were among the most commonmaterials observed in the study.

Although costs of high quality material wasoften cited as the major reason for elimination ofthese materials from consideration, it was a com-mon observance that these savings were soon lostin excessive maintenance costs as well as unsatis-factory performance that resulted in partial ortotal replacement.

Floors are generally of ceramic tile, quarry tile,or terrazzo, although sealing of cured groutingand of terrazzo is desirable. If concrete is used,it must be well sealed, and maintained in a sealedcondition. Walls of tile ( or other proven impervi-ous materials) are most satisfactory. Hard plasterhas been used for the complete wall surface andalso for the wall surface above a wainscoting oftile with various degrees of satisfaction. Gener-ally, the maintenance costs for plaster have soonexceeded any savings realized by the initial useof plaster rather than tile. Such materials as ag-gregate blocks are not satisfactory for toilet roomwalls, unless they are completely and competentlysealed. Light, highly reflective colors only shouldbe used in these rooms.

Toilet ( and urinal, if such are provided) stallsshould be of durable, impervious materials, pos-sessing sufficient strength to resist the abuses ofsuch nature as to be relatively easy to maintainand to clean, and at the same time to be of a lightenough color to fit into the concept of a light,clean, room. There is no justification for the elimi-nation or removal of toilet stalls in either boys' orgirls' toilet rooms.

Newer methods of using traditional materialare reducing overall installation costs. One ex-ample of these savings is the mesh type mount-ing of ceramic mosaic as well as glazed wall tile.These techniques are resulting in greater produc-tivity of labor resulting in reduced costs.

26

There is probably no perfect toilet, wall orstall material, although marble has been standard-ized on in many systems, especially for toilet stalls,and would be used by others except for the highinitial cost. Flush metal (enameled) stalls havea low initial cost, are light weight and sanitarywhen well cleaned and maintained. Porcelainenameled is easy to clean and maintain, is rela-tively light, and is sanitary. Tempered glass isimpervious, sanitary, easy to clean. Glazed or un-glazed ceramic tile can be made in designs de-sired locally, is sanitary if well maintained andcleaned, and is durable. Sealing of the groutingis required. Concrete plaster on a steel frame andwith metal Iath is durable and may be sanitaryunder careful sealing, cleaning, and maintenance;however, it requires frequentpainting and sealing.Waxed transite or similar cement based panels areeconomical, relatively easy to clean, and strong;however, rusting of frames was reported in someinstances where moisture was allowed to collectadjacent to the steel frame.

TOILET STALL DOORS

Many systems either do not provide doors onboys' toilet stalls, or remove them later because ofbreakage, difficulty of supervision, locking andcrawling under, etc. A few systems do not providedoors on either girls' or boys' toilet stalls. Manysystems do not provide doors on all boys' toiletstalls, but do provide some with doors for indi-viduals who feel the need of privacy.

Door materials include: woodeasy to repairbut requires considerable repair and maintenance;plastic covered woodsimilar to certain desk tops,easy to clean, difficult to disfigure, but will scratch;enameled metalhas a low first cost, a short life,and scratches and rusts easily; porcelain enameledsteelhas higher initial cost, but is easily cleanedand maintained.

TOILETS

BOWL

General. For proper sanitation and the avoid-ance of health hazards the toilet bowl must havea smooth impervious surface and contain no cracksor joints in which fecal meter may lodge. Gen-

eral simplicity of design is highly desirable. Asafe water seal is necessary, and there must be aminimum of fouling surfaces of any type notcovered by water which tend to become soiled.Other required qualities include: ease of clean-ing, safety, economy of water consumption, posi-tive flushing action, and a trap size equivalent tocommercial standards.

Material. Vitreous china is accepted as the mostdesirable material for toilets.

Shape. The elongated, oval bowl is more sani-tary than is the round which allows more urineto be spilled on the floor and seat than does theelongated. However, toilets for kindergartenthrough third grade are more generally of theround type.

Mount. From the standpoint of school opera-tions, general sanitation and cleanliness, there isno doubt that the wall mounted toilet is to bepreferred to the floor mounted. It is relativelyeasy to keep the floors clean, and free from trash.With a pipe or service chase, the wall mountedtoilet is easy to maintain. However, a wet mopwill not clear a 13" wall hung fixture and there-fore for toilets of this height a floor mounted bowlwould be more satisfactory.

MOUNTING HEIGHTS

Physiologically, the squatting position is moreefficient for evacuation and toilets should bemounted so that the user may use the facilityin this position. Three sizes are commonly in use:10", 13", and 15".

Although 10" toilets have been frequently in-stalled in kindergarten and the lower grades, thestudy indicates a reluctance on the part of chil-dren to use them.

TOILET SEATS

Although the integral seat of vitreous chinais easy to clean, it is not considered acceptableto users and most plumbing codes do not permitits use. Rather, a separate, hinged seat is pre-ferred. nere is almost total acceptance and de-mand for elongated, plastic or plastic covered,open front seats, less covers. Toilet seats forkindergarten through third grade of the round

27

closed front type are commonly preferred. Thereappears to be no justification for the installationof germicidal lamps in conjunction with toiletseats.

HEALTH ASPECTS

The potential role of defective or outmodedtoilet fixtures in the spread of intestinal-borne dis-ease in the school has been described in medicalliterature. Few school authorities have given care-ful thought to the reasons why a toilet of one kindor location may be inferior to another. Properlocation and sufficient quantity must be consid-ered. From the medical and public health view-points is it desirable that the school supply safe,functional toilet fixtures and that they be main-tai-ed in a state of cleanliness and functionaleffectiveness. Adminie-rative provision for theinstruction of school custodians in the propercleaning of plumbing fixtures, and especially oftoilets and drinking fountains is highly desirable.

FLUSH VALVES

For the most part, syphon jet and blow-outtoilets with flush valves are used, Flush valvesare of either the piston or diaphragm type andeither provides dependable operation.

Flush valves for toilets are operated in a num-ber of ways, i.e., handle, push button, or pedaloperated. Any of these are sometimes found withthe flush valve concealed behind the wall. Whererequired, seat operated, flushing toilets were inuse to eliminate the problems created by pupilswho forget to flush them.

Flush valves equipped with a non-hold-openfeature prevent waste of water and, when so speci-fied, the valve will complete its flushing cycle andshut off automatically. With this type of valvethese is no chance of accidentally or even -aa-liciously propping the valve handle in open posi-tion to cause the water to run continuously. Flushvalves correctly specified offer protection againstvandalism, tampering, and back syphonage.

When fixtures are attached to the wall of an ad-jacent classroom or office, "quiet-acting" toiletswith "quiet" flush valves are desirable.

Areas of low water pressure require specialconsideration.

Desirable Ratios:

Elementary SecondaryBoys: max. 1:20 min. 1:40 max. 1:30 min. 1:50Girls: max. 1:15 min. 1:35 max. 1:20 min. 1:40

URINALS

GENERAL

As in the case with toilet bowls and other fix-tures, it is universally accepted that urinals shouldbe of smooth, impervious materials. Objection-able odors in toilet rooms often result from theabsorption of urine in porous surfaces. The fix-ture, and the mounting, should minimize spillageof urine onto the floor or other surfaces, andshould prevent splashing the user.

There should be a minimum of fouling sur-faces all of which should be cleaned by the flush-ing action. There should be no concealed foulingsurfaces, and the entire fixture should be readilycleaned. Outlets and traps must be of sufficientsize to handle the volumes of water required forthorough flushing.

In the toilet room, the urinals are usually lo-cated nearer the floor than the toilet.

In many schools there is an installation of aurinal for boys in the lower elementary grades.Wall-hung fixtures are approximately 18" fromfloor level to the lip of the urinal. Urinals in themiddle elementary glades are mounted 20" fromlip to floor.

In both junior and senior high schools urinalsare usually installed in, or in close proximity to,the following areas: Multi-use, auditorium, eachsix- to eight-classrooms, administrative area, phys-ical education, music and/or little theater, indus-trial arts, and maintenance and operations area.

MATERIALS

One-piece vitreous china or duraclay are themost satisfactory fixture materials. There waslittle justification found for the installation ofmetal, tile, or slate urinals in a school, nor isthere justification for continuous wall, or floortrough urinals.

MOUNTING

in schools, there is little said in their favor forgeneral boys' room installation. Actual practiceis to provide either stall or wall-hung urinals. Thestall urinal poses no height problems and presum-ably works as well for small boys as for big boys.However, they are less sanitary than the wall-hung models, tend to splash the user, and are moreapt to serve as catch-alls for trash.

Wall mounted urinals must be mounted at theproper heights for their intended users. Theyshould have an extended front lip to minimizefloor soiling and splashing of shoes and clothing.

FLUSH VALVES

User operated flush valves, similar to those fortoilets, are most often installed; however, boysapparently do not flush urinals after use as regu-larly as they flush toilets. Where this conditionprevails, an active educational program, teachingthe need for sanitation in the toilet room, has oftengained the desired co-operation and result.

Hand operation can be entirely eliminatedwith the use of motor operated flush valves. Thesecan be set to flush once every five minutes throughheavy use periods and only once each hourthrough the night. Electric clock timers are avail-ableor the school programming system can beused accurately to control these flushing cycles.Delayed door switches are also available whichoperate the flush valves only as the toilet roomdoor is opened. However, electrically operatedurinal valves are expensive and roughly can befrom two to three fillies the cost of hand operatedvalves.

Foot operated flush valves are sometimes em-ployed, but often these too are not operated witheach use of the fixture.

Flush tanks are probably the cheapest to in-stall, but since the operating cycle is continuousnight and day, they waste large quantities ofv ter. In any given situation, however, the costof the water wasted should be weighed against theadditional expense of installing the motor oper-ated flush valve.

2

GIRLS URINALS

Urinals for girls have only recently been in-Although pedestal urinals are sometimes used stalled and reaction to them is mixed. Instruction

28

in their proper use has been found necessary.They are probably more sanitary, save some time,and require fewer fixtures. It may be that therewould be greater acceptability were the fixturesmanufactured in "juvenile-heights."

HEALTH ASPECTS

From the health viewpoint, urinals have nospecial hazards but they should be provided insufficient numbers and in proper locations so thatthey are readily available and should be kept in asanitary condition. There is some possibility thatsplash droplets may contain infectious organisms,but no medical research on this exists and little orno evidence is found in medical practice that theurinal is a health hazard. At least no medical re-ports of the spread of communicable diseaseamong school children via the urinal are known.

Desirable Ratios:

Elementary SecondaryBoys: max. 1:20 min. 1:30 max. 1:20 min. 1:30Girls: insufficient data insufficient data

LAVATORIES

GENERAL

The term "lavatory" is used as a synonym for"wash basin" and "handwashing sink."

It is accepted that ample provision be madefor all children to be able to wash their hands asneeded, and especially after toileting and prior toeating. This implies operable controls, usableheights, the right numbers, and properly tem-pered water. Other common problems for 'Drserious consideration are those of stream . .

ment and control, construction of materials, _ladmethods of mounting the fixtures.

LOCATION

Lavatories are commonly located in toiletrooms and should be installed near the entranceas an "invitation to wash up." They should beseparated from toilets by a partition or screen.It is desirable that individual lavatories not beseparated from other, like fixtures by stalls, par-titions, or other screening devices.

Supplementary lavatories are required in the

29

cafeteria or adjoining areas in sufficient quanti-ties to accommodate pre-eating handwashingneeds. Although handwashing facilities are oftenlocated within the lunchroom proper or in thecorridors immediately adjacent, some systemshave experienced satisfactory results from con-veniently located gang installations. Some sys-tems have experienced marked success with cor-ridor installations, while other comment thatsuch installations are a bottleneck. In any event,pre-eating handwashing is an integral part ofboth behavioral health and acceptable social con-duct.

CONTROLS

Satisfactory controls require a minimum ofmaintenance and replacement. They must bemade as vandal-proof as possible. Both the ad-justment and the faucet handle ( if a handle isused) should be keyed rather than simple screwcontrolled ( Allen, Phillips, or similar screws, lockshield, or square shank). It is desirable to pro-vide fixtures which will permit washing in runningwater, which do not require closing by hand afterthe hands are washed, and which do not wastewater. This may be accomplished by the use offloor, foot operated valves which supply temperedwater to a gooseneck spray.

Many school districts have provided foot con-trols in an attempt to meet these requirements,but one disadvantage is the high installation cost.Push-down timing devices are often provided, butthey are sometimes difficult for small children tooperate. Flush valves are occasionally used toprovide a timed flow of water although installa-tion costs are a factor. The non-automatic, turn-on-shut-off, faucet is used but the children oftendo not shut it off, and also must handle the con-trols after washing. The self-closing (spring ten-sion) faucet is often favored by operations peoplebut is not approved by either health people orteachers, since it does not permit washing in asteady stream of water. The kinds of controlsinstalled in a school will represent a compromiseof one or more of the four points, but any compro-mise should be within the framework of needs tobe served rather than from a purely cost stand-point. If the controls which are installed are oper-

able by the size child involv ..cl, the order ofpreference, from a purely functional standpoint,is the order in which they were discussed, viz.,foot controlled, easily operated timing devices,standard shut-off, and self-closing but non-timing.Screens are recommended at the basin drain in lieuof waste plugs to permit washing in runningwater.

MATERIALS

Vitreous china and stainless steel are the easi-est to clean, the most sanitary, and are generallyconsidered the best materials for lavatoriza. How-ever, initial cost, and breakage of vitreous chinawhere vandalism is a problem are factors men-tioned on the questionnaires and in the inter-views.

Enameled cast iron basins are subject to sur-face cracking and breakage. However, becauseof great tensile strength, they have uses in shopand service areas where safety is a factor.

Steel enameled lavatories are acid resistantbut generally have been found not to possess theruggedness required for general school installa-tions.

MOUNTS

Wall mounting is preferred since there is nofloor obstruction, but to insure rigidity care mustbe taken that the unit is properly installed. Con-cealed chair-carrier mounts are the most satis-factory wall mount, since brackets, etc., presentdifficult cleaning spaces.

Pedestal mounts provide rigidity and firmness,but are difficult to clean and service. The trendis away from pedestal mounting.

Vanity and cabinet type mounts have no placein general toilet-room spaces in school plant con-struction because of high cost and cleaning diffi-culty. Such installations are often made, how-ever, in the family living areas of homemakingsuites and in teachers' lounges.

MOUNTING HEIGHTS

All school plumbing fixtures as any otherequipment and furniture, must be the size thatbest serves the users. Lavatories should be in-stalled so that the bottom of the basin can be

30

touched from a standing position and with4,hearms extended at 45 degrees.

WATER TEMPERATURE

Some school systems provide only cold water.This practice is not recommended by authoritiesin the field. Tempered water ( up to 115 de-grees F.) is advised in all general use lavatories.

WASH FOUNTAINS

The wash fountain has wide usage particularlyin industrial arts shops, corridor installations ad-jacent to the cafeteria, and in group toilet rooms.The basic design with foot control permits wash-ing in running water, and, by the elimination ofhand controls, results in better sanitation.

HEALTH ASPECTS

Good lavatories for use after children havebeen to the toilet are indispensable. Researchand experience in medicine and surgery have longsince proven the value of hand washing with soapand water in the prevention of intestinal and otherdiseases.

Lavatories located in close proximity to thetoilets encourage post-toilet hand washing. Worksinks and lavatories that are installed at a heightwhich permits the hands to be washed at a forty-five degree angle from the body are most con-ducive to comfortable use by pupils and suchfactors should be taken into account.

Desirable Ratios:

Elementary SecondaryBoys: max. 1:25 min. 1:45 max. 1:30 min. 1:50Girls: max. 1:25 min. 1:45 max. 1:30 min. 1:50

WORK SINKS

GENERAL

Although there are a great many differentkinds of specialized sinks required for certainspecialized programs ( from cosmetology to bas-ketry ), discussion here will be concerned onlywith the "usual" school practice. Formerly, worksinks were provided only in some of the specialareas such as homemaking and science, but todaythey are being used in many of the regular class-rooms.

Work sinks are desirable in all elementaryschool classrooms, core and special area class-rooms at the junior high school level, and forspecial areas and many social studies and somelanguage arts areas of the senior high school.

Classroom work sinks are used as a source ofwater, as a place to wash equipment and supplies,and for handwashing after painting or similaractivities. It is desirable to have the area sur-rounding the sink covered with ceramic tile orlaminated plastic with the same material for thesplash board. The work sink should not, however,be considered as a substitute for the lavatory foreither post-toileting or pre-eating handwashing.Tempered water is generally considered essential.

Work sinks need to be so designed and con-structed that thorough cleaning is readily accom-plished. Fittings of a readily cleanable type andmaterial, and readily accessible to and operableby the users are considered essential.

MOUNTING

Most sinks are mounted on work and storagecabinets. Those used primarily for washing equip-ment often have an integral back, while those usedas a source of water and also for washing purposesmay be flush mounted to an impervious workingsurface. Handwashing sinks, however, are usu-ally wall mounted, but for the purpose of thisdiscussion are considered as lavatories rather thansinks.

MATERIALS

General use sinks for installation in regularclassrooms, workrooms, and special areas otherthan science, with its special resistive require-ments, are usually enameled cast iron, enameledsteel, vitreous china, or stainless steel.

All types of plumbing fixtures, particularlysinks, depend in part on companion materials forcomplete sanitation. As many teachers havepointed out, both the aesthetic and practical quali-ties of the plumbing fixtures are enhanced by theinstallation of ceramic tile, laminated plastics, orother impervious materials. Two of the impor-tant contributing factors of companion materials,such as tile, are a choice of color with almost limit-less design and long-term usage with low cost

31

maintenance. Many tiles companies have workedout analogues, complimentary and neutral colorswith plumbing manufacturers.

CUSTODIAL SINKS

Practice has been to provide custodial roomswith a service sink of enameled cast iron, vitreouschina, or duraclay, protected by a rim guard andserved with both hot and cold water. Such instal-lations provide flexibility of use, but do not pre-sent the obvious disadvantage of requiring somelifting of mop buckets. The mop sink, with a lipnot more than 10" to 12" above floor level, andhot and cold water ( vacuum breaker protected)supply with hose bibb located in wall above sinkat suitable height has been reported as desirable.Mop sinks may be porcelain enameled, terrazzo,tile, concrete, or similar materials. The disad-vantage of mop sinks is the difficulty of gainingaccess to traps.

WORK SINKS IN SPECIAL AREAS

Art. For an all-purpose art laboratory, twopeninsula or island work sinks are desirable inaddition to a perimeter, double-compartment sinkfor soaking basketry materials. If water solublepaints, clays, and similar materials are used, itis desirable to provide special clay traps. Waterflow to art room sinks must be sufficient to washaway sediment.Homemaking. It is an accepted practice toprovide a variety of equipment in the homemak-ing department in which case there would beboth single and double compartment sinks, cabi-nets installed, and the most popular type beingenameled cast iron.

A general purpose classroom sink is neededin the clothing area.Industrial Arts. Handwashing facilities kitentake the form of wash sinks or wash fountains.Wash sinks are usually of porcelain enameled castiron or vitreous china, wall mounted. Wall foun-tains are of precast stone, marble, or stainless steel.Hot ( 120 F.) and cold water are both needed,especially in any situation where the hands maybecome extremely soiled and greasy.Music. The office or workroom requires a worksink as a source of water and as a place to wash

small parts ( and hands) during minor instrumentrepair. Both a high velocity jet and a standardfaucet may be needed, depending upon the ex-tent of repair work anticipated.Science. In programs dealing with variouscaustics and acids, both sinks and work spacesmust be acid-resistant, durable and long-lived,easily cleaned, and attractive. Soapstone, al-though it is hard, brittle, and costly, is widelyused. Other materials which work well undercareful use and proper maintenance include:Acid-resisting enameled cast km and enameledsteel, ceramic tile, asbestos-cement substances,sealed slate, stainless steel, and ceramic products.

The use of small amounts of dilute solutions ofcorrosive chemicals permits the use of extra heavycast iron soil pipe for both waste and vents. Theuse of large amounts of concentrated chemicalsrequires the use of a high silicon content acid-resisting pipe. The initial cost of a high siliconcontent soil pipe must be considered, but, if con-centrated acids are used, the cost would be morethan offset by the necessary replacement of regu-lar cast iron soil pipe.

These lines run independently to the mainbuilding drain where waste from other portionsof the building will dilute them sufficiently torender them relatively harmless to the drainagesystem. Extra heavy welded lead or duriron trapsare usually used for fixture connections on theseinstallations.Workrooms. Sinks are needed in all workroomsprovided for clerical personnel and teachers, alsoin business education, journalism, and libraryareas. In order to simplify maintenance, it is de-sirable I standardize this equipment by install-ing the same kinds of sinks in both the workroomsand classrooms. These should provide both tem-pered and cold water. In a duplication space, ifwater soluble inks are used on stencils which arewashed, a regular service sink is of more valuethan a countertop work sink.

DRINKING FOUNTAINS

GENERAL

There is a sound physiological basis for theprovision of drinking fountains in schools. It is

important that children drink an adequate supplyof water for the maintenance of body fluids andelectrolyte balance, as well as for the preventionof constipation and alleviation of thirst. There isalso an obligation on the part of the school au-thorities to provide water without the hazards oftransmission of saliva-borne diseases. The drink-ing fountain should be so designed that the mouthcannot touch the water outlet and that water,after touching the lips of a user, cannot fall backon the orifice or become mixed with drinkingwater. Cross-connection and back-siphons mustbe prevented.

Present hard surface materials used for drink-ing fountains contribute to accidents, particularlyat the nozzle and the nozzle cover, involving theteeth, lips and face. Uncovered outdoor drinkingfountains collect dust and their use by animalsand birds is often observed.

In the interests of convenience, supervision,and efficient time use, drinking fountains are de-sired by teachers and principals in classroomsfrom kindergarten through grade six. Theyshould be in the main classroom, not in the toiletroom, and located away from doors and othertraffic lanes. For both sanitation and safety, drink.ing fountains should not be attached to or be anintegral part of the work sink. They should beinstalled with water pressure regulators andguards to minimize squirting of water.

Drinking fountains are not requested for jun-ior and senior high classrooms although improveddesign may make them desirable in junior highcore curriculum programs. Fountains for thesegrade levels should be in the corridors, recessed,and away from stairs and corners. Numbersshould be sufficient to satisfy the peak needswhich can be determined only by an examinationof the local school program.

It is generally requested that drinking foun-tains he provided for those school areas whichare near the plant perimeter and thus not con-venient to drinking fountains, for those areaswhere the nature of the activities promotes waterconsumption, and for those areas which servepeople gathered for spectator and participatoryactivities. Among these areas may be includedoral arts, music, homemaking, industrial arts, li-

brary, auditoria and multi-use rooms, cafeteria,physical education, and gymnasia.

MOUNTS

Pedestal fountains are often used for play-ground installations but are not readily adaptablefor interior use.

Wall mounted single, two, three, etc.placeinstallations are most generally acceptable for in-terior corridor, multi-use, foyer, and separateclassroom usage. The mounting heights can beadjusted to the needs of the users.

Water chillers and coolers are often used inareas of extreme heat. Some schools provide acentral chiller ( pipe-chase or closet location )which serves "regular" wall mounted drinkingfountains.

MOUNTING HEIGHTS ( TO NOZZLE TOP )

Practice indicates desirable mounting heightsat 24" for kindergarten to grade 3, 28" for grades4 to 6, and 34" from grades seven to twelve.

Desirable Ratios:

Pupils Elementary Secondary(Boys& girls) max. 1:30 min. 1:45 max. 1:40 min. 1 :65

SHOWERS

GENERAL

It was found that primarily, school shower in-stallations are made to serve physical educationprograms, although in some schools, elementaryas well as secondary, installations are made toserve students from low socio-economic areas whohave no bathing facilities at home. The basic pur-pose in either situation is personal washing. Thetotal installation must be such as to encouragestudent usage. This implies general cleanlinessof the shower room, adequate space for traffic inand out, some provision for individual control ofboth temperature and flow and an adequate flowof water. "Rain rooms" and "progressive lanes"are generally disliked by both boys and girls forordinary showering purposes, although showerlanes fill a need in conjunction with swimmingpools.

33

Showers are generally provided for grades 7-9when such grades are a part of a junior highschool, or when grades 7-8 are organized as aseparate school. However, when the seventh andeighth grades are a part of the K-8 or 1-8 schoolthese facilities are often not provided, althoughphysical education teachers consider showeringessential following the kinds of activities engagedin by this age group in their classes.

Showers are considered standard equipmentfor senior high schools sponsoring physical edu-cation programs or athletic teams. Boys' showersare universally of the group type.

The use of group showers for girls is gainingmore acceptance, although most schools provid-ing them also provide a limited mr giber of indi-vidual shower stalls or a modified partition typewith a central drain. In Los Angeles the use ofthe term "group showers" instead of "gang show-ers" has helped to remove resistance by boys aswell as girls to the open shower room.

CONTROLS

Every school shower installation requires posi-tive temperature control protection. Temperedwater, only, should be admitted to the hot waterlines at a generally accepted maximum tempera-ture of 120 F., and some districts limit the maxi-mum to 105 F. Master temperature controls re-quire security against tampering.

The four types of shower controls in use areas follows:

A. Separate hot and cold water controls pro-vided at each shower head. With this method amaster thermostatic control is used to provide safehot water, not over 120 F.

B. A single mixing valve at each shower head.The safest and most efficient of this type are ther-mostatic with a volume regulator built in.

C. A master thermostatic control (panel orcabinet) mixin& both the hot and cold water andoperated by a shower room attendant.

D. Flush valve operated showers suppliedwith pretempered water. The flush valves are setto run for 15 to 20 seconds and then shut off.These save water during the shower as well asprevent the shower being left on.

Control valves for both junior and senior high

schools are appropriately located at about 45"above floor level.

SHOWER ROOM DRAINS

From the standpoint of health, it is essentialthat the drains be so located that the soiled waterfrom one bather does not flow into an area occu-pied by another bather, although this is primarilyan engineering and architectural problem ratherthan a fixture problem. From a safety standpoint,curbs should be limited, and no-slip floors in-stalled. Perimeter gutters help keep water off thecenter floor. Although they are subject to dam-ming, this can be controlled by the use of domedscreens.

SHOWER HEADS

The most desired shower heads are self-clean-ing, vandal-resistant, and adjustable. Automati-cally self-cleaning shower heads are now beingspecified to eliminate maintenance costs and pro-vide a better shower spray. The use of flow regu-lators on each shower head spreads the loadevenly and reduces water consumption. For themost part, maintenance and operations people de-sire shower heads which are vandal-resistant, andself-cleaning, while school personnel who workwith students are concerned with adjustableheads. These general requirements are reflectedin practice, in that those who place the highestpriority on vandal-resistance tend to specify somesort of fixed, institutional or prison-type head, de-spite the fact that it provides no adjustment andis difficult to remove for cleaning. Heads are avail-able which incorporate all three characteristics.A properly designed spray pattern overcomes thenecesssity of adjustable heads.

It is desirable that shower rooms having headson opposite walls be at least 10 wide.

MOUNTING HEIGHTS

It has been found that both boys and girls takeshowers more willingly if the shower heads aremounted so that it is possible to shower without

getting the hair wet. Generally, the shower headsshould be mounted so that the stream hits at aboutshoulder height. Mounting heights may be slight-ly greater if the stream may be angled so that itis at shoulder height a few feet away. However,dependance on moving away from high mountedheads to adjust stream height is more demandingof shower room space.

Aside from "rain rooms," actual mountingheights for shower lo vary in general practicefrom 5'0" to 6'0" for boyd, and for girls from 4'6"to 5'6".

It is fairly common practice to mount showerheads at different heights within a single gangshower room, in order to accommodate bothshorter and taller students. Actual measurementof youngsters in specific communities may indi-cate slightly different desirable mounting heights;the important point is that shoulder height, plusabout two inches, appears to be the most satis-factory : ieight from the floor to the bottom of theshower head. A more recent approach to adjust-able heads and different mounting heights is thedevelopment of shower heads with a proper pat-tern which spray the water in a pre-determinedpattern with a minimum of splashing and makeadjustable heads and mounting height of less con-cern.

RATIOS

It is the consensus that the number of showerheads required in any physical education installa-tion is based on the kind of educational programto be served ( showering after an archery sessionmay not be as essential as showering after gym-nastics or soccer ), the numbers of students in peakclasses who will be expected to shower, and theamount of time allocated for showering and dress-ing prior to next classes. In situations whereshowering-dressing time is limited, one showerfor each three users seems to be reasonable al-though lesser ratios are sometimes found ( 1:4,1:5, 1:6). The lesser ratios usually result in wait-ing and improper showering for some users.

NEED FOR REHABILITATION OF EXISTING SCHOOL PLANTS

Over the years great changes and improve-ments have been brought about in all areas, in-

eluding school buildings. Since World War I thetrend has been toward the elimination of base-

34

nients and belfries, cutting down on the non-func-tional areas, and spending more time planningfrom within.

The end results have been encouraging andtoday we have modern functional school plantsthat are the result of architectural interpretationsof the educational needs of the school districtsthat are providing housing needs for their chil-dren and youth.

In the process of collecting data for this studyit became apparent that in the area of schoolplumbing fixtures the good old days, after all,were not as good as we sometimes nostalgicallyrecall. In addition it is evident from the commentsmade in questionnaire responses that m uch re-habilitation is needed throughout the country inthe area of plumbing fixtures.

Fifty-nine per cent of the questionnaires an-swered by teachers indicated a need for addi-tional fixtures, or stated that those in use weremechanically imperfect, or obsolete and should bereplaced with modern equipment. In many cases,by balancing out the system, more fixtures couldhave been installed using the same water supplypiping.

"Toilet facilities in the teachers' rooms shouldbe increased, also modernized so that we don'tget a shower bath every time we enter the room."

"I think decent facilities should be providedfor the faculty. There are two toilets for 58women teachers."

"Aeditional showers that will work areneeded."

Although only a few statements have beenpicked at random from the questionnaires, they

are indicative of the type of comment that wascommonly made by teachers who were workingin older buildings.

These comments were fairly evenly distrib-uted throughout elementary, junior high, andsenior high schools.

Some typical statements taken from the ques-tionnaires are listed below:

"We need more modern plumbing fixtures inthe boys' toilets."

"The plumbing fixtures in the teachers' roomneed to be replaced."

"Water runs in some of the toilets almost con-stantly."

"Modem toilets that will readily flush and donot drip water from overhead box."

"More modern controls at basin."These comments were not solicited, which

shows even more that these unsatisfactory con-ditions are a deferent to the efficiency and well-being of the faculty members and have an im-pact on the health and educational progress ofthe children.

The comments are not limited to toilets butalso include work basins, work sinks, urinals,showers, drinking fountains, and other fixtures.

Much concern was also evidenced as to thelocation of all installations. This causes the sur-vey staff to be concerned about replacing theseunits before a thorough study of the functionalaspects have been made.

The evidence is very strong that in many olderschool buildings obsolete and malfunctioningplumbing fixtures are a definite handicap to agood educational program.

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Recommendations

GENERAL

This study has been made to determine thekinds, numbers, sizes and locations of the plumb-ing fixtures required to meet the needs of childrenin a modern program of education. It is based onthe premise that the only justification for the in-stallation of plumbing fixtures in school buildingslies in their contribution to the education, health,and welfare of children. The data which havebeen presented and the conclusions and recom-mendations which follow should be of utility toedccational and architectural planners, and toplumbing fixture manufacturers and installers, aswell as those engaged in related industries.

The data have been gathered from a widevariety of sources by a variety of methods, overan eighteen month period. Questionnaires andinterviews have been used, building and plumb-ing codes analyzed, and a time-use study made.Just as important has been an analysis of educa-tional programs to determine plurehing fixturesneeds. The conclusions thus depenu on the factsgathered and on the knowledge and opinions notonly of the staff of the School Planning Labora-tory and other members of the Faculty of theSchool of Education, Stanford University, butalso on the knowledge and opinions of thousandsof school personnel, and of architects, planners,and consultants.

One other source of data on which recom-mendations have been based has hot been previ-ously mentioned. This is the handbook, BasicBody Measurement of School Age Children, pre-pared by W. Edgar Martin and issued by the U.S.Department of Health, Education and Welfare,Office of Education. These basic data have beenused to supplement the calculations made onmany of the dimensions recommended in this re-

36

port. Other source material consulted in the studyis listed in the bibliography.

By a process of synthesis and analysis the sur-vey staff has arrived at a series of conclusions re-garding answers to the questions originally posed.These conclusions, stated as recommendations arepresented here. The recommendations, in theopinion of the survey staff, should, if followed,result in a satisfactory working situation educa-tionally.

One fixture : pupil ratio cannot be recom-mended for any one fixture, either for boys orgirls. This is true at both the elementary andsecondary levels. The data is very conflictingwhen existing, desirable, and code ratios for thesame type fixtures are examined at the same gradelevels. The factors which are basic to the con-flicts are: location of the facilities in the build-ings, ease or difficulty of supervision, and theschool program. Consequently, it may be pos-sible to justify ,atio of 1:20 for girls' toilets andone of 1:30 for boys' toilets in three story build-ings where all the toilets are in the basement andwhere the program makes it necessary for all ofthe pupils to make use of the toilet facilities atthe same time.

The fixture : pupil ratios are designed to carefor the peak loads. Any change in location or inprogram that permits a lessening of the peak loadswill result in fewer fixtures per pupil being nec-essary.

The fixture : pupil ratios recommended in thefollowing text are mean ratios derived from themaximum ratios that could be necessary in themost unsatisfactory schoolhouse environment andthe minimum ratios that would be possible withoptimum educational facilities. These maximum

and minimum fixture : pupil ratios have beennoted in Section II, Findings, under each fixturediscussed. In each case, the provisions for initialsegment enrollments, included at the end of thesection, should be considered the base upon which

the appropriate ratio is applied. Additional infor-mation pertaining to the determination of thedesirable ratios is given in Section II under thetitles: "Questionnaire to Teachers," "The Time-Use Study," and "Code Analysis."

TOILET ROOMS

GENERAL

Separate facilities should be provided for boysand for girls in the kindergarten and grades onethrough twelve.

Separate facilities should be provided for thekindergarten and primary grades, as well as forthe middle, junior high, and senior high schoolgrades.

Centrally located gang or group installationsshould be provided for grades above grade one.

Kindergarten and grade one ( K-1) shouldhave toilet rooms within the self-contained class-rooms.

Grades two to six (2-6) should have one boys'toilet room and one girls' toilet room for each fourto six classrooms.

Grades seven to twelve ( 7-12 ) should haveone boys' toilet room and one girls' toilet roomfor each six to eight classrooms.

Separate facilities should be located in the:

Health Suite

TOILETS

Bowls

Smooth impervious glazed surface withoutcracks or joints.Safe water seal.Vitreous china, acid proof finish.Round shaped for grades K-3.

Elongated oval bowl for grades above the thirdgrade.Positive flushing action.Siphon-jet and blow-out toilets with flushvalves.

Trap size equivalent to commercial standards.Quiet type fixtures for rooms adjacent to prin-cipal's office, teachers' room, or classroom.

37

Auditoria, gymnasia, and music centers

Art and Industrial Arts areas

Physical Education area

Teachers' Loungeseparate facilities formen and womenadjacent to but not open-ing on lounge.

Well lighted.

Proper screening from the corridors.

Mirrors located near but not directly over lava-tories.

Sanitary napkin dispenser and disposal in girls'toilet rooms above the sixth grade.

Walls and floors of impervious materials; light,highly reflective colors.

Doors on some stalls.

Doors of baked enameled steel or equivalent.Book racks. in high schools.

Special

Seats

Separate, hinged seat.

Plastic, or plastic covered, elongated openfront seats, less covers, for grades above thethird grade.

Plastic, or plastic covered, round closed fronttype, less covers, for grades K-3. Open-frontseats are available when desired.

Flush Valves

Non-hold-open flush valves of either thepiston or diaphragm type.

"Quiet" flush valves and bowls especiallywhen the wall to which the fixtures are at-

tached is adjacent to a classroom, teachers'room, or office.

Concealed flush valves or if the exposed type,appropriately designed to be vandal-resistant.

Special Requirements

For specific operations requiring minimumwater consumption pressure tank installationsare often desirable.

Health Aspects

Number and location of fixtures determinedin light of the size and distribution of thepopulation served.

Mounts

Floor mounted, 13" bowls for grades K-3.

Wall mounted, 15" bowls for grades 4-12.

Although 10" bowls are probably somewhatbetter physiologically for five and six-year-olds, pupil and parent opposition is such asto outweigh this advantage.

Toilet-Fixture-Student Ratios

Elementary boys (K-6) 1:30

Elementary girls (K-6) 1:25

Junior and Senior High boys (7-12) 1:40

Junior and Senior High girls (7-12) 1:30

URINALS

General

Urinals in boys' rooms from kindergartenthrough grade twelve.Urinals nearer door than the toilets in toiletroom.

Smooth impervious material.Minimum fouling surfaces.Vitreous china, acid proof finish.Wall-hung with extended lip.Motor operated flush 'valves or equal. Toavoid vandalism these should be either con-cealed or mounted high above the fixture.In any situation where water supply is not aserious problem, urinal tanks may be the most

The provision of two toilet rooms for eachkindergarten and first grade classroom resultsin higher ratios in the elementary grades.

economic, I installation. Girls' urinals gain-ing acceitance (insufficient data for recom-mendatons. )

Mounting Heights

Maximum recommended from lip to floor:

Primary grades (K-3) 18"Middle grades (4-6) 20"

Junior High School grades (7-9) 22"

Senior High School grades (10-12) 24"

Urinal-Fixture-Student Ratios

Elementary boys (K-6) 1:25

Junior and Senior High boys (7-12) 1:25

WORK SINKS

General

Provide: In all elementary school classrooms.In core and special area classrooms in theJunior High School grades (listed below).In special areas and some Social Studies andLanguage Arts areas of the Senior HighSchool.

Special

ART

Perimeter, double-compartment sink.Two peninsula or island sinks.

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Special clay tarsplaster interceptor.Water mixing supply fixture.

HOMEMAKING

Single- and double-compartment sinks.Cabinet installed.Classroom sink in clothing area.Water making supply fixture.

INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Porcelain enameled cast iron (A.R.) vitreous

china, precast stone or marble, stainless steel,or porcelain enameled steel.Hot (120 degree) and cold water-thermo-static.

MUSIC

High velocity jet and standard faucet on worksink for washing musical instruments.

SCIENCE

Work spaces and sinks acid-resistant (A.R.)and durable traps, drains, and vents (impervi-ous and A.R.) extend from sink to waste line.

WORKROOMS

Provide for nonclassified personnel and teach-ers.

Provide facilities for Business Education,Journalism, and Library areas.

Water Temperature

Tempered water (up to 115 degrees) recom-mended for all general use work sinks.Water mixing supply fixture.

Mounting Heights

From rim to floor:*Kindergarten (if used by children) 24"

Primary grades (1-3) 27"Middle grades (4-6) 27"



* These heights are based on an eight inchdepth in the bowl. Children in the various agegroups should be able, with these mountingheights, to reach and work at the bottom of thebowl with arms at a comfortable 45 degree angle.

DRINKING FOUNTAINS

General

Need for better sanitation and safety design.

Not to be a part of work or wash sink-sepa-rate fixture.

In classrooms, kindergarten through gradethree, away from doors and other traffic lanes.

From junior and senior high, in corridors, re-cessed, away from stairs and corners.

Need for constant pressure at fixture.

In numbers to meet peak needs.

In areas near plant perimeter.

In areas of strenuous activities.

In areas of student and public gatherings.

Vandal proof fittings.

Water chillers and coolers in areas of ex-treme heat.Freeze-proof mechanical parts in areas wherefreezing is a problem.

Mounting Heights

Maximum recommended to nozzle top:Primary grades (K-3) 24"

Middle grades (4-6) 28"



Fixture-student Ratios ..

Elementary (K-6) 1:40Secondary (7-12) 1:50

In general, a minimum of two drinking foun-tains per floor is recommended.

SHOWERS

Grades K-6

Provide in elementary schools for studentshaving no or inadequate home bathing fa-cilities.

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Grades 7-12

Gang installations for boys.Combined gang and individually partitionedinstallations for girls.

Mixing valves or equivalent operation-ther-mostatic.

Control valves 45" above floor level.

Safety Features

Limited curbs.Non-slip floors.Positive water temperature control protec-tion-thermostatic.

Shower Heads

Self cleaning, vandal resistant, and with aproperly designed spray pattern to overcome

the necessity for adjustable heads. Institu-tional types offer best protection against van.dalism.

Mounting Heights

Junior High School grades, boysjunior High School grades, girlsSenior High School grades, boysSenior High School grades, girls

Fixture-Student Ratios

In physical education installationsIn other areas as needed.

LAVATORIES AND WASH FOUNTAINS

General

Facilities in or near cafeteria.In toilet rooms near entrance.In shops and crafts rooms.In Journalism and Special Areas of BusinessEducation.Designed so that hands are washed in runningwater; open waste strainer.Porcelain enameled cast iron, enameled steel,or stainless steel, precast stone or marblewhere great tensile strength is required ( shopareas and service areas ).

Controls

In order of preference:1. Foot controls.2. Easily operated timing devices.3. Standard shut-off.4. Self-closing but non-timing.

Water Temperature

Tempered water-thermostatic (up to 115degrees F.) at all general use lavatories.

56"

60"56"

1:3

Mounts

Concealed chair-carrier.Concealed wall hung.Vanity and cabinet type in family and home-making areas.

Mounting Heights

From rim to floor: *Kindergarten and grade one ( 1) 24"Grades two and three (2 and 3) 27"Middle grades (4-6) 27"Junior High School grades (7-9) 31"Senior High School grades (10-12) 31"

* These heights are based on a basin depth ofsix inches and should make it possible for pupilsto reach the bottom of the bowl with arms at acomfortable 45 degree angle.

Fixture-Student Ratios

Elementary boys (K-6) 1:35Elementary girls (K-6) 1:35Junior and Senior High boys (7-12) 1:40Junior and Senior High girls (7-12) 1:40

PROVISIONS FOR INITIAL SEGMENT ENROLLMENTS

Lava- DrinkingToilets Urinals tories Fountains

15 or Boys 1 1 1 1

fewer Girls 2 1

16-35 Boys 2 2 2 2Girls 3 2

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ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. The water provided for school use shouldbe analyzed to determine its need for treatmentin combating the maintenance problems whichmay be expected from an untreated supply, i.e.,staining of lavatories due to iron or turbidity inthe water and lime scale formation which clogspipes and causes malfunctions of the valve op-erating equipment.

2. Conservation of water is of increasing im-portance in most school areas. Methods of con-trolling the flow of water and also the water pres-sure should be investigated to deten. .ne theireffectiveness in conserving water while maintain-ing the efficiency of the fixtures.

Thermostatic controls contribute to waterconservation and the efficiency of the fixture butinvolve consideration of a minimum water pres-sure as well as the water temperatures.

Water pressure at drinking fountains is acommon problem which needs consideration.

The pressure here often varies with the frequencyof use of the other plumbing fixtures and makesthe drinking fountains inoperable, generally whenthey would be most used.

3. Although drainage and vent piping has notbeen generally included in computing the num-ber and placement of plumbing fixtures, it doesassume considerable importance in the mainte-nance program during the life of a building. Thedrainage and vent piping in a building and in theground under the building is inaccessible exceptat great expense and so must be of the best qual-ity to reduce major repairs to a minimum. Castiron soil pipe will meet the requirements of alllocal plumbing and building codes and is gen-erally considered the best drainage and vent pipematerial for the life-time requirements. All soilpipe and fittings should bear the (C) C-1 markof quality or their approved equal by the speci-fying authority.

GENERAL COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS ON LOCATION AND DESIGN OF FACILITIES

1. The present trend is for more joint pur-chase, use, and maintenance of facilities by schooland community. The trend requires master plan-ning for location and number of all plumbing fa-cilities.

2. Overloading of design capacities whichoccur during breaks in public and scheduledschool gatherings such as meietings, spectatorsports, etc., indicate that more attention must begiven to minimal design requirements to accom-modate this type of use. The important consid-eration is that there be sufficient numbers of theright kind of installations to accommodate thenumbers and kinds of users anticipated. If anauditorium or gymnasium is to be used for nightactivities, it is desirable that there be sufficienttoilet-room and drinking facilities within thespace so other components of the school plant

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will not need to be opened to obtain access totoilet rooms.

3. School building design has gone throughthe following stages: the two and three storyschool, the one story finger-type plan, the blockor loft type school, and, finally, a more concen-trated emphasis or campus type plan. It is ap-parent that placement of toilet room facilitieshas not kept pace with school design trends. Thenumber of fixtures per pupil within the entireschool was found to be adequate in many cases,but more attention is needed in the proper place-ment of fixtures according to the areas wherethey will be used.

4. A need is indicated for more open workareas that allow for maximum supervision. Sug-gestions offered vary from open areas to glassed-in spaces with direct ii,cess to toilet areas.

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