philosophy - marx paper
TRANSCRIPT
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Karl Marx wrote significantly about many topics, prominent among which is his critique
of capital and capitalism. His writings, includingDas Kapitaland others, maintain their
significance beyond their primary focus, touching upon other topics of importance through the
breadth and depth of the inquiries. Among the tangential issues Marx touches upon is that of
nature. Growing recognition of the ecological problems humanity faces in the coming years
provides inspiration for a more focused study of Marx and his views of nature and the
relationship that capitalist society has to it. nfortunately, such catch all phrases li!e the
environment, nature, and ecologyare "ustified by the scale of the problems society presently
faces. #hile a thorough discussion of all the problems would consume too much time, hopefully
a select list of topics will inspire urgency of thought and immediacy of action.
$ne of the oldest ecological problems is that of deforestation. Mentions of deforestation
are made as far bac! as The Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest stories in recorded history.
Gilgamesh and %n!idu slay the guardian of the cedar forest, Humbaba, and proceed to cut down
the cedar trees. &ater in the epic it is noted, '(hey uncovered the sacred dwellings of the
Anunna!i and while Gilgamesh felled the first of the trees of the forest %n!idu cleared their roots
as far as the ban!s of %uphrates.)*(he effects of deforestation were !nown millennia ago+ (rees
absorb water, preventing flooding downstream from being too unpredictable and violent. (rees
also play a part in the water cycle, thus leveling forests often leads to less rainfall and the threat
of more fires. urther problems include soil erosion, which ma!es agriculture less productive.
(he lac! of rain and soil erosion might also lead to desertification, wherein the surrounding area
becomes a desert from the lac! of precipitation. $ther problems include disrupting the carbon
cycle, which absorbs carbon that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere and attach
1(he %pic of Gilgamesh. aina.org, p. **
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itself to oxygen, becoming the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.-%ven the study of one
environmental problem displays adequately how the environment is in fact a system of
interactions. $ne interaction deforestation has is to global climate change.
Global climate change resides at the heart of modern ecological problems, and society is
gradually increasing awareness of that. &i!ewise, society recognies the role that humans play in
climate change. al!ows!i notes this in Science, saying, 'Atmospheric /$-concentration is now
nearly *00 ppmv higher, and has risen to that level at a rate at least *0 and possibly *00 times
faster than at any other time in the past 1-0,000 years.)2(hat the remar!able figures noted
coincide with the post34ndustrial 5evolution era is not a mista!e. %nergy3rich fuels, such as oil,
coal, and natural gas, are consumed for energy production releasing previously stored
greenhouse gases into the environment. (hus, as 6aomi $res!es states, 'the consensus of
scientific opinion is that %arth7s climate is being affected by human activities.)1#hereas the
cause of global climate change has been identified, the consequences are more difficult to predict
due to the global nature of the problem.
6otwithstanding the difficulties of prediction, some outcomes appear probable. (he
climate.nasa.gov website lists several consequences of climate change. Among them include
more common droughts, less precipitation in subtropical land regions, decreased freshwater
availability in semi3arid regions, increased tropical cyclonic activity, rising sea levels, and less
snow and ice.8(hese effects are severe in their own right, but they must also be ta!en into
account in human terms. More common and severe droughts ma!e agriculture less productive,
and a decline in freshwater availability in con"unction with reduced precipitation exacerbates the
25iebee!, H. 9:une 2, -0*0;. Global #arming. http+
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problem. 5egardless of any productivity, a lac! of freshwater is currently a large problem in the
American southwest, in /alifornia, 6evada, 6ew Mexico, and Ariona.@=ituated near or in a
desert, all the aforementioned states face problems of scarcity in regards to freshwater
availability. And for many cities situated near or on rivers and coastlines, an increase in sea level
threatens the city itself, as well as all the productivity, infrastructure, institutions, and people in
it. =uch events are not a problem for the planet so much as they are for humanity.
erhaps the greatest problem with environmentalism is the popular misconception that
the primary reason for any attempt to save the planet is due to the intrinsic worth of the
environment. (here exists the notion that humanity is somehow separate from natureB completely
independent as such. Humans are li!ewise classified as being different than animals, despite
Homo sapiens being a species of the animal !ingdom. 6ature furnishes humanity with the means
of existence and our continued survival. (ools that society builds use resources from nature,
including iron, wood, copper, brone, tin, and aluminum. Humanity uses natural resources for
energy, using oil, natural gas, and coal. urther nature provides the food that humanity eats and
drin!s, such as crops, fruit, vegetables, dairy, seafood, meat, and water. Humanity is not separate
and distinct from nature, but instead completely dependent upon and an intricate part of nature.
(he question that must then be as!ed is why does such an opinion prevailgiven the evidence
against itC
:ohn ?ellamy oster published an article called Capitalism in onderlandwhich
attempts to expound upon this and other related questions. 4n his article, oster posits that
people, including economists and policyma!ers, are veiled by a mist capitalism casts over them.
He says, 'Mainstream economists are trained in the promotion of private profits as the singular
65ice, D. 9:uly >, -0*2;. #ater #orries+ /limate /hange in the Desert =outhwest.
http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/!"#$/"%/"&/southwest'climate'change'drought/!($/
http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2013/07/09/southwest-climate-change-drought/2439191/http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2013/07/09/southwest-climate-change-drought/2439191/ -
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Ebottom lineF of society, even at the expense of larger issues of human welfare and the
environment. (he mar!et rules over all, even nature.)(he mar!et ruling over everything,
including nature, is an example of one inversion Marx decries. (he mar!et 3 a product of human
activity 3 becomes the singular end goal, instead of the means towards a further end goal, such as
human welfare. (he inversion of the mar!et poses further problems as eter Hudis notes, saying,
'(he mar!et controls the fate of the producer by setting prices in a way that has little or nothing
to do with their actual value or the sub"ective activity by which the products are created.)(hat
the mar!et does not accurately portray the value of the product is a problem not "ust for the
producers, but also for nature. :ohn ?ellamy oster quotes Milton riedman as saying,
'%cological values can find their natural space in the mar!et, li!e any other consumer demand.)>
(here are several problems with this approach to the environment. irst, the mar!et does
not accurately portray the value of items represented within. %nvironmental considerations
therefore will more li!ely than not be undervalued, to disastrous consequences. (he second
problem is that the mar!et is based on values and its manifestation, exchange3value, rather than
use3worth or utility. Humanity expends little to no effort or labor on the creation nor the
continued existence of nature, and as labor is the source of all value, nature can be seen as being
comprised of little to no value. (hus :ohn ?ellamy oster says, 'Ancient forests are seen as non3
performing assets to be liquidated...)*04n the eyes of the mar!et, nature has no intrinsic value,
nor are any of the services it provides valuable because no labor was expended. (he third
problem of the mar!et3based approach to environmentalism is the inverted relation nature has to
society. Humanity, instead of being viewed as dependent upon nature for the tools and material
7oster, :. 9May -00>;. /apitalism in #onderland.)onthly *eview.
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for its continued survival, is viewed as being completely independent and separate from nature.
(his view completely discounts the dependence on nature for the water, air, land, and food
humanity uses to survive. 4ndeed, the commodification of nature can be seen when economics
uses terms such as Enatural capital.F
(he fourth problem in regards to a mar!et3based approach is the inversion of the mar!et
itself. 5ather than serving other goals, the mar!et becomes a goal unto itself. %conomists see the
survival and growth of the mar!et as the end, rather than the means towards a greater end. (hus,
environmentalism concerns economists inasmuch as it affects economic growth. oster recalls
how Danish economist ?"Irn &omborg views the environment in economic terms, saying,
'&ombard argued, for example, that attempting to prevent climate change would cost more and
cause more harm than letting it happen.)**=imilarly, oster mentions #illiam 6ordhaus and his
pro"ection, saying, '...the loss to gross world output in -*00 due to continuation of global
warming trends would be insignificant 9about * percent of GD in -*00;.)*-(he negligible effect
of global climate change on the economy allows economists and policyma!ers to invest little in
the welfare of the environment, in spite of the environmental effects which loom as a specter
over the lives of all humanity. =tephen =chneider, a biologist at =tanford, summaries+ 'Most
conventional economists... thought even this gargantuan climate change Ja rise in average global
temperature of @ /L 3 equivalent to the scale of change from an ice age to an interglacial epoch
in a hundred years, rather than thousands of years 3 would have only a few percent impact on the
world economy. 4n essence, they accept the paradigm that society is almost independent of
nature.)*2
114bid.
124bid.
13=chneider, =. 9*>>;.aoratory Earth. 6ew or!+ ?asic ?oo!s, pp. *->3*28.
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Another economic consideration is that of the discount rate. 6ordhaus says, 'A ero
discount rate means that all generations into the indefinite future are treated the sameB a positive
discount rate means that the welfare of future generations is reduced or EdiscountedF compared
with nearer generations.)*1(he 6ational $ceanic and Atmospheric Administration details several
reasons why the discount rate is applied to economics today. (he first reason is inflationB a dollar
today is worth more than a dollar in the future due to inflation. (hus, a smaller investment today
will be "ust as valuable as a much larger investment several years from now. =econd, there is the
opportunity cost. Any money invested in environmental protection has an opportunity cost from
not being invested elsewhere, increasing its value. (hird is the uncertainty regarding future
income. &ast, they posit that humans are, 'generally impatient and prefer instant gratification to
waiting for long3term benefits.)*8
#hile there are obvious economic considerations for selecting a discount rate, there are
other considerations to ponder. =uch a consideration is the ethical and moral conclusions
regarding the discount rate. (he discount rate sacrifices future generations for the present. #hile
there is a limit regarding the lifespan of planet %arth 3 due to the =un eventually becoming a red
giant and consuming the %arth*@3 questions need be raised regarding the responsibility of the
present generation to preserve %arth for future generations. recisely how much does society
owe future generationsC oster exhibits two different ethical theories from economists #illiam
6ordhaus and 6icholas =tern+ '6ordhaus discounts the future at roughly @ percent a yearB =tern
by *.1 percent. (his means that for =tern having a trillion dollars a century from now is worth
N-1 billion today, while for 6ordhaus it is only worth N-.8 billion.)*
14oster, :. 9May -00>;. /apitalism in #onderland.
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urther complicating matters is the consideration of future in regards to economic power.
art of the rationale for a larger discount rate is that future generations will be more financially
able to tac!le problems than modern society is able to with its respective economic capabilities.
(his, however, presupposes sustained economic growth for a not insignificant number of years,
something which is not guaranteed by any stretch. 4ndeed, it is partly by increasing input of
natural resources that the economy will continue to grow. (his exacerbates the ecological
problems humanity faces. erhaps more disturbingly, the eventual conclusion to this line of
thought is that because all future societies will be more economically able to overcome
problems, the onus will be left to them, and all future societies will end up neglecting the
problem entirely. Displayed in the discount rate is part of the relationship of capital and nature.
/apital finds a way to return little of what it ta!es bac! to nature in investments to protect and
restore nature. 4n examining the other side of the relationship it can be discovered precisely what
capital ta!es away from nature, and thus from humanity.
(o this end, eter Hudis recalls some of the thoughts Marx had, saying, '(he peculiar
feature of capitalism, Marx held, is that allsocial relations become governed by the drive to
augment value, irrespective of humanityFs actual needs and capacities.)*(his is to be !ept in
mind when Marx says, '(he human significance of nature is only available to social manB for
only to social man is nature available as a bond with other men, as the basis of his own existence
for others and theirs for him, and as the vital element in human realityB only to social man is
nature the foundation of his own human existence.)*>As Hudis mentions, Marx believes that all
social relations are corrupted by capitalism in its drive to augment capital. (his drive to augment
itself allows capital to further conceal the true essence of nature and maintain the status quo as
18Hudis, . 9-0*2;. MarxFs /oncept of the Alternative to /apitalism. p. .
19Marx, K. 9-000;. Karl Marx =elected #ritings. 78ford 9niversity ress 6nc.2 0ew ;or,, p. >.
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social interactions are not directly social but instead mediated by commodities. (his concealment
3 the lac! of recognition of the role nature plays 3 allows society to commodify nature. Marx also
mentions how nature acts as the foundation of the human existence to social men. (hus he
clearly recognies the essential role that nature plays in the continued existence of humanity, and
in doing so displays a deficiency of capital in regards to how it augments society and their role to
fellow humans and nature.
(urning now to how capital changes nature itself, the dual nature of labor in capitalism
must be examined. Hudis does this in saying, '4ts dual character lies in the opposition between
concrete labor and abstract labor. /oncrete labor is the array of differentiated forms of exertion
that create useful productsB abstract labor is undifferentiated human labor, Elabor in general.F)-0
Human labor in a capitalist society has a concrete and abstract formB the concrete form generates
use3worth or utility whereas the abstract form generates value. Hudis ta!es care not to call the
concrete form 'labor,) lest it conflate the issue by virtue of the saying that labor is the source of
all value and imply that concrete exertion generates value. (his delineation is important as value
holds a particular meaning in Marxist thought. Palue 3 that which capital see!s to augment 3 is
abstract. #hereas some ob"ect will have a particular amount of utility or use3worth inherent in it
or produced by concrete labor, Marx says of value and exchange value that, '=o far no chemist
has ever discovered exchange3value either in a pearl or a diamond.)-*
(he abstract nature of value and exchange3value means capital need not conform to the
laws of the natural world. Material wealth is limited by virtue of the finite nature of the
environment. (here is only so much material on %arth that can be turned into material wealth.
Hudis provides some context and a selection from Aristotle, saying, 'Aristotle explicitly
20Hudis, . 9-0*2;. MarxFs /oncept of the Alternative to /apitalism. p. *1.
21Marx, K. 9-000;. Karl Marx =elected #ritings. p. 10.
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distinguishes between the EnaturalF form of wealth and its EsocialF form, the latter which he
derides as unnatural, in ?oo! 4 of theolitics+ E6atural wealth acquisition is a part of household
management, whereas commerce has to do with the production of goods, not in the full sense,
but through their e8change... (he wealth that derives from this !ind of JunnaturalL wealth
acquisition is without limit.F)--As an abstraction, capital is allowed to exert its own logic above
and beyond any natural laws and limits imposed by such. 4n contemporary economies which
utilie inputs to continue growth, capital encourages the pillaging of nature to achieve continued
growth.
Gross domestic product is one of the more important metrics of economic growth used
today, thus many consequences are seen by their effect on the GD and rationalied or discarded
on that merit alone. oster explains+
'6amely, human life in effect is worth only what each person contributes to the economy as measured in
monetary terms. =o, if global warming increases mortality in ?angladesh, which it appears li!ely that it will, this is
only reflected in economic models to the extent that the deaths of ?engalis hurt the economy. =ince ?angladesh is
very poor, economic models of the type 6ordhaus and =tern use would not estimate it to be worthwhile to prevent
deaths there since these losses would show up as miniscule in the measurements. 6ordhaus, according to his
discount analysis, would go a step beyond =tern and place an even slighter value on the lives of people if they are
lost several decades in the future. (his economic ideology, of course, extends beyond "ust human li!e, such that all
of the millions of species on earth are valued only to the extent they contribute to GD. (hus, ethical concerns about
the intrinsic value of human life and of the lives of other creatures are completely invisible in standard economic
models.)-2
22Hudis, . 9-0*2;. MarxFs /oncept of the Alternative to /apitalism. p. *80.
23oster, :. 9May -00>;. /apitalism in #onderland.
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/apital displays how it successfully commoditied not only nature, but also the lives of
human beings. =ome lives, as they provide little to the GD, are seen as 'non3performing assets)
as are the aforementioned ancient forests and are seen fit to be used in whatever manner best
suits capital. #hile this situation could be mista!enly interpreted as apathy, there are other
situations in capitalism which are less prone to erroneous interpretation. oster notes how former
chief economist of the #orld ?an! &awrence =ummers, 'wrote an internal #orld ?an! memo in
which he statedB Ethe economic logic behind dumping a load of toxic waste in the lowest3wage
country is impeccable and we should face up to that.F He "ustified this by arguing+ E(he
measurement of the costs of health3impairing pollution depends on the foregone earnings from
increased morbidity and mortality. rom this point of view a given amount of health3impairing
pollution should be done in the country with the lowest cost, which will be the country of the
lowest wages.F)-1
/apital also encourages capitalists in other ways which ultimately prove harmful. Marx
sees overproduction as one inevitable result of capitalism. roductivity and efficiency increase,
meaning each commodity requires less socially3necessary labor3time for its production. As a
result, less value is imbued in each commodity. Hudis explains the cycle capitalism finds itself
in+
'(hey respond by trying to further boost productivity, since the greater the quantity of goods produced, the
better the opportunity to realie the value of his initial investment. (he best way to increase productivity is to invest
in labor3saving devices. (he resulting growth in productivity, however, reproduces the same problem, since the
increase in material wealth leads to a further decrease in the relative value of each commodity. (hus, capitalism is
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based on a !ind of treadmill3effect in which it is constantly driven towards technological innovation regardless of
the human or environmental cost.)-8
(he resulting production of commodities is disturbing, but perhaps in no sector is it more
disturbing than the agricultural livestoc! sector. 4ncreasing technologies and economies of scale
encourage the ever3increasing sie of concentrated animal feeding operations 9/A$s;. 5yan
Gunderson notes how incredibly dense the /A$s are, describing how, 'livestoc! production on
the whole in late capitalism is a rapid, mechanied process in which animals are confined to
quarters often unable to turn around, let alone roam.)-@Gunderson further states that, '(he
cramped conditions created by /A$s are breeding grounds for disease. Antibiotics and
hormones are used excessively to !eep livestoc! EhealthyF in unclean conditions and misused to
promote rapid tissue growth. %xcessive antibiotic and hormone use create additional public
health problems.)-=temming from this are the ethical and moral considerations regarding the
well3being of the animals. $ther ethical concerns include whether it is proper for humans to raise
animals in such a fashion to be eventually used as food. 5aising animals is intensive, as
Gunderson informs when he reiterates the use of hormones to stimulate growth. %ven brac!eting
the use of hormones out, there is required a lot of input via traditional methods for growth, which
is where another problem arises.
Gunderson addresses this other problem when tal!ing about a Emetabolic rift.F Gunderson
notes how, 'Marx became increasingly concerned with the decline in soil fertility because of
capitalist farming methods associated with the *>th centuryFs second agricultural revolution.)-
25Hudis, . 9-0*2;. MarxFs /oncept of the Alternative to /apitalism. pp. *3*>.
26Gunderson, 5. 9$ctober *>, -0**;. (he Metabolic 5ifts of &ivestoc! Agribusiness. 7rgani.
284bid. p. 10>.
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art of the perils of overproduction are realied in agricultureB technology advances, and thus
less labor is required per unit, and the value accordingly falls. (o ma!e up for it, more units are
produced, leading to larger3scale agricultural outputs. (he larger3scale agricultural outputs have
ill effects on the soilB it depletes the soil of nutrients, including nitrogen and phosphorous, which
explains the curiosity Marx has regarding soil fertility. oster explains in detail, saying+
'As human societies develop, especially with the growth and spread of capitalism, the interactions between
nature and humans are much greater and more intense than before, affecting first the local, then the regional, and
finally the global environment. =ince food and animal feeds are now routinely shipped long distances, this depletes
the soil, "ust as &iebig and Marx contended in the nineteenth century, necessitating routine applications of
commercial fertiliers on crop farms. At the same time this physical separation of where crops are grown and where
humans or farm animals consume them creates massive disposal issues for the accumulation of nutrients in city
sewage and in the manure that piles up around concentrations of factory farming operations.)->
As the logic of capital mandates, globaliation and global mar!ets emerge. (his increased
competition leads to countries see!ing their comparative advantage, a mar!et that holds an
advantage for a specific country because of resource availability, geography, or other reasons.
or some countries, this means agriculture. As crops are produced and shipped overseas, the
scenario oster details becomes more pronounced. 4nstead of more localied production of crops,
growth is centralied on massive farms. (he larger the distance between production and
consumption, the more problematic nutrient replenishment becomes. 4nstead of the waste being
directly used as fertilier, it is instead being disposed of, at times as runoff into waterways,
poisoning them to aquatic life. (he metabolism Marx introduces is a complex interaction
29oster, :. 9$ctober -2, -0*2;. Marx and the 5ift in the niversal Metabolism of 6ature,)onthly *eview.
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between society and nature. As such, it becomes that much more important to recognie how
society really exists and functions in respect to nature.
(o this end, Marx illustrates how nature functions in capitalism, saying, '6ature becomes
for the first time simply an ob"ect for man!ind, purely a matter of utilityB it ceases to be
recognied as a power in its own rightB and the theoretical !nowledge of its independent laws
appears only as a stratagem designed to subdue it to human requirements, whether as the ob"ect
of consumption or means of production.)204n detailing how nature functions in capitalism Marx
allows for the possibility of a change of thoughtB it is only via the recognition of a problem that
one can begin to solve it. Here Marx highlights the inversion, how 3 instead of society
recogniing that humanity is a subset of nature 3 society sees itself as above and beyond nature.
(his is an inversion that Marx wants to brea!, and is why Marx equates humanism with
naturalism. 4n so doing, Marx hopes that society realies its reliance upon nature and that
humanity is not beyond nature in any sense. ?eyond any ecological reasoning, Marx also
provides reasoning that humans can connect to.
(o such an effect Marx delineates, saying, '(he human significance of nature is only
available to social manB for only to social man is nature available as a bond with other men, as
the basis of his own existence for others and theirs for him, and as the vital element in human
realityB only to social man is nature the foundation of his own human existence.)2*6ature acts as
provider, giving humanity the means of production and consumption, for whatever purpose they
see fit. (his is fully recognied in a new society, and further, nature acts as a bond, allowing
humanity to connect with each other more fully. 4t is a shared condition amongst humanity that
nature acts as provider, and thus any exploitation of nature is an exploitation of humanity, both at
30Marx, K. 9-000;. Karl Marx =elected #ritings. p. 2>.
314bid. p. >.
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present and in the future. &i!ewise, when others exploit nature there will be the individual
awareness that they are exploiting each individual person at the same time. A society which does
so actively alienates humanity from itself as each individual has primacy instead of humanity as
a whole. Hudis summaries in saying that, '?y treating nature as a person apart that is to be
possessed, consumed, and destroyed for the sa!e of augmenting value, capitalism indeed leaves
us with a world that is Elifeless, solitary, and alone.F)2-
$vercoming the inversion is not to be an easy tas!, especially given the agency and
autonomy with which capital acts. 4ts logic and abstract essence imbue it with a means of acting
outside any laws that humans or nature abide by. (hat capital continues to wield its influence is a
dangerous prospect for humanity, as the problems continue to grow as capital li!ewise continues
to grow. Given the mist with which capital acts, the question is what 3 if anything 3 will inspire
people to loo! beyond the mistC (here is no certainty, however perhaps recognition of the
ecological problems society faces will provide the spar!. ?y forcing society to recognie the
ecological problems as they grow, there could be a reevaluation of the relationship between
nature and humanity. (he hope would be that such a paradigm shift would trigger further
exploration into the causes and the conditions that allow for the possibility of exploitation of
both humans and nature.
(o such an end there can be no Emagic bulletF which cures the problems society presently
faces. 4n the true Hegelian spirit which Marx builds upon, the negation of one negative 3 the
resolution of the ecological problems 3 leads only to another phase which need be overcome 3 the
conditions which allow for the possibility of the exploitation of nature, and by extension
humanity. Marx said that, 'all philosophy is a continuous process of becoming9C;,) and it is time
that society begins its own process immediately, lest it run out of time.
32Hudis, . 9-0*2;. MarxFs /oncept of the Alternative to /apitalism. p. >0.