Download - Philosophy - Marx Paper

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Karl Marx wrote significantly about many topics, prominent among which is his critique

of capital and capitalism. His writings, includingDas Kapitaland others, maintain their

significance beyond their primary focus, touching upon other topics of importance through the

breadth and depth of the inquiries. Among the tangential issues Marx touches upon is that of

nature. Growing recognition of the ecological problems humanity faces in the coming years

provides inspiration for a more focused study of Marx and his views of nature and the

relationship that capitalist society has to it. nfortunately, such catch all phrases li!e the

environment, nature, and ecologyare "ustified by the scale of the problems society presently

faces. #hile a thorough discussion of all the problems would consume too much time, hopefully

a select list of topics will inspire urgency of thought and immediacy of action.

$ne of the oldest ecological problems is that of deforestation. Mentions of deforestation

are made as far bac! as The Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest stories in recorded history.

Gilgamesh and %n!idu slay the guardian of the cedar forest, Humbaba, and proceed to cut down

the cedar trees. &ater in the epic it is noted, '(hey uncovered the sacred dwellings of the

Anunna!i and while Gilgamesh felled the first of the trees of the forest %n!idu cleared their roots

as far as the ban!s of %uphrates.)*(he effects of deforestation were !nown millennia ago+ (rees

absorb water, preventing flooding downstream from being too unpredictable and violent. (rees

also play a part in the water cycle, thus leveling forests often leads to less rainfall and the threat

of more fires. urther problems include soil erosion, which ma!es agriculture less productive.

(he lac! of rain and soil erosion might also lead to desertification, wherein the surrounding area

becomes a desert from the lac! of precipitation. $ther problems include disrupting the carbon

cycle, which absorbs carbon that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere and attach

1(he %pic of Gilgamesh. aina.org, p. **


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itself to oxygen, becoming the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.-%ven the study of one

environmental problem displays adequately how the environment is in fact a system of

interactions. $ne interaction deforestation has is to global climate change.

Global climate change resides at the heart of modern ecological problems, and society is

gradually increasing awareness of that. &i!ewise, society recognies the role that humans play in

climate change. al!ows!i notes this in Science, saying, 'Atmospheric /$-concentration is now

nearly *00 ppmv higher, and has risen to that level at a rate at least *0 and possibly *00 times

faster than at any other time in the past 1-0,000 years.)2(hat the remar!able figures noted

coincide with the post34ndustrial 5evolution era is not a mista!e. %nergy3rich fuels, such as oil,

coal, and natural gas, are consumed for energy production releasing previously stored

greenhouse gases into the environment. (hus, as 6aomi $res!es states, 'the consensus of

scientific opinion is that %arth7s climate is being affected by human activities.)1#hereas the

cause of global climate change has been identified, the consequences are more difficult to predict

due to the global nature of the problem.

6otwithstanding the difficulties of prediction, some outcomes appear probable. (he

climate.nasa.gov website lists several consequences of climate change. Among them include

more common droughts, less precipitation in subtropical land regions, decreased freshwater

availability in semi3arid regions, increased tropical cyclonic activity, rising sea levels, and less

snow and ice.8(hese effects are severe in their own right, but they must also be ta!en into

account in human terms. More common and severe droughts ma!e agriculture less productive,

and a decline in freshwater availability in con"unction with reduced precipitation exacerbates the

25iebee!, H. 9:une 2, -0*0;. Global #arming. http+


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problem. 5egardless of any productivity, a lac! of freshwater is currently a large problem in the

American southwest, in /alifornia, 6evada, 6ew Mexico, and Ariona.@=ituated near or in a

desert, all the aforementioned states face problems of scarcity in regards to freshwater

availability. And for many cities situated near or on rivers and coastlines, an increase in sea level

threatens the city itself, as well as all the productivity, infrastructure, institutions, and people in

it. =uch events are not a problem for the planet so much as they are for humanity.

erhaps the greatest problem with environmentalism is the popular misconception that

the primary reason for any attempt to save the planet is due to the intrinsic worth of the

environment. (here exists the notion that humanity is somehow separate from natureB completely

independent as such. Humans are li!ewise classified as being different than animals, despite

Homo sapiens being a species of the animal !ingdom. 6ature furnishes humanity with the means

of existence and our continued survival. (ools that society builds use resources from nature,

including iron, wood, copper, brone, tin, and aluminum. Humanity uses natural resources for

energy, using oil, natural gas, and coal. urther nature provides the food that humanity eats and

drin!s, such as crops, fruit, vegetables, dairy, seafood, meat, and water. Humanity is not separate

and distinct from nature, but instead completely dependent upon and an intricate part of nature.

(he question that must then be as!ed is why does such an opinion prevailgiven the evidence

against itC

:ohn ?ellamy oster published an article called Capitalism in onderlandwhich

attempts to expound upon this and other related questions. 4n his article, oster posits that

people, including economists and policyma!ers, are veiled by a mist capitalism casts over them.

He says, 'Mainstream economists are trained in the promotion of private profits as the singular

65ice, D. 9:uly >, -0*2;. #ater #orries+ /limate /hange in the Desert =outhwest.

http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/!"#$/"%/"&/southwest'climate'change'drought/!($/
http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2013/07/09/southwest-climate-change-drought/2439191/http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2013/07/09/southwest-climate-change-drought/2439191/


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Ebottom lineF of society, even at the expense of larger issues of human welfare and the

environment. (he mar!et rules over all, even nature.)(he mar!et ruling over everything,

including nature, is an example of one inversion Marx decries. (he mar!et 3 a product of human

activity 3 becomes the singular end goal, instead of the means towards a further end goal, such as

human welfare. (he inversion of the mar!et poses further problems as eter Hudis notes, saying,

'(he mar!et controls the fate of the producer by setting prices in a way that has little or nothing

to do with their actual value or the sub"ective activity by which the products are created.)(hat

the mar!et does not accurately portray the value of the product is a problem not "ust for the

producers, but also for nature. :ohn ?ellamy oster quotes Milton riedman as saying,

'%cological values can find their natural space in the mar!et, li!e any other consumer demand.)>

(here are several problems with this approach to the environment. irst, the mar!et does

not accurately portray the value of items represented within. %nvironmental considerations

therefore will more li!ely than not be undervalued, to disastrous consequences. (he second

problem is that the mar!et is based on values and its manifestation, exchange3value, rather than

use3worth or utility. Humanity expends little to no effort or labor on the creation nor the

continued existence of nature, and as labor is the source of all value, nature can be seen as being

comprised of little to no value. (hus :ohn ?ellamy oster says, 'Ancient forests are seen as non3

performing assets to be liquidated...)*04n the eyes of the mar!et, nature has no intrinsic value,

nor are any of the services it provides valuable because no labor was expended. (he third

problem of the mar!et3based approach to environmentalism is the inverted relation nature has to

society. Humanity, instead of being viewed as dependent upon nature for the tools and material

7oster, :. 9May -00>;. /apitalism in #onderland.)onthly *eview.

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for its continued survival, is viewed as being completely independent and separate from nature.

(his view completely discounts the dependence on nature for the water, air, land, and food

humanity uses to survive. 4ndeed, the commodification of nature can be seen when economics

uses terms such as Enatural capital.F

(he fourth problem in regards to a mar!et3based approach is the inversion of the mar!et

itself. 5ather than serving other goals, the mar!et becomes a goal unto itself. %conomists see the

survival and growth of the mar!et as the end, rather than the means towards a greater end. (hus,

environmentalism concerns economists inasmuch as it affects economic growth. oster recalls

how Danish economist ?"Irn &omborg views the environment in economic terms, saying,

'&ombard argued, for example, that attempting to prevent climate change would cost more and

cause more harm than letting it happen.)**=imilarly, oster mentions #illiam 6ordhaus and his

pro"ection, saying, '...the loss to gross world output in -*00 due to continuation of global

warming trends would be insignificant 9about * percent of GD in -*00;.)*-(he negligible effect

of global climate change on the economy allows economists and policyma!ers to invest little in

the welfare of the environment, in spite of the environmental effects which loom as a specter

over the lives of all humanity. =tephen =chneider, a biologist at =tanford, summaries+ 'Most

conventional economists... thought even this gargantuan climate change Ja rise in average global

temperature of @ /L 3 equivalent to the scale of change from an ice age to an interglacial epoch

in a hundred years, rather than thousands of years 3 would have only a few percent impact on the

world economy. 4n essence, they accept the paradigm that society is almost independent of

nature.)*2

114bid.

124bid.

13=chneider, =. 9*>>;.aoratory Earth. 6ew or!+ ?asic ?oo!s, pp. *->3*28.


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Another economic consideration is that of the discount rate. 6ordhaus says, 'A ero

discount rate means that all generations into the indefinite future are treated the sameB a positive

discount rate means that the welfare of future generations is reduced or EdiscountedF compared

with nearer generations.)*1(he 6ational $ceanic and Atmospheric Administration details several

reasons why the discount rate is applied to economics today. (he first reason is inflationB a dollar

today is worth more than a dollar in the future due to inflation. (hus, a smaller investment today

will be "ust as valuable as a much larger investment several years from now. =econd, there is the

opportunity cost. Any money invested in environmental protection has an opportunity cost from

not being invested elsewhere, increasing its value. (hird is the uncertainty regarding future

income. &ast, they posit that humans are, 'generally impatient and prefer instant gratification to

waiting for long3term benefits.)*8

#hile there are obvious economic considerations for selecting a discount rate, there are

other considerations to ponder. =uch a consideration is the ethical and moral conclusions

regarding the discount rate. (he discount rate sacrifices future generations for the present. #hile

there is a limit regarding the lifespan of planet %arth 3 due to the =un eventually becoming a red

giant and consuming the %arth*@3 questions need be raised regarding the responsibility of the

present generation to preserve %arth for future generations. recisely how much does society

owe future generationsC oster exhibits two different ethical theories from economists #illiam

6ordhaus and 6icholas =tern+ '6ordhaus discounts the future at roughly @ percent a yearB =tern

by *.1 percent. (his means that for =tern having a trillion dollars a century from now is worth

N-1 billion today, while for 6ordhaus it is only worth N-.8 billion.)*

14oster, :. 9May -00>;. /apitalism in #onderland.

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urther complicating matters is the consideration of future in regards to economic power.

art of the rationale for a larger discount rate is that future generations will be more financially

able to tac!le problems than modern society is able to with its respective economic capabilities.

(his, however, presupposes sustained economic growth for a not insignificant number of years,

something which is not guaranteed by any stretch. 4ndeed, it is partly by increasing input of

natural resources that the economy will continue to grow. (his exacerbates the ecological

problems humanity faces. erhaps more disturbingly, the eventual conclusion to this line of

thought is that because all future societies will be more economically able to overcome

problems, the onus will be left to them, and all future societies will end up neglecting the

problem entirely. Displayed in the discount rate is part of the relationship of capital and nature.

/apital finds a way to return little of what it ta!es bac! to nature in investments to protect and

restore nature. 4n examining the other side of the relationship it can be discovered precisely what

capital ta!es away from nature, and thus from humanity.

(o this end, eter Hudis recalls some of the thoughts Marx had, saying, '(he peculiar

feature of capitalism, Marx held, is that allsocial relations become governed by the drive to

augment value, irrespective of humanityFs actual needs and capacities.)*(his is to be !ept in

mind when Marx says, '(he human significance of nature is only available to social manB for

only to social man is nature available as a bond with other men, as the basis of his own existence

for others and theirs for him, and as the vital element in human realityB only to social man is

nature the foundation of his own human existence.)*>As Hudis mentions, Marx believes that all

social relations are corrupted by capitalism in its drive to augment capital. (his drive to augment

itself allows capital to further conceal the true essence of nature and maintain the status quo as

18Hudis, . 9-0*2;. MarxFs /oncept of the Alternative to /apitalism. p. .

19Marx, K. 9-000;. Karl Marx =elected #ritings. 78ford 9niversity ress 6nc.2 0ew ;or,, p. >.


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social interactions are not directly social but instead mediated by commodities. (his concealment

3 the lac! of recognition of the role nature plays 3 allows society to commodify nature. Marx also

mentions how nature acts as the foundation of the human existence to social men. (hus he

clearly recognies the essential role that nature plays in the continued existence of humanity, and

in doing so displays a deficiency of capital in regards to how it augments society and their role to

fellow humans and nature.

(urning now to how capital changes nature itself, the dual nature of labor in capitalism

must be examined. Hudis does this in saying, '4ts dual character lies in the opposition between

concrete labor and abstract labor. /oncrete labor is the array of differentiated forms of exertion

that create useful productsB abstract labor is undifferentiated human labor, Elabor in general.F)-0

Human labor in a capitalist society has a concrete and abstract formB the concrete form generates

use3worth or utility whereas the abstract form generates value. Hudis ta!es care not to call the

concrete form 'labor,) lest it conflate the issue by virtue of the saying that labor is the source of

all value and imply that concrete exertion generates value. (his delineation is important as value

holds a particular meaning in Marxist thought. Palue 3 that which capital see!s to augment 3 is

abstract. #hereas some ob"ect will have a particular amount of utility or use3worth inherent in it

or produced by concrete labor, Marx says of value and exchange value that, '=o far no chemist

has ever discovered exchange3value either in a pearl or a diamond.)-*

(he abstract nature of value and exchange3value means capital need not conform to the

laws of the natural world. Material wealth is limited by virtue of the finite nature of the

environment. (here is only so much material on %arth that can be turned into material wealth.

Hudis provides some context and a selection from Aristotle, saying, 'Aristotle explicitly

20Hudis, . 9-0*2;. MarxFs /oncept of the Alternative to /apitalism. p. *1.

21Marx, K. 9-000;. Karl Marx =elected #ritings. p. 10.


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distinguishes between the EnaturalF form of wealth and its EsocialF form, the latter which he

derides as unnatural, in ?oo! 4 of theolitics+ E6atural wealth acquisition is a part of household

management, whereas commerce has to do with the production of goods, not in the full sense,

but through their e8change... (he wealth that derives from this !ind of JunnaturalL wealth

acquisition is without limit.F)--As an abstraction, capital is allowed to exert its own logic above

and beyond any natural laws and limits imposed by such. 4n contemporary economies which

utilie inputs to continue growth, capital encourages the pillaging of nature to achieve continued

growth.

Gross domestic product is one of the more important metrics of economic growth used

today, thus many consequences are seen by their effect on the GD and rationalied or discarded

on that merit alone. oster explains+

'6amely, human life in effect is worth only what each person contributes to the economy as measured in

monetary terms. =o, if global warming increases mortality in ?angladesh, which it appears li!ely that it will, this is

only reflected in economic models to the extent that the deaths of ?engalis hurt the economy. =ince ?angladesh is

very poor, economic models of the type 6ordhaus and =tern use would not estimate it to be worthwhile to prevent

deaths there since these losses would show up as miniscule in the measurements. 6ordhaus, according to his

discount analysis, would go a step beyond =tern and place an even slighter value on the lives of people if they are

lost several decades in the future. (his economic ideology, of course, extends beyond "ust human li!e, such that all

of the millions of species on earth are valued only to the extent they contribute to GD. (hus, ethical concerns about

the intrinsic value of human life and of the lives of other creatures are completely invisible in standard economic

models.)-2

22Hudis, . 9-0*2;. MarxFs /oncept of the Alternative to /apitalism. p. *80.

23oster, :. 9May -00>;. /apitalism in #onderland.


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/apital displays how it successfully commoditied not only nature, but also the lives of

human beings. =ome lives, as they provide little to the GD, are seen as 'non3performing assets)

as are the aforementioned ancient forests and are seen fit to be used in whatever manner best

suits capital. #hile this situation could be mista!enly interpreted as apathy, there are other

situations in capitalism which are less prone to erroneous interpretation. oster notes how former

chief economist of the #orld ?an! &awrence =ummers, 'wrote an internal #orld ?an! memo in

which he statedB Ethe economic logic behind dumping a load of toxic waste in the lowest3wage

country is impeccable and we should face up to that.F He "ustified this by arguing+ E(he

measurement of the costs of health3impairing pollution depends on the foregone earnings from

increased morbidity and mortality. rom this point of view a given amount of health3impairing

pollution should be done in the country with the lowest cost, which will be the country of the

lowest wages.F)-1

/apital also encourages capitalists in other ways which ultimately prove harmful. Marx

sees overproduction as one inevitable result of capitalism. roductivity and efficiency increase,

meaning each commodity requires less socially3necessary labor3time for its production. As a

result, less value is imbued in each commodity. Hudis explains the cycle capitalism finds itself

in+

'(hey respond by trying to further boost productivity, since the greater the quantity of goods produced, the

better the opportunity to realie the value of his initial investment. (he best way to increase productivity is to invest

in labor3saving devices. (he resulting growth in productivity, however, reproduces the same problem, since the

increase in material wealth leads to a further decrease in the relative value of each commodity. (hus, capitalism is

244bid.


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based on a !ind of treadmill3effect in which it is constantly driven towards technological innovation regardless of

the human or environmental cost.)-8

(he resulting production of commodities is disturbing, but perhaps in no sector is it more

disturbing than the agricultural livestoc! sector. 4ncreasing technologies and economies of scale

encourage the ever3increasing sie of concentrated animal feeding operations 9/A$s;. 5yan

Gunderson notes how incredibly dense the /A$s are, describing how, 'livestoc! production on

the whole in late capitalism is a rapid, mechanied process in which animals are confined to

quarters often unable to turn around, let alone roam.)-@Gunderson further states that, '(he

cramped conditions created by /A$s are breeding grounds for disease. Antibiotics and

hormones are used excessively to !eep livestoc! EhealthyF in unclean conditions and misused to

promote rapid tissue growth. %xcessive antibiotic and hormone use create additional public

health problems.)-=temming from this are the ethical and moral considerations regarding the

well3being of the animals. $ther ethical concerns include whether it is proper for humans to raise

animals in such a fashion to be eventually used as food. 5aising animals is intensive, as

Gunderson informs when he reiterates the use of hormones to stimulate growth. %ven brac!eting

the use of hormones out, there is required a lot of input via traditional methods for growth, which

is where another problem arises.

Gunderson addresses this other problem when tal!ing about a Emetabolic rift.F Gunderson

notes how, 'Marx became increasingly concerned with the decline in soil fertility because of

capitalist farming methods associated with the *>th centuryFs second agricultural revolution.)-

25Hudis, . 9-0*2;. MarxFs /oncept of the Alternative to /apitalism. pp. *3*>.

26Gunderson, 5. 9$ctober *>, -0**;. (he Metabolic 5ifts of &ivestoc! Agribusiness. 7rgani.

284bid. p. 10>.


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art of the perils of overproduction are realied in agricultureB technology advances, and thus

less labor is required per unit, and the value accordingly falls. (o ma!e up for it, more units are

produced, leading to larger3scale agricultural outputs. (he larger3scale agricultural outputs have

ill effects on the soilB it depletes the soil of nutrients, including nitrogen and phosphorous, which

explains the curiosity Marx has regarding soil fertility. oster explains in detail, saying+

'As human societies develop, especially with the growth and spread of capitalism, the interactions between

nature and humans are much greater and more intense than before, affecting first the local, then the regional, and

finally the global environment. =ince food and animal feeds are now routinely shipped long distances, this depletes

the soil, "ust as &iebig and Marx contended in the nineteenth century, necessitating routine applications of

commercial fertiliers on crop farms. At the same time this physical separation of where crops are grown and where

humans or farm animals consume them creates massive disposal issues for the accumulation of nutrients in city

sewage and in the manure that piles up around concentrations of factory farming operations.)->

As the logic of capital mandates, globaliation and global mar!ets emerge. (his increased

competition leads to countries see!ing their comparative advantage, a mar!et that holds an

advantage for a specific country because of resource availability, geography, or other reasons.

or some countries, this means agriculture. As crops are produced and shipped overseas, the

scenario oster details becomes more pronounced. 4nstead of more localied production of crops,

growth is centralied on massive farms. (he larger the distance between production and

consumption, the more problematic nutrient replenishment becomes. 4nstead of the waste being

directly used as fertilier, it is instead being disposed of, at times as runoff into waterways,

poisoning them to aquatic life. (he metabolism Marx introduces is a complex interaction

29oster, :. 9$ctober -2, -0*2;. Marx and the 5ift in the niversal Metabolism of 6ature,)onthly *eview.

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between society and nature. As such, it becomes that much more important to recognie how

society really exists and functions in respect to nature.

(o this end, Marx illustrates how nature functions in capitalism, saying, '6ature becomes

for the first time simply an ob"ect for man!ind, purely a matter of utilityB it ceases to be

recognied as a power in its own rightB and the theoretical !nowledge of its independent laws

appears only as a stratagem designed to subdue it to human requirements, whether as the ob"ect

of consumption or means of production.)204n detailing how nature functions in capitalism Marx

allows for the possibility of a change of thoughtB it is only via the recognition of a problem that

one can begin to solve it. Here Marx highlights the inversion, how 3 instead of society

recogniing that humanity is a subset of nature 3 society sees itself as above and beyond nature.

(his is an inversion that Marx wants to brea!, and is why Marx equates humanism with

naturalism. 4n so doing, Marx hopes that society realies its reliance upon nature and that

humanity is not beyond nature in any sense. ?eyond any ecological reasoning, Marx also

provides reasoning that humans can connect to.

(o such an effect Marx delineates, saying, '(he human significance of nature is only

available to social manB for only to social man is nature available as a bond with other men, as

the basis of his own existence for others and theirs for him, and as the vital element in human

realityB only to social man is nature the foundation of his own human existence.)2*6ature acts as

provider, giving humanity the means of production and consumption, for whatever purpose they

see fit. (his is fully recognied in a new society, and further, nature acts as a bond, allowing

humanity to connect with each other more fully. 4t is a shared condition amongst humanity that

nature acts as provider, and thus any exploitation of nature is an exploitation of humanity, both at

30Marx, K. 9-000;. Karl Marx =elected #ritings. p. 2>.

314bid. p. >.


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present and in the future. &i!ewise, when others exploit nature there will be the individual

awareness that they are exploiting each individual person at the same time. A society which does

so actively alienates humanity from itself as each individual has primacy instead of humanity as

a whole. Hudis summaries in saying that, '?y treating nature as a person apart that is to be

possessed, consumed, and destroyed for the sa!e of augmenting value, capitalism indeed leaves

us with a world that is Elifeless, solitary, and alone.F)2-

$vercoming the inversion is not to be an easy tas!, especially given the agency and

autonomy with which capital acts. 4ts logic and abstract essence imbue it with a means of acting

outside any laws that humans or nature abide by. (hat capital continues to wield its influence is a

dangerous prospect for humanity, as the problems continue to grow as capital li!ewise continues

to grow. Given the mist with which capital acts, the question is what 3 if anything 3 will inspire

people to loo! beyond the mistC (here is no certainty, however perhaps recognition of the

ecological problems society faces will provide the spar!. ?y forcing society to recognie the

ecological problems as they grow, there could be a reevaluation of the relationship between

nature and humanity. (he hope would be that such a paradigm shift would trigger further

exploration into the causes and the conditions that allow for the possibility of exploitation of

both humans and nature.

(o such an end there can be no Emagic bulletF which cures the problems society presently

faces. 4n the true Hegelian spirit which Marx builds upon, the negation of one negative 3 the

resolution of the ecological problems 3 leads only to another phase which need be overcome 3 the

conditions which allow for the possibility of the exploitation of nature, and by extension

humanity. Marx said that, 'all philosophy is a continuous process of becoming9C;,) and it is time

that society begins its own process immediately, lest it run out of time.

32Hudis, . 9-0*2;. MarxFs /oncept of the Alternative to /apitalism. p. >0.

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