Ekonomi dan Keuangan Indonesia Volume XLIX Nomor 1 , 2001

Paradigma Utama dalam Ilmu Ekonomi dan Implikasinya pada Ilmu

Perdagangan Internasional

M a d d a r e m m e n g A . Panennungi

A b s t r a c t

Kuhn Pamdigm is one of infiuentini ideas in tlie piuiosopinj of science. The

anaiysis of tiie deveiopuient of grand tiieory in economics pointed out that tlie

Kuhn paradigm couid expiain it with some exceptions. The Marxist Economist

ideas/theory is the reverse of the Ciassic Economist ideas, white the Keynessian

refiect as a synthesis of Marxist and Keynessian. Tlie rise and tlie failing of the

economist ideas depend on its capability in explaining and solving tlie problems

both in tiieoreticai and empirical. However, tiie idea of Ciassic, Marxist, and

Keynessian Economist iias its own "new generation" wiiicli offer a new way in

explaining the economic problems. The 'new generations' are neociassic,

neomarxist, and neokeyiiessian. The development of tlie tiieory in international

economics iias tiie same story, for example, "free trade" (classic and new ciassic)

theory faces tiie ciiaiienge of the " dependencia" (Marxist and neomarxist) tiieory,

white tlie "strategic trade policy" (merely keynessian and neokeyiiessian) is tiie

synthesis.

5 1

Macldaremineng A. Panennungi

1 . P E N D A H L L U A N

T u l i s a n i n i b e r m a k s u d u n t u k n i e m b e r i k a n p e t a d a r i p a r a d i g m a u t a m a

grand theory d a l a m i l m u e k o n o m i y a n g s e l a n j u t n y a m e i i h a t i m p l i k a s i n y a

d a l a m c a b a n g i l m u e k o n o m i p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l . P a r a d i g m a

d a p a t d i r u m u s k a n s e b a g a i " ' f / ( t ' entire constciiation of beiiefs, vaiues,

techniques, and so on sliared by members of a given (scientific) community'; and

'tiie concrete puzzie soiutkms wliicli, empioyed as modei of exampies, can replace

explicit rules as a basis for the solution of tiie remaining puzzles of normal

science'" ( C o l e , h a l 2 3 8 y a n g d i k o m b i n a s i k a n d a r i K u h n , h a l 1 7 5 ) .

P e r k e m b a n g a n s u a t u i l m u m e n j a d i s u a t u normal science h a m p i r s e l a l u

m e n g a i a m i p e r b e n t u r a n d e n g a n t e o r i s e b e l u m n y a . P e n u t u r a n d a r i

t u l i s a n i n i m e n d a s a r k a n p a d a p o l a p e m i k i r a n f i l s a f a t H e g e l i a n , j u g a

m e r u j u k p a d a P o p p e r d a n t e r u t a m a K u h n .

D a l a m p r a k t e k m a u p u n t e o r i t i s , i d e u t a m a y a n g m e n d o m i n a s i

d u n i a a d a l a h p o l a p i k i r k a p i t a i i s m e d a n s o s i a l i s m e . M e s k i p u n d a l a m

p e n e r a p a n n y a a d a l a h s i n t e s i s , k e d u a i d e t e r s e b u t m e m i l i k i c a r a p a n d a n g

y a n g s a n g a t k o n t r a s . K a p i t a i i s m e l e b i h m e n e k a n k a n p a d a n i l a i - n i l a i

k e b e b a s a n i n d i v i d u a l , p e n y e r a h a n k e g i a t a n e k o n o m i p a d a k e k u a t a n

p a s a r d e n g a n m e n o l a k c a m p u r t a n g a n n e g a r a , s e r t a p e m a k s i m u m a n

k e s e j a h t e r a a n i n d i v i d u a l . S e m e n t a r a s o s i a l i s m e m e n e k a n k a n n i l a i - n i l a i

p a d a k e b e r s a m a a n , p e n y e r a h a n k e g i a t a n e k o n o m i p a d a p e r e n c a n a a n

n e g a r a , s e r t a p e r a t a a n k e s e j a h t e r a a n m a s y a r a k a t . K e d u a p a h a m t e r s e b u t

j u g a s e c a r a k o n t r a s m e l a h i r k a n p a r a d i g m a d a l a m i l m u p e n g e t a h u a n

s o s i a i y a n g s a n g a t b e r t e n t a n g a n . D a l a m d u n i a n y a t a , p e r a n a n d a r i i d e

b e s a r t e r s e b u t d a p a t d i r a n g k u m p a d a p e n g g a l a n b e r i k u t i n i : k e t i k a

s e j u m l a h n e g a r a b e r u s a h a m e n y e s u a i k a n a t a u m e n g i n t e g r a s i k a n d i r i n y a

d e n g a n p r o s e s g l o b a l i s a s i , y a i t u d e n g a n m e m b u k a p e r e k o n o m i a n n y a ,

m a k a y a n g m e r e k a l a k u k a n s e b e n a r n y a a d a l a h b e r g e r a k m e n i n g g a l k a n

s i s t e m y a n g m e r e k a a n u t s e b e l u m n y a ( S o s i a l i s m e - M a r x i s m e ) m e n u j u k e

K a p i t a l i s m e - L i b e r a l " ( K u n t j o r o - J a k t i , 1 9 9 5 ) .

S e c a r a t i p o l o g i , d a p a t d i g a m b a r k a n b a g a i m a n a p e r a n i d e d i d a l a m

d i m e n s i p o l i t i k d a n e k o n o m i . K e d u a d i m e n s i i d e e k o n o m i d a n p o l i t i k

m e l a h i r k a n s i s t e m e k o n o m i p o l i t i k y a n g d a p a t d i i d e n t i f i k a s i m e n j a d i

e m p a t k a t e g o r i s e p e r t i d a l a m p e r a g a b e r i k u t i n i :

52

PcKdcligma Utama dalam Ilmu Ekonomi dan Implikasinya ...

Peraga 1 Sistem Ekonomi dan Politik

DIMENSI EKONOMI

D I M E N S I P O L I T I K

DIMENSI EKONOMI

INulVIUUAL/LlbtRAL CT \ Tr It. * A DVICT S I A I E/MAKXISI

DIMENSI EKONOMI

MARKET/ PASAR

SISTEM KAPITALISME

LIBERAL

SISTEM PASAR

SOSIALISME (MARKET

SOSIALISME)

DIMENSI EKONOMI

PLANNING / ETATISME

SISTEM EKONOMI

CAMPURAN (MIX-ECONOMIY)

SISTEM SOSIALISf TOTALIT

VIE ER

Sumber: A d a p t a s i d a r i K u n t j o r o - J a k t i , 1 9 9 5 , h a l 1 8 .

K a p i t a i i s m e d a n s o s i a l i s m e d a l a m i l m u e k o n o m i t e l a h m e l a h i r k a n

s u a t u a i i r a n s e n d i r i . S e t i a p a i i r a n p e m i k i r a n m e l a h i r k a n p a r a d i g m a n y a

t e r s e n d i r i . S e c a r a s e d e r h a n a a i i r a n y a n g m e r u p a k a n b a s i s u t a m a d a l a m

k a p i t a i i s m e d i s e b u t s e b a g a i a i i r a n klnsik y a n g m e n d a s a r k a n d i r i p a d a

p a s a r , s e m e n t a r a s o s i a l i s m e d i s e b u t s e b a g a i a i i r a n marxist y a n g

m e n e k a n k a n p e r e n c a n a a n . K e d u a a i i r a n t e r s e b u t j u g a m e m i l i k i p e n g i k u t

y a n g d a l a m p e r k e m b a n g a n n y a d i s e b u t s e b a g a i neo kiasik d a n neo marxist.

D i s a m p i n g k e d u a a i i r a n i n i t e r j a d i s i n t e s i s y a n g d i s e b u t a i i r a n keynessian

m a u p u n neo keynessian. P e r l u d i p e r t e g a s d i s i n i b a h w a a i i r a n p e m i k i r a n

keynessian d a n m a r x i s t i t u s e r i n g d i a n g g a p s e b a g a i a i i r a n striikturaiist

b e r u p a a i i r a n y a n g m e i i h a t t e o r i k l a s i k t i d a k r e i e v a n k a r e n a d a l a m

p e r e k o n o m i a n — t e r u t a m a n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g d a n t e r b e l a k a n g — s e l a l u

h a d i r k e t i d a k s e m p u r n a a n p a s a r b e s e r t a structurai ridgidities. S e l a i n t i g a

a i i r a n u t a m a t e r s e b u t , a d a b e b e r a p a a i i r a n y a n g m e n j a d i a i i r a n

p i n g g i r a n / p e n d u k u n g - y a n g t i d a k a k a n d i b a h a s d a l a m p a p e r i n i -

s e p e r t i merkantiiisme ( a b a d s e b e l u m 1 5 h i n g g a 1 8 ) , aiistrian ( p e r t e n g a h a n

a b a d 1 9 ) , iibertarian ( p e l a n j u t A u s t r i a n h i n g g a s e k a r a n g ) , institusionai

( a b a d 1 9 h i n g g a s e k a r a n g ) . S a y a j u g a p e r l u m e n e k a n k a n d i s i n i b a h w a

k e s e m u a a i i r a n p e m i k i r a n i n i s e b e t u l n y a t i d a k m e m i l i k i g a r i s y a n g b e t u l -

b e t u l t e g a s d a l a m p e n e r a p a n n y a .

53

Maclcl i i rommcng A . Panennung i

A d a t i g a t o k o h u t a m a y a n g a k a n m e n d a p a t p e r h a t i a n s e r i u s d i

d a l a m t u l i s a n i n i . M e r e k a a d a l a h A d a m S m i t h ( 1 7 2 3 - 1 7 9 0 ) , K a r l M a r x

( 1 8 1 8 - 1 8 8 3 ) , d a n J o h n M a y n a r d K e y n e s ( 1 8 8 3 - 1 9 4 6 ) y a n g m e r u p a k a n t i g a

f i g u r b e s a r d a l a m s e j a r a h i l m u e k o n o m i ( P r e s s m a n , 1 9 9 9 ) . M e r e k a

p u l a l a h y a n g m e n a n c a p k a n t i g a a i i r a n b e s a r d a l a m i l m u e k o n o m i ,

m a s i n g m a s i n g a d a l a h K l a s i k , M a r x i s t , d a n K e y n e s s i a n .

2. K E R A N G K A T E O R I T I S

K u h n ( 1 9 7 0 ) , d a l a m The Structure of Scientific Revoiution m e n g i k u t i

d i a l e k t i k a H e g e l , m e i i h a t b a h w a p e r k e m b a n g a n i l m u p e n g e t a h u a n

s e b e n a r n y a t i d a k l a h s e l a l u b e r j a l a n s e c a r a l i n e a r m e n u r u t r u n t u n w a k t u .

l a m e i i h a t b a h w a f a k t o r w a k t u t i d a k t e r l a l u b e r p e n g a r u h t e r h a d a p

k e b e n a r a n s u a t u i l m u p e n g e t a h u a n . A r t i n y a k e m u n g k i n a n y a n g d i k e n a l

s a a t i n i s e b e n a r n y a b u k a n h a l y a n g b a r u , t e t a p i s e s u a t u y a n g s u d a h l a m a

a d a , n a m u n b a r u d i s a d a r i b a h w a h a l i t u l e b i h b e n a r . C o n t o h y a n g p a l i n g

s p e k t a k u l e r a d a l a h m e n g e n a i P e n d a p a t C a l i l e o m e n g e n a i b u m i

m e n g g e l i l i n g i m a t a h a r i i t u y a n g m e n y e b a b k a n i a h a r u s d i b a k a r , n a m u n

t e r n y a t a b e b e r a p a a b a d k e m u d i a n t e l a h t e r b u k t i b a h w a i a b e n a r h i n g g a

s a a t i n i . J a d i p a r a d i g m a b a h w a m a t a h a r i i t u m e n g g e l i l i n g i b u m i m e n j a d i

g u g u r , d a n o t o m a t i s a k a n m e n g g u g u r k a n j u g a s e t i a p b a g i a n y a n g

m e n d u k u n g n y a .

C o l e ( 1 9 9 9 ) m e i i h a t P a r a d i g m a K u h n s e p e r t i b e r i k u t i n i : "Kiiiin's

paradigm are a way of conceptuaiizing existence, conceptuaiizing tiie sociai

system, in sucli a way as to soive siicli probiems: soiutions that generate

scientific knowiedge as a set of theories and rides—a paradigm. Paradigms are

botli a perspective on the worid, and of the modei of the worid. And because the

paradigm succesfuiiy soives probiems, it is generaiiy accepted in the scientific

community as tiie way to conceive of experience, and reaiity"{Co]e, h a l 2 3 9 ) .

D a l a m introduction, K u h n m e n e g a s k a n science i t u b e r k e m b a n g b a i k

d a r i coiiection, iinear growth, a t a u p u n growth with ups and down. S e b u a h

p e r n y a t a a n y a n g c u k u p k o n t r o v e r s i a l a d a l a h k e t i k a m e m p e r t a n y a k a n

k e m u n g k i n a n science i t u b u k a n s e s u a t u y a n g m e r u p a k a n

a k u m u l a s i ; " p e r / w p s science does not deveioped by the acciimuiation of

individuai discoveries and inventions"{Kuhn, h a l 2 ) .

M e n u r u t K u h n , scientific revioiution a k a n m e l a l u i a p a y a n g d i s e b u t

s e b a g a i k r i s i s . N a m p a k n y a K u h n i n g i n m e n g a t a k a n b a h w a k r i s i s b e s a r

54

PciriKiignia Utama dalam Ilmu Ekonomi dan Implikasinya

d a l a m s e b u a h p a r a d i g m a m e r u p a k a n s e b u a h j a l a n k e p a d a t r a n s f o r m a s i

d a r i s a t u p a r a d i g m a k e p a d a p a r a d i g m a y a n g l a i n . T r a n s f o r m a s i i n i l e w a t

k e g a g a l a n r i d c s - n y a . S e p e r t i a p a y a n g d i u n g k a p k a n , " / a ; 7 i m ' of existing

ruies is the preiiide to a search to a new ones"{Kuhn, h a l 6 8 ) . D a r i p e n g e r t i a n

i t u p a r a scientist a k a n b e r p i n d a h d a r i s a t u p a r a d i g m a k e p a r a d i g m a y a n g

l a i n s e a n d a i n y a p a r a d i g m a y a n g s e b e l u m n y a t i d a k b i s a m e n j e l a s k a i | .

S e l a n j u t n y a K u h n m e n g a t a k a n : "Tlie decision to reject one paradigm is

always simiiitaneousiy the decision to accept another... ( K u h n , h a l 7 7 ) .

B e r i k u t n y a ( K u h n , h a l 7 9 ) d i k a t a k a n : "To reject anotiier paradigm witiiout

simiiitaneousiy substituting anotiier is to reject science itself. Tiiat act reflects

not on tiie paradigm but on the man". N a m p a k n y a K u h n i n g i n m e n e g a s k a n

b a h w a k e t i k a s e s e o r a n g m e n o l a k p a r a d i g m a s e b e l u m n y a , o t o m a t i s i a

b e r a d a d i s a t u p a r a d i g m a y a n g l a i n , y a n g b e l u m t e n t u b a r u . K u h n

m e i i h a t b a h w a b i a s a n y a y a n g m a m p u k e l u a r d a r i p a r a d i g m a l a m a

a d a l a h o r a n g y a n g t e r b e b a s d a r i p a r a d i g m a s e b e l u m n y a , y a n g

d i u n g k a p k a n : "Almost always the men wiio achieve these fiindaihentai

invention of a new paradigm iiave either been very young or very new to tiie field

xohose paradigm tiiey change"{Kuhn, h a l 9 0 ) .

K e m u d i a n i a m e n g e n a l k a n normal science, n a m u n j u g a m e n e k a n k a n

b a h w a science i t u m e r u p a k a n p r o s e s y a n g t a k p e r n a h b e r h e n t i , " H o r t 7 / t 7 /

science uitiinateiy leads only to the recognition of anomalies and to

t T ! s e s . . " ( K u h n , h a l 1 2 2 ) . P e r k e m b a n g a n s u a t u i l m u a k a n m e n u j u s u a t u

normal science d e n g a n p a r a d i g m a t e r t e n t u . S a a t i t u p e r k e m b a n g a n

s e l a n j u t n y a a d a l a h m e n u j u p r o s e s p e m a t a n g a n , s e a k a n a k a n s e b a g a i

s u a t u puzzie solving. S a a t t e r s e b u t , t e r l i h a t b a h w a h a m p i r s e m u a

p e r k e m b a n g a n d a l a m b i d a n g i l m u t e r s e b u t a k a n m e r u j u k t e r h a d a p n y a ,

s e a k a n - a k a n s e m u a n y a t e r k u n g k u n g d a l a m s u a t u a t u r a n / n d e s d a l a m

p a r a d i g m a t e r t e n t u .

N a m u n k e t i k a d i t e m u i s u a t u k e n y a t a a n b a h w a a d a g e j a l a a n o m a l i

b e r u p a p e n g e m b a n g a n i l m u y a n g t i d a k m a s u k d a l a m k e r a n g k a

p a r a d i g m a y a n g l a m a a t a u s a m a s e k a l i I a i n , m a k a k e m u n g k i n a n b e s a *

a k a n m e n g a i a m i p e n o l a k a n . K e t i k a a n o m a l i m e m b e s a r m a k a

k e m u n g k i n a n t e r j a d i s e m a c a m k r i s i s y a n g m e m b e r i k a n k e s e m p a t a n

u n t u k m u n c u l n y a s u a t u scientific revoiution, d i m a n a t e r j a d i p e r u b a h a n

p a r a d i g m a s e c a r a c e p a t . B a h k a n t e r k a d a n g s a n g a t b e r t e n t a n g a n d e n g a n

s e b e l u m n y a .

5 5

MiK ld i i r c inn icng A . Panennungi

D a l a m i l m u s o s i a i , t e r u t a m a d a l a m i l m u e k o n o m i , a n t a r a

p a r a d i g m a l a m a d a n b a r u m e m a n g t e r j a d i s e m a c a m p e r g u l a t a n .

P a r a d i g m a l a m a m u n c u l k e m b a l i d e n g a n t e t a p p a d a t o n g g a k a w a l ,

n a m u n m e n c o b a m e m b e r i k a n p e n j e l a s a n t e n t a n g h a l y a n g d u i u o l e h

p a r a d i g m a b a r u d i s e r a n g , d e m i k i a n j u g a s e b a l i k n y a p a r a d i g m a b a r u t a d i

j u g a m e l a k u k a n s u a t u m e t a m o r f o s i s . M i s a l n y a d a l a m I l m u e k o n o m i k i t a

k e n a l a i i r a n k l a s i k , n e o k l a s i k , m a r x i s t , n e o m a r x i s t , k e y n e s , n e o

k e y n e s s i a n . M e n u r u t s a y a , P a r a d i g m a K u h n t i d a k s e p e n u h n y a b i s a

d i t e r a p k a n d a l a m m e i i h a t i l m u p e n g e t a h u a n s o s i a i , d i m a n a a d a

r e l a t i v i t a s d a n t a f s i r a n d u n i a n y a t a s e b a g a i a k i b a t p e r i l a k u m a n u s i a .

S e h i n g g a y a n g t i m b u l d a l a m i l m u s o s i a i a d a l a h k e m u n c u l a n p a r a d i g m a

b a r u t i d a k b e r a r t i m e m a t i k a n p a r a d i g m a l a m a , y a n g t e n t u n y a a g a k

b e r l a w a n a n d e n g a n a p a y a n g t e r j a d i d i i l m u e k s a k t a .

P o p p e r d a l a m The Logic of Scientific Discovery m e n g u n g k a p k a n i d e

m e n g e n a i b a g a i m a n a p e r k e m b a n g a n science, s e r t a m e m b e d a k a n science

a t a u non science. "Fnisificationisin is the idea tiiat science advances by

unjustified, exaggerated guesses foiiowed by unstinting criticism. Oniy

in/potiieses capable of dashing ivitii observation reports are aiiozved to count as

scientific. "Cold is soiubie in iiydrocidoric acid" is scientific (though false):

"Some iwmeopathic medicine does work" is, taken on its own, unscientific

(tiiougli possibly true). The first is scientific because we can diminate it if it is

false; tiie second is unscientific because even if it were false we couid not get rid

of it by confronting it witii an observation report tliat contradicted it.

Unfaisifiabie theories are tike the computer programs with no uninstaii option

that just dog up the computer's precious storage space. Faisifiabie theories, on

the other iiand, eniiance our control over error wiiiie expanding the richness of

wiiat we can say about the worid. Any "positive support" for tlieories is botii

unobtainable and superfious; ait we can and need do is create theories and

diminate error - and even this is injpotheticai, though often successfid"{

w w w . e e n g . d c u . i e / - t k p w / )

^ B e r i k u t i n i a k a n d i u r a i k a n b e b e r a p a p a n d a n g a n m e n g e n a i

m e t o d o l o g i i l m u p e n g e t a h u a n e k o n o m i y a n g s e p e n u h n y a b e r a s a l d a r i

M a r k B l a u g ( 1 9 9 0 ) , T / j e Methodoiogy of Economics. T e r e n c e H u t c h i s o n l e w a t

b u k u n y a The Significance and Postiiiates of Economics m e n c o b a u n t u k

m e n g e s k s p l i s i t k a n k r i t e r i a m e t o d o l o g i d a r i faisifiabiiity P o p p e r k e d a l a m

p e r d e b a t a n e k o n o m i . M e s k i p u n i a m e l e w a t k a n p r i n s i p - p r i n s i p P o p p e r

y a n g s e b e n a r n y a d a n m e n g u t i p P o p p e r b e b e r a p a k a l i , i a m e m b e n t a n g -

5 6

f 'aradigma U l a m a da lam I lmu Ekonomi dan Impl i kas inya

k a n k r i t e r i a y a n g f u n d a m e n t a l b a h w a p r e p o s i s i e k o n o m i y a n g m e n c e r ­

m i n k a n 'science' m e s t i b i s a , p a l i n g t i d a k m a s u k a k a l , d a n b i s a d i t e s s e c a r a

e m p i r i k t a n p a p e r l u m e m p e r h a t i k a n ( p r i n s i p - p r i n s i p ) P o p p e r .

A r g u m e n H u t c h i s o n b e r p u s a t p a d a c a t a t a n b a h w a s e m u a p r e p o s i s i

e k o n o m i t e r b a g i a t a s p r e p o s i s i t a u t o l o g i (do not forbid any conceivable

occurrence of states of tlie world) d a n e m p i r i k (forbid at least some conceivable

of those state). S e m u a statement d a p a t d i b a g i k e d a l a m s u a t u y a n g l o g i s

d a n a n a l i t i s d a n s i n t e t i s . S e l a i n k l a s i s f i k a s i m e n u r u t H u t c h i s o n t a d i ,

K l a p p h o l z d a n A g a s s i m e m b a g i k l a s i f i k a s i k e d a l a m t i g a : (1) p r e p o s i s i

a n a l i t i s - t a u t o l o g i , (2) p r e p o s i s i s i n t e t i s - e m p i r i k m e s k i p u n t a k d a p a t d i u j i

p a d a l e v e l y a n g d a s a r , d a n (3) s i n t e t i s - e m p i r i k y a n g d a p a t d i u j i p a l i n g

t i d a k p a d a l e v e l d a s a r .

H u t c h i s o n m e i i h a t b a h w a t e o r i e k o n o m i h a m p i r s e m u a n y a a d a i a h

t a u t o l o g i , m e s k i p u n s a a t p e m b u a t a n b u k u n y a s u d a h m e i e w a t i d u a t a h u n

d a r i k e i u a r n y a b u k u K e y n e s y a n g s a n g a t p e d u i i p a d a i s s u e m p i r i k .

M a s i h b e i u m j e l a s y a n g d i m a k s u d a p a k a h y a n g d i u j i a d a i a h a s u m s i

a t a u k a h p r e d i k s i d a r i t e o r i e k o n o m i . M a c h i u p m e i i h a t n y a s e b a g a i

uitraempiricism. M a c h i u b m e m p e r i i h a t k a n b a h w a k a i a u m e i a k u k i i n u j i

p a d a a s u m s i d a s a r s e p e r t i m a k s i m i s a s i p r o f i t d a n m a k s i m i s a s i itiiity

m e r u p a k a n s e s u a t u y a n g m i s l e a d i n g . M e s k i p u n H u t c h i s o n m e m b e i d d i r i ,

n a m u n h a m p i r s e i u r u h k a r y a n y a t e r l i h a t i a m e r u j u k p a d a a s u m s i d a n

p r e d i k s i .

F r a n k K n i g h t m e m b e r i k a n s e m a c a m p e n y a n g k a i a n a t a s a p a y a n g

d i k a t a k a n s e b e l u m n y a , b a h w a p r e p o s i s i t e n t a n g economic belinvioiir d a p a t

d i u j i s e c a r a e m p i r i k s e b a b economic behaviour a d a i a h goat directed d a n

t e r g a n t u n g p a d a p e n g e r t i a n n y a p a d a p e n g e t a h u a n i n t u i s i k i t a d a r i

purposive character. D o k t r i n V e r s t e h e n m e n g a t a k a n b a h w a m e s k i p u n

k e n y a t a a n b a h w a i i m u e k o n o m i d a n i i m u a l a m i t u b a n y a k k e s a m a a n n y a ,

n a m u n t i d a k b i s a k i t a m e m a k s a k a n p e r l a k u a n y a n g s a m a p a d a

k e d u a n y a , s e b a b a k a n m e n y e b a k a n misleading.

M e t o d o l o g i B r i d g m a n m e n g e n a i operationaiism s a n g a t m e m p e r h a t i ­

k a n m e n g e n a i k o n s t r u k s i d a r i s u a t u a t u r a n k o r e s p o n d e n s i ( h u b u n g a n

s a t u - s a t u ) y a n g m e n g h u b u n g k a n k o n s e p a b s t r a k d a r i scientific theory

m e n u j u o p e r a s i e k s p e r i m e n t a l d a r i p e n g u k u r a n s e c a r a f i s i k . S a m u e l s o n

m e n g g u n a k a n h a i y a n g m e r u p a k a n popperian falsification y a n g d i e k s p r e s i -

k a n d a i a m b a h a s a Vienna circle, y a n g b e r b e d a d e n g a n B r i d g m a n .

57

M a d d a r e m m e n g A. Panennungi

S a m u e l s o n l e w a t b u k u n y a Foundation of Economic Anaiysis: Tiie

Operationai Significance of Economic Theory m e n c o b a u n t u k m e n d e k l a r a s i -

k a n " t e o r e m a o p e r a s i o n a l y a n g b e r a r t i " d a i a m i i m u e k o n o m i . D e n g a n

meaningfuii theorem i a m e n y e d e r h a n a k a n h i p o t e s i s t e n t a n g d a t a e m p i r i k

y a n g m u n g k i n s a j a d i t o l a k d a i a m k o n d i s i y a n g i d e a l . S a m u e l s o n d e n g a n

m e n g a p i i k a s i k a n k a i k u i u s k u a i i t a t i f p a d a b e b e r a p a t e o r i y a n g s u d a h

d i t e r i m a m e n y i m p u i k a n b a h w a h a n y a s e d i k i t k a n d u n g a n e m p i r i k d a r i

t e o r i p e r i l a k u k o n s u m e n . M a c h i u b m e n y i t i r B r i d g m a n m e n g i n t e r -

p e r t a s i k a n b a h w a s e b a i k n y a o p e r a s i m a t e m a t i k a d i h i i a n g k a n d a r i

f o r m u i a s i t e o r i a t a u h a i i t u m e r u p a k a n k o m p r o m i y a n g f a t a l : t e o r i h a n y a

k o n s e p u k u r a n o p e r a s i o n a l d a i a m b e n t u k f i s i k y a n g t i d a k b e r a r t i i a g i

d a r i g e n e r a i i s a s i tower icvei t e n t a n g a t u r a n - a t u r a n e m p i r i k .

M i l t o n F r i e d m a n d a i a m Essay on tlie Methodoiogy of Positive

Economics m e n g i n g a t k a n b a h w a k i t a t a k p e r i u u n t u k m e r a s a t e r g a n g g u

u n t u k m e m b u a t a s u m s i k i t a " r e a i i s t i s " . F r i e d m a n m e m b u k a e s s e i n y a

d e n g a n m e m b e d a k a n n o r m a t i f d a n p o s i t i f e k o n o m i , y a n g s e l a n j u t n y a

k e s a t u a n m e t o d o l o g i d a r i i i m u a l a m d a n i i m u s o s i a i . S e l a n j u t n y a l a

m e n g a t a k a n b a h w a s a t u - s a t u n y a u j i y a n g r e i e v a n d e n g a n v a i i d i t a s

b e r a s a i d a r i s e b u a h h i p o t e s i s a d a i a h p e r b a n d i n g a n p r e d i k s i n y a d e n g a n

h i p o t e s i s . H i p o t e s i s d i t o l a k j i k a b e r t e n t a n g a n , j i k a t i d a k b e r t e n t a n g a n

m a k a i a d i t e r i m a . S e i a n j u t n y a F r i e d m a n m e m b e r i k a n p e r n y a t a a n y a n g

c u k u p m e n c e n g a n g k a n : t i d a k h a n y a a s u m s i i t u t i d a k h a r u s m e n j a d i

r e a i i s t i s t a p i m e n j a d i i e b i h b e r g u n a k a i a u t i d a k , m e n j a d i i e b i h p e n t i n g

s e b u a h h i p o t e s i s d i d e s k r i p s i k a n s a i a h d a i a m a s u m s i n y a . H a i i n i

k e m u d i a n d i k e n a i d e n g a n 'tlie extreme version of the E-twist".

M e n u r u t S a m u e l s o n , F - t w i s t b e r a s a i d a r i d u a v e r s i : v e r s i d a s a r y a n g

m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a k u r a n g r e a i i s t i s n y a d a r i a s u m s i t e o r i a d a i a h r e i e v a n

t e r h a d a p v a l i d i t a s n y a , d a n v e r s i e k s t r i m b e r a s a i d a r i k e g u n a a n p o s i t i f

t e r h a d a p a s u m s i y a n g t i d a k r e a i i s t i s p a d a d a s a r n y a y a n g m e r u p a k a n

s e b u a h t e o r i y a n g s i g n i f i k a n y a n g a k a n s e l a l u b e r t a n g g u n g j a w a b p a d a

r e a l i t a s y a n g k o m p i e k s y a n g s e s u a t u y a n g i e b i h s e d e r h a n a d a r i p a d a n y a .

S a m u e l s o n s e l a n j u t n y a m e n g h u j a t F - t w i s t d e n g a n m e n g g u n a k a n

a k s i o m a "Euciidean "theory y a n g m e r u p a k a n s t r u k t u r y a n g d e d u k t i f y a n g

m e n j a m i n b a h w a a s u m s i , p r e p o s i s i t e o r i , d a n k o n s e k w e n s i , k e s e m u a n y a

s a l i n g a d a k e t e r g a n t u n g a n .

58

Pciracligiiia Utama da lam I lmu Ekonomi clan Implikasir^ya .

T e s i s A l c h i a n d i s a m a k a n d e n g a n T e o r i D a r w i n : the survival of tiie

fittest: d a l a m r a n g k a survive, a d a l a h p e n t i n g u n t u k a d a p t a s i i e b i h b a i k

t e r h a d a p i i n g k u n g a n d a r i i a w a n , d a n k i t a b i s a e s t a b i i s d a r i s e i e k s i a l a m .

S e i a n j u t n y a k i t a b i s a e s t a b l i s h d a r i s e i e k s i e k o n o m i d a n b a h w a

p e r u s a b a a n y a n g survive a d a i a h d e n g a n m a k s i m a s i p r o f i t .

L i p s e y , i e w a t b u k u n v a introduction to Positive Economics m e n g a t a k a n

b a h w a Popcriau faisificationism i t u a d a i a h v e r s i y a n g naive, i a p e r c a y a

b a h w a t e o r i i i m a h d a p a t d i s a i a h k a n d e n g a n s a t u test y a n g c u r a n g . Naive

faisificationism i n i m e r u p a k a n j a l a n m e n u j u sopiiisticated faisificationism.

H u t c h i s o n k e m u d i a n m e n g e k s p r e s i k a n p e n d a p a t n y a b a h w a m u n g k i n

m a y o r i t a s d a r i e k o n o m a k a n s e t u j u b a h w a m e n i n g k a t n y a p r e d i k s i d a r i

p e r i l a k u e k o n o m i a t a u k e j a d i a n m e r u p a k a n t u g a s p a l i n g u t a m a d a r i p a r a

e k o n o m . N a m u n h a i t e r s e b u t d i b a n t a h b a h w a t i d a k b i s a d i t e m u k a n

a p a k a h t e o r i e k o n o m i i t u d i l i h a t d a r i p r e d i k s i n y a a t a u testing

e m p i r i k n y a .

F i l o s o f i esentiaiism k e m b a l i p a d a P l a t o d a n A r i s t o t e i e d a r i m a n a

knowiedge a t a u science b e r a s a i d i m u l a i d a r i o b s e r v a s i k e j a d i a n i n d i v i d u a i

a t a u p r o s e s i n d u k s i y a n g k e m u d i a n d i a n g k a t m e n j a d i s u a t u k e j a d i a n

u n i v e r s a l . M e s k i p u n P o p p e r m e r a s a b a h w a esentiaiism m e m b e r i k a e f e k

k e r u s a k a n p a d a t e n d e n s i a n t i e m p i r i k u n t u k m e m e c a h k a n m a s a i a h .

S e d a n g k a n instutionaiism d i g o i o n g k a n p a d a m e r e k a y a n g c e n d e r u n g

m e n g u i a s p a d a i n s t i t u s i y a n g m e n g a n d a i k a n p e n g e r t i a n k e t i m b a n g

p r e d i k s i , b i a s a n y a d i s e b u t pmttern modeiiing y a n g b u k a n m e r u p a k a n

b a g i a n d a r i s a i a h s a t u a i i r a n d i a t a s .

3. P A R A D I G M A U T A M A I L M U E K O N O M I

3.1 Pandangan K a u m Klasik

T o k o h U t a m a : A d a m S m i t h , M a l t u s , J . B . S a y , J . S . M i l l , d a n D a v i d R i c a r d o .

B a g a i m a n a k e m a k m u r a n s u a t u b a n g s a t e r w u j u d , d a n m e n g a p a

k e m a k m u r a n b e r b e d a d a r i s a t u b a n g s a d e n g a n b a n g s a l a i n ? S m i t h

m e n j a w a b n y a p a d a d a i i i b a h w a t a b i a t m e n a h a n d i r i (self restraint) d a p a t

t u m b u h s u b u r d a l a m s u a t u m a s y a r a k a t y a n g m e m b e r i p e i u a n g s e b e s a r -

b e s a r n y a b a g i s e t i a p o r a n g u n t u k m e n g e j a r k e p e n t i n g a n d i r i s e n d i r i .

J a w a b a n i t u d i k e n a i d e n g a n invisible hands y a n g m e r u p a k a n s u a t u natural

taw. K e s e m u a i t u t e r u n g k a p d a l a m d u a b u k u n y a y a n g t e r k e n a i The

59

M a d d a r e m m e n g A . Panennungi

Wealth of Nations: An Inquiri/ into The Nature a n d Causes dan Tlie Tiieory of

Moral The Sentiments ( O r m e r o d , 1 9 9 8 ) .

P a n d a n g a n A d a m S m i t h s a n g a t d i p e n g a r u h i o l e h p e m i k i r a n -

p e m i k i r a n T h o m a s M u n , W i l l i a m P e t t y , J o h n L o c k e , R i c h a r d C a n t i l l o n ,

F r a n c o i s Q u e s n e y , d a n D a v i d H u m e . P e m i k i r - p e m i k i r t e r s e b u t

m e r u p a k a n t o k o h b e r p e n g a r u h b a i k d a i a m f i l s a f a t m a u p u n e k o n o m i d i

s e k i t a r a b a d 1 7 d a n 1 8 d i m a n a m a s a S m i t h b e l a j a r d a n m e n u l i s . B a s i s

p a n d a n g a n n y a a d a i a h f i l s a f a t D a r w i n i s m e b e r u p a survival of the fittest

( B i a u g h , 1 9 9 0 ) .

P r i n s i p d a s a r n y a a d a i a h b e k e r j a n y a p a s a r y a n g a k a n m e n c i p t a k a n

e k u i l i b r i u m t a n p a a d a i n t e r v e n s i p e m e r i n t a h . P a s a r y a n g i d e a l a d a l a h

p e r s a i n g a n s e m p u r n a y a n g m e m b i a r k a n p e r e k o n o m i a n b e r a d a p a d a

s u a t u k e s e i m b a n g a n p e n a w a r a n d a n p e r m i n t a a n , d i m a n a h a r g a

m e r u p a k a n s u a t u s i g n a l u t a m a y a n g m e n j a d i i n s e n t i f b a g i p r o d u s e n

m a u p u n k o n s u m e n d a l a m m e l a k u k a n t r a n s a k s i .

S e b a g i a n b e s a r u s a h a S m i t h d a n k a u m k i a s i k a d a l a h m e m f o k u s k a n

d i r i p a d a t e o r i h a r g a . M e r e k a b a n y a k m e l a k u k a n p e n y e l i d i k a n p a d a

f a k t o r y a n g m e n e n t u k a n h a r g a d a r i p e r m i n t a a n d a n p e n a w a r a n

( Z i m m e r m e n , 1 9 5 9 ) . B e r k e m b a n g n y a t e o r i m e n g e n a i p e r i l a k u k o n s u m e n

d a n p e r i l a k u p r o d u s e n m e n j a d i t e m a u t a m a b a g i s e t i a p m a h a s i s w a y a n g

b e l a j a r i l m u e k o n o m i . K e s e m u a n y a t e r a n g k u m d a i a m m a t a k u l i a h y a n g

b e r t e m a k a n m i k r o e k o n o m i .

B a n y a k a h i i e k o n o m i m e n i i a i b a h w a e k u i i i b r i u r h d i d a i a m p a s a r

y a n g d i m a k s u d h a n y a b i s a t e r c a p a i d a l a m j a n g k a p a n j a n g . K a r e n a i t u ,

s e r i n g k a i i a n a l i s i s e k o n o m k l a s i k s e l a l u m e m e n t i n g k a n j a n g k a p a n j a n g

d a r i p a d a j a n g k a p e n d e k . M i s a l n y a a s u m s i j i k a d a l a m j a n g k a p a n j a n g

m a k a p r o f i t p e r u s a b a a n a k a n n o r m a l ( p r o f i t s a m a d e n g a n n o l ) . S e h i n g g a

c i r i a n a l i s i s j a n g k a p a n j a n g a d a l a h s a i a h s a t u k e k h u s u s a n k a u m k i a s i k .

S e l a i n k o n s e p p a s a r . S m i t h b e r s a m a k a u m k i a s i k m e n g u n g k a p k a n

g a g a s a n - g a g a s a n u t a m a , s e p e r t i specialization/division of tabor, absouiute

advantage, comparative advantage, free trade, a n t i m o n o p o l i , p a j a k p r o g r e s i f ,

involuntary unemployment, dan supply side economics.

G a g a s a n u t a m a y a n g d i k e m b a n g k a n a d a l a h s p e s i a l i s a s i d a n

p e m b a g i a n k e r j a , d i m a n a k a i a u s e t i a p o r a n g b e r s p e s i a i i s a s i k e p a d a

k e m a m p u a n n y a , m a k a p r o d u k s i a k a n j a u h i e b i h b e r l i p a t k e t i m b a n g

s e t i a p o r a n g m e n g e r j a k a n s e s u a t u t a n p a s p e s i a l i s a s i d e n g a n m e n g e r j a k a n

60

Parddignvi Ul i in i i i clalani I lmu Ekonomi dan impl ikas inya . . .

s e m u a b a g i a n . C o n t o h y a n g d i g u n a k a n a d a l a h d a l a m m e m p e r o d u k s i

p e n i t i , k a i a u s p e s i a l i s a s i d i b a g i a t a s m e m o t o n g , m e r u n c i n g k a n , d a n

m e i u b a n g i m a k a j u m i a h y a n g d i p r o d u k s i j a u h i e b i h b a n y a k k e t i m b a n g

s e o r a n g m e l a k u k a n s e m u a b a g i a n n y a . B e r d a s a r k a n p e n g a m a t a n S m i t h

p a d a s e b u a h p a b r i k d e n g a n s e p u i u h t e n a g a k e r j a , i a m e n e m u k a n b a h w a

d a i a m s e h a r i d a p a t d i p r o d u k s i s e b a n y a k 4 8 . 0 0 0 , s e m e n t a r a j i k a d i b i a r k a n

s e n d i r i , m a k a m e r e k a h a n y a m a m p u m e m p r o d u k s i s e b a n y a k 2 0 p e n i t i ,

s e h i n g g a d a p a t d i s i m p u i k a n b a h w a p e m b a g i a n k e r j a m a m p u m e n i n g k a t ­

k a n 2 0 0 0 k a l i i i p a t p r o d u k s i .

K o n s e p absolut advantage o l e h S m i t h m e n g a t a k a n b a h w a , u m u m n y a

s u a t u n e g e r i a k a n u n t u n g b i i a m e n g k h u s u s k a n d i r i d a i a m p r o d u k y a n g

d a p a t d i p r o d u k s i d e n g a n m u r a h d a r i n e g e r i l a i n . J i k a s e t i a p n e g a r a

m e i a k u k a n n v a m a k a s e m u a n y a a k a n m e n g a i a m i k e s e j a h t e r a a n .

S e m e n t a r a k e u n t u n g a n k o m p a r a t i f y a n g d i l o n t a r k a n o l e h D a v i d R i c a r d o

m e i i h a t n y a b a h w a p a s t i s e l a l u a d a j a l a n b a g i n e g a r a t e r s e b u t u n t u k

b e r s p e s i a i i s a s i p a d a y a n g p a l i n g m u r a h b i a y a p r o d u k s i n y a , b u k a n

d e n g a n m e m p r o d u k s i s e m u a n y a , m e s k i p u n e f i s i e n s i n y a b e r b e d a .

P e r d a g a n g a n b e b a s {free trade) m e r u p a k a n k o n s e k w e n s i d a r i

coiuparative/absolute advantage y a n g d i m i l i k i s u a t u n e g a r a / d a e r a h . J i k a

m e r e k a m e l a k u k a n p e r t u k a r a n m a k a a k a n m e n i n g k a t k a n k e s e j a h t e r a a n

b a g i k e d u a n y a . K a r e n a i t u s e t i a p u s a h a u n t u k m e n g h a m b a t p e r d a g a n g a n

a k a n m e n g u r a n g i k e s e j a h t e r a a n b a g i k e d u a n y a , d a n free trade a d a i a h

p i i i h a n y a n g p a l i n g b a i k . S e l a i n i t u m o n o p o l i p e n g u s a h a d i a n g g a p

s e b a g a i p e r u s a k p e r e k o n o m i a n , k a r e n a p i h a k m o n o p o i i s b i s a m e m p e r -

m a i n k a n h a r g a b a i k u n t u k d a i a m n e g e r i m a u p u n i u a r n e g e r i .

S e l a i n i t u , s u m b a n g a n S m i t h u n t u k e k o n o m i p u b l i k a d a i a h

m e n g e n a i p a j a k p r o g r e s i f . M e n u r u t n y a , s e b a i k n y a p a j a k i t u p r o p o r s i o n a l

b a g i p e n d a p a t a n s e s e o r a n g , k a r e n a p a j a k y a n g b e r s i f a t r e g r e s i f a k a n

m e r u g i k a n m a s y a r a k a t y a n g p e n d a p a t a n n y a r e n d a h . J u g a s u m b a n g a n -

n y a b u a t e k o n o m i m a k r o d i j e i a s k a n b a h w a t i d a k m u n g k i n a d a

p e n g a n g g u r a n y a n g t i d a k s u k a r e i a , k a r e n a s i p e n g a n g g u r s e b e t u l n y a

b i s a b e k e r j a d e n g a n p e n d a p a t a n y a n g m u n g k i n t i d a k m e m b u a t i a m a u

b e k e r j a .

D a r i h a m p i r s e i u r u h t e o r i y a n g b e r k e m b a n g d i d a l a m t a t a r a n

p e m i k i r a n k i a s i k , p e r e k o n o m i a n l e b i h b a n y a k d i p a n d a n g d a r i s i s i s u p i a i

b e l a k a . H a i i n i d i k a r e n a k a n a s u m s i y a n g d i d e n g u n g k a n J . B . S a y , b a h w a

61

Macldaremnieng A. Panennungi

supply creates its own demand. A r t i n y a p r o d u k s i i t u a k a n m e n c i p t a k a n

p e n d a p a t a n y a n g p a d a g i l i r a n n y a a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n p e r m i n t a a n b a g i

p r o d u k s i b a r a n g l a i n n y a .

A k h i r n y a d a p a t d i s i m p u i k a n d a r i s e i u r u h u s a h a S m i t h b a h w a

k e p e n t i n g a n p r i b a d i d a n n a s i o n a l d a i a m h a r m o n i y a n g s e m p u r n a a k a n

m e n g h a s i l k a n p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i y a n g s e m p u r n a d a n k e m a k m u r a n

y a n g t e r u s m e n e r u s . S a t u - s a t u n y a m a s a i a h p o t e n s i a i a d a l a h i n t e r v e n s i

p e m e r i n t a h , p r a k t e k m o n o p o l i p e n g u s a h a , d a n k e b i j a k a n p a j a k y a n g

b u r u k ( P r e s s m a n , 1 9 9 9 ) .

Krisis Kapitaiisme dan Keterbatasan Teori K a u m Klasik

T e r n y a t a p e r t u m b u h a n d a n k e s e j a h t e r a a n y a n g d i h a r a p k a n t e r u s

m e n e r u s p a d a a k h i r n y a m e n i m b u l k a n b a n y a k m a s a i a h . P e n g a n g g u r a n

b e s a r - b e s a r a n t e r j a d i . K e t i d a k s t a b i i a n d a i a m p e r e k o n o m i a n y a n g d i c e r -

m i n k a n o l e h k r i s i s e k o n o m i y a n g d i s e r t a i o l e h i n f l a s i y a n g t i n g g i . S e l a i n

i t u , k e t i d a k a d i l a n m e r a j a i e i a , d i m a n a k a u m k a p i t a l i s b e r p e s t a d i a t a s

p e n d e r i t a a n k a u m b u r u h . T i d a k h a n y a s a m p a i d i s i t u , p a r a k a u m b u r u h

t e r a l i e n a s i d a r i k e h i d u p a n n y a d a n t e n g g e l a m d a i a m l e m b a h k e m i s k i n a n

d a n k e t i d a k a d i l a n . H a i t e r s e b u t k e m u d i a n m e l a h i r k a n r e a k s i b a i i k

k a r e n a d i a n g g a p s e b a g a i w u j u d t e o r i k a u m k a p i t a l i s o l e h K a r l M a r x .

3.2. Pandangan K a u m Marxist

T o k o h U t a m a : K a r l M a r x d a n E n g e l s . M u n c u l n y a r e v o i u ' s i b e r u p a p e n e n -

t a n g a n y a n g s a m a s e k a l i b u k a n b a g i a n d a r i K i a s i k . P e n e n t a n g a n i n i

b e g i t u k u a t , i n i a d a l a h s e r i n g d i s e b u t s e b a g a i K a u m M a r x i s t y a n g

d i d a s a r i a t a s p e m i k i r a n K a r l M a r x . M a r x s e n d i r i s a n g a t d i p e n g a r u h i o l e h

p a n d a n g a n f i l s a f a t d i a l e k t i k a H e g e l , s e r i n g d i s e b u t Young Hegelian

( G i d d e n s , 1 9 8 6 ) . M e n u r u t H e g e l , k e h i d u p a n m a n u s i a t e r u s m e n e r u s

b e r a d a d a i a m p e r u b a h a n , s e t i a p i d e d a n s e t i a p k e k u a t a n m u n c u l d a r i k e ­

k u a t a n y a n g s a l i n g b e r t e n t a n g a n , d a n k e k u a t a n y a n g s a l i n g b e r t e n t a n g a n

i n i p a s t i a k a n m e n g a k i b a t k a n p e r u b a h a n ( P r e s s m a n , 1 9 9 9 ) .

M e n u r u t M a r x , k a p i t a i i s m e h a n y a s a i a h s a t u f a s e p r o s e s s e j a r a h

y a n g m e s t i d i i a l u i o l e h s e m u a e k o n o m i . K e g i a t a n e k o n o m i m a n u s i a ,

d i m u l a i d a r i m a s a b e r b u r u d a n m e r a m u . L a i u o r a n g m e n e t a p d a n m e m -

b e n t u k k o m u n i t a s p e r t a n i a n , y a n g k e m u d i a n b e r k e m b a n g m e n j a d i e k o ­

n o m i f e o d a l . F e o d a l i s m e b e r u b a h m e n j a d i k a p i t a i i s m e ( P r e s s m a n , 1 9 9 0 ) .

62

Paradigma Utama daiam iimu Ekonomi clan implikasinya ...

A d a s a t u p o l a u m u m d a r i p e r a i i h a n m a s y a r a k a t t e r s e b u t :

k e p e m i l i k a n f a k t o r p r o d u k s i s e l a l u d i m i l i k i o l e h p i h a k y a n g k u a t y a n g

s e r i n g d i n a m a k a n the rulling class a t a u k e i a s b e r k u a s a y a n g d a i a m

m a s y a r a k a t k a p i t a l i s a d a i a h k a u m b o r j u a s i , s e m e n t a r a y a n g t e r t i n d a s

a t a u y a n g d i a t u r a d a i a h k e i a s p e k e r j a a t a u k e i a s p r o i e t a r . N a m u n ,

m e n u r u t M a r x , h a l t e r s e b u t t i d a k a k a n b e r i a n g s u n g l a m a , k a r e n a y a n g

t e r t i n d a s a k a n s a d a r u n t u k m e r e b u t h a k n y a i e w a t r e v o i u s i p r o i e t a r . D a n

t i b a i a h m a s a d i m a n a k a p i t a i i s m e a k a n h a n c u r d i g a n t i k a n o l e h s o s i a l i s m e

m e n u j u k o m u n i s m e . S e c a r a g a m b i a n g o l e h M a r x d i g a m b a r k a n p r o s e s

k e h a n c u r a n d a r i k a p i t a i i s m e d a i a m D a s K a p i t a i , V o l . ] , h a i 2 9 ( L i h a t

P r e s s m a n , 1 9 9 9 ) : " . . . b a n y a k m u n c u l p e n d e r i t a a n , p e n i n d a s a n ,

p e r u s a k a n , d e g r a d a s i , d a n e k s p i o i t a s i ; t e t a p i d i s a m p i n g i t u j u g a m u n c u l

p e m b e r o n t a k a n k e i a s p e k e r j a , k e i a s y a n g t e r u s m e n e r u s m e n i n g k a t

j u m l a h n y a , d a n t e r i a t i h , b e r s a t u , d a n t e r o r g a n i s i r o l e h m e k a n i s m e d a s a r

d a r i p r o s e s p r o d u k s i k a p i t a l i s . . . S e n t r a i i s a s i c a r a - c a r a p r o d u k s i d a n

s o s i a l i s a s i t e n a g a k e r j a m e n c a p a i t i t i k d i m a n a m e r e k a m e n j a d i t i d a k I a g i

s e s u a i d e n g a n s e i u b u n g k a p i t a l i s m e r e k a . S e i i m u t i t u r e m u k r e d a m .

L o n c e n g k e m a t i a n k e k a y a a n k a p i t a l i s b e r b u n y i : s i p e r a m p a s k i n i

d i r a m p a s . . . "

P r i n s i p d a s a r n y a a d a i a h t e r c i p t a n y a k e a d i i a n d a n equality d a i a m

s u a t u m a s y a r a k a t y a n g d i s e b u t k o m u n i s m e , s e b a g i s u a t u b e n t u k i d e a l

d a r i m a s y a r a k a t y a n g p a l i n g m u t a k h i r , s e m u a n y a d i s e r a h k a n k e p a d a

n e g a r a s e b a g a i p e n g a t u r n y a . D a n p a d a a k h i r n y a n e g a r a j u g a t i d a k

d i p e r l u k a n . S e i a m a n e g a r a d i p e r l u k a n , m a k a s e g a l a n y a m e r u p a k a n

p e r e n c a n a a n t e r p u s a t . M o n o p o l i p e m e r i n t a h p u s a t a d a i a h b e n t u k ' p a s a r '

y a n g i d e a l y a n g s e r i n g d i s e b u t e t a t i s m e . N a m p a k n y a h a s i l d a r i t e o r i

M a r x t e r s e b u t m e n i m b u l k a n b a n y a k h a i p a d a l e v e l p r a k t e k , p a m u n

s a n g a t m i n i m d a r i t e o r i . S e d i k i t p e n g e m b a n g t e o r i n y a t e t a p i b a n y a k

y a n g m e n g i k u t i d e n g a n f a n a t i k , t e r u t a m a n e g a r a - n e g a r a b e k a s k o m u n i s

s e p e r t i R u s i a d a n R R C .

G a g a s a n u t a m a y a n g d i k e m b a n g k a n o l e h M a r x a d a i a h i e b i h b a n y a k

m e n g a r a h k e p a d a b a g a i m a n a k a p i t a i i s m e m e n g a i a m i k e r u n t u h a n b e s e r t a

k e t i d a k a d i l a n n y a i e w a t n i l a i s u r p l u s l e b i h d a r i b u r u h y a n g d i h i s a p o l e h

k a p i t a l i s ; the falling rate of profits; s e r t a b u r u h h a n y a m e n j a d i a l a t p r o d u k s i

s e r t a t e r a l i e n a s i d a r i m a s y a r a k a t .

6 3

M a d d a r e m m e n g A . Panennungi

M e n u r u t M a r x , k a p i t a l i s i t u b i s a m e n g a k u m u l a s i k a n k e k a y a a n

k a r e n a m e n g a m b i l h a k b u r u h b e r u p a n i l a i s u r p l u s d a r i b u r u h . L e w a t

p a s a r t e n a g a k e r j a , b u r u h m e n j u a l j a s a n y a . M a k a t e r j a d i l a h e k s p i o i t a s i

y a n g d i s e b a b k a n p e k e r j a t e r s e b u t t i d a k p u n y a p i i i h a n l a i n k e c u a l i

b e k e r j a d e n g a n m e n e r i m a h a s i l y a n g t i d a k p e n u h d a r i y a n g s e h a r u s n y a .

B e b e r a p a n i l a i y a n g m e r e k a h a s i l k a n a k a n d i a m b i l o l e h m a j i k a n n y a , s a n g

k a p i t a l i s y a n g a k a n m e n g u m p u i k a n k e k a y a a n g u n a m e n a m b a h m o d a l

i a g i , d a n s e m a k i n k a y a . S e m e n t a r a s i b u r u h s e m a k i n m i s k i n .

J i k a k e m a j u a n t e k n o i o g i m e i a m b a t , m a k a s a t u - s a t u n y a c a r a u n t u k

p e r t u m b u h a n a d a i a h d e n g a n m e n a n a m m o d a l m e s i n d a n b a n g u n a n .

K e t i k a t e r j a d i p e n u m p u k a n m o d a l , m a k a a k a n t e r j a d i t i n g k a t i a b a y a n g

m e n u r u n . K a r e n a i t u a n c a m a n b a g i s a n g k a p i t a l i s a k a n s e m a k i n

b e s a r . D a l a m h a i i n i , a n c a m a n b a g i g o n c a n g a n p e r e k o n o m i a n k a p i t a l i s

m a k i n b e s a r . S e l a i n h a l t e r s e b u t d i a t a s , k a u m b u r u h a k a n m e n g a i a m i

a l i e n a s i d a r i m a s y a r a k a t n y a y a n g d i s e b a b k a n o l e h p e k e r j a a n y a y a n g

t e r l a l u s p e s i a l i s d a n a k i b a t k o n t r o l p r o d u k s i y a n g k e t a t o l e h p i h a k

m a j i k a n .

Krisis Sosialisme dan Keterbatasan K a u m Marxist

N a m p a k n y a s e c a r a t e o r i t i s t i d a k b i s a d i b u k t i k a n m e n g e n a i t e o r i n i l a i

l e b i h b a i k d a l a m e m p i r i k m a u p u n d a i a m t e o r i t i s m a t e m a t i s . S e b a b

t e r n y a t a k a i a u m e m p e r h i t u n g k a n m a r g i n a l p r o d u k t i f i t a s p a d a b u r u h ,

i s y a r a t u t a m a n y a a d a i a h m e m a n g u p a h y a n g d i t e r i m a n y a s e s u a i d e n g a n

k e t e r a m p i l a n d a n p e k e r j a a n y a n g i a m i l i k i . S e l a i n i t u d a l a m d u n i a n y a t a ,

s a n g a t s u s a h p e r e n c a n a a n t e r p u s a t y a n g i d e a l . U m u m n y a p e r e n c a n a a n

t e r p u s a t b a n y a k m e n g a l a i h a m b a t a n p a d a d a t a d a n i m p l e m e n t a s i .

S e m e n t a r a i t u b a n y a k n e g a r a y a n g t e r n y a t a g a g a l d a l a m p r a k t e k u n t u k

m e n g a n g k a t t a r a f h i d u p m a s y a r a k a t n y a , m a l a h a n a d a n e g a r a y a n g

b e r a l i h k e f a h a m k a p i t a i i s m e d a r i s o s i a l i s m e . S e h i n g g a a d a jokes y a n g

m e n g a t a k a n b a h w a s o s i a i i m e a d a i a h j a l a n y a n g p a n j a n g d a n

m e n y a k i t k a n d a r i k a p i t a i i s m e k e m b a l i k e k a p i t a i i s m e .

3.3. Pandangan K a u m Keynessian

T o k o h U t a m a : J . M . K e y n e s . K a u m K e y n e s s i a n n a m p a k n y a m e r u p a k a n

a n o m a l i d a r i k a u m k l a s i k , s e l a i n i t u j u g a m e n y e r a p p e m i k i r a n k a u m

m a r x i s t k e d a i a m n y a , k h u s u s n y a d a l a m h a l i n t e r v e n s i p e m e r i n t a h . J a d i

d i d u g a b a h w a K e y n e s s m e n c o b a m e l a k u k a n s i n t e s a d a r i K i a s i k d a n

64

P j rad igma Utama da lam I lmu Ekonomi dan Impl ikas inya

M a r x . M e n u r u t K e y n e s , k e b i j a k a n p e m e r i n t a h y a n g t e p a t d a p a t

m e n y e l a m a t k a n k a p i t a i i s m e d e n g a n m e n g a m b i l m a n f a a t n y a t a n p a h a r u s

m e n g a i a m i s i s i g e i a p n y a ( P r e s s m a n , 1 9 9 9 ) .

L e w a t a n a l i s i s e m p i r i s K e y n e s , i a m e n d i r i k a n s e b u a h c a r a b a r u

d a i a m m e i i h a t p e r e k o n o m i a n , y a i t u d e n g a n m a k r o e k o n o m i . D e n g a n d a t a

a g r e g a t m e n g e n a i k o n s u m s i , i n v e s t a s i , p e m b e i a n j a a n p e m e r i n t a h , e k s p o r ,

d a n i m p o r s e r t a p e n d a p a t a n i a k e m u d i a n m e m b a n g u n s e b u a h c a r a

p a n d a n g y a n g m e i i h a t p e r e k o n o m i a n d a r i s i s i p e r m i n t a a n . M e n u r u t n y a ,

p e r e k o n o m i a n t i d a k h a n y a b i s a d i b a n g k i t k a n d a r i s i s i p e n a w a r a n a t a u

p r o d u k s i s a j a , n a m u n d a r i s i s i p e r m i n t a a n . H a i i n i d i d a s a r i o l e h

p e m i k i r a n n y a b a h w a k a i a u p e r e k o n o m i a n b e r a d a d a i a m k e a d a a n

d e p r e s i , d i m a n a b a n y a k p e n g a n g g u r a n d a n k a p a s t a s p r o d u k s i y a n g

t i d a k t e r p a k a i , p e r e k o n o m i a n b i s a d i b a n g k i t k a n d e n g a n i n t e r v e n s i

p e m e r i n t a h d a i a m b e n t u k d e f i s i t a n g g a r a n .

P r i n s i p u t a m a n y a a d a i a h b a h w a s e l a l u a d a s a a t d i m a n a t e r j a d i

market failure, y a i t u d i m a n a p a s a r t i d a k b e k e r j a s e b a g a i m a n a m e s t i n y a .

S e h i n g g a t e r j a d i k o n d i s i disequilibrium y a n g k e m u d i a n p a d a a k h i r n y a

m e m b e r i k a n k e s e m p a t a n k e p a d a p e m e r i n t a h / n e g a r a u n t u k i k u t c a m p u r

t a n g a n . M e n u r u t n y a , p e m e r i n t a h h a r u s t u r u n t a n g a n d a i a m j a n g k a

p e n d e k u n t u k m e m b a n t u p e r e k o n o m i a n . K e t i k a b a n y a k y a n g

m e m b a n t a h n y a b a h w a d a i a m j a n g k a p a n j a n g p e r a n a n p e m e r i n t a h

t e r s e b u t t i d a k b e r g u n a , i a m e n j a w a b n y a d e n g a n m e n g a t a k a n in the long

run we are all dead. K a r e n a i t u b a n y a k y a n g m e n a f s i r k a n b a h w a k e r a n g k a

K e y n e s s i a n m e m a n g u n t u k j a n g k a p e n d e k . S a i a h s a t u a p i i k a s i u s u i a n

K e y n e s s d a i a m k e u a n g a n d a n p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l a d a i a h

u s u i a n n y a d a l a m p e n e t a p a n n i i a i t u k a r m a s i n g - m a s i n g n e g a r a d e n g a n

e m a s y a n g s e r i n g s i s t e m n y a s e m p a t d i k e n a i d e n g a n B r e t t o n w o o d s .

S e p e r t i k i t a k e t a h u i , p e r s e t u j u a n B r e t t o n w o o d s b e r t a h a n s e i a m a 2 5 t a h u n

d a n b e r a k h i r t a h u n 1 9 7 1 . Philips Curve j u g a s a i a h s a t u a n d a l a n k a u m

K e y n e s s i a n d a i a m m e i i h a t h u b u n g a n i n f l a s i d a n p e n g a n g g u r a n y a n g

m e n u r u t n y a b e r h u b u n g a n t e r b a l i k .

Krisis Perekonomian dan Keterbatan Keynessian

P e n g a n g g u r a n d a n I n f l a s i t e r n y a t a t i d a k m a m p u d i a t a s i o l e h p e m i k i r a n

K e y n e s s i a n . K e t i k a p e m e r i n t a h i k u t s e r t a m e n g a m b i l i n t e r v e n s i m a i a h

k e a d a a n m e n j a d i i e b i h b u r u k . D a n h a l i n i m e n g u n d a n g b a n y a k k e r a g u a n

p a d a p e m i k i r a n k e y n e s s i a n .

6 5

M a d d a r e m m e n g A . Panennungi

3.4. Neoklasik

T o k o h : M a r s h a l l , F i s h e r , C h a m b e r i i n , R o b e r t E . L u c a s , T h o m a s S a r g e n t ,

d a n R o b e r t M . T o w n s e n d , M . F r i e d m a n . S e b e t u l n y a n e o k l a s i k t i d a k

b e r b e d a j a u h d a r i k a u m k i a s i k , h a n y a s a j a k a u m n e o k i a s i k b e r u s a h a

u n t u k m e n j a w a b p e r m a s a i a h a n y a n g t e i a h d i j a w a b k a u m k e y n e s s i a n

d e n g a n a n j u r a n i n t e r v e n s i p e m e r i n t a h . D u a t o n g g a k u t a m a d a r i k a u m

n e o k l a s i k yaitu rational expectation o l e h L u c a s d a n neiu growth theory o l e h

R o m e r . ' S i i a k a n l i h a t i e b i h i e n g k a p d a i a m A r s j a d , e t a i ( 1 9 9 7 ) d a n

K i a m e r ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

Rational expectation m e n c o b a m e m a s u k k a n e s p e k t a s i p e i a k u

e k o n o m i d a i a m p e r e k o n o m i a n . L k s p e k t a s i p e i a k u e k o n o m i t e r s e b u t a k a n

b e r p e n g a r u h p a d a e f e k t i f i t a s s e b u a h k e b i j a k a n e k o n o m i . L e w a t h a i

t e r s e b u t , k a u m n e o k l a s i k m e n c o b a m e n e r a n g k a n m e n g a p a d a n

b a g a i m a n a k r i s i s e k o n o m i i t u t e r j a d i d a n b a g a i m a n a m e n g a t a s i n y a . Neio

growth theory s e p e r t i n y a b e r t u m p u p a d a k a r y a R o m e r d a n L u c a s . R o m e r

m e m a s u k k a n i i m u p e n g e t a h u a n s e b a g a i s a i a h s a t u i n p u t u n t u k

m e n y a j i k a n m o d e i p e r t u m b u h a n y a n g b e r s i f a t increasing return to scale.

S e m e n t a r a L u c a s , m e m a s u k k a n m o d a l m a n u s i a y a n g t e r a k u m u l a s i

s e c a r a f o r m a l m a u p u n n o n f o r m a l . D a i a m i s t i i a h l a i n , m o d a l m a n u s i a

y a n g t e r a k u m u l a s i i e w a t p e n d i d i k a n n o n f o r m a l t e r k a d a n g d i s e b u t

s e b a g a i m o d e i learning by doing.

3.5. Neo Marxist

T o k o h : P a u l B a r a n , A n d r e G u n d e r F r a n k , F . H . C a r d o s o , d a n L . L a i e n o .

D a i a m N e o M a r x i s - d a l a m p a p e r i n i N e o M a r x i s t j u g a h a n y a d i b a h a s

s e i i n t a s , p a d a d a s a r n y a s a m a d e n g a n M a r x — , y a n g d i p e r k u a t o l e h P a u l

B a r a n d a n k a w a n - k a w a n , d e n g a n b e r d a s a r p a d a ' t e o r i s u r p l u s M a r x ' ,

b a h w a p e m e r a s a n t e r h a d a p t e n a g a k e r j a d a n d i a l e k t i k a n y a s e b a g a i f a k t o r

d i n a m i k a d a l a m p e r k e m b a n g a n m a s y a r a k a t . H a i i n i t e r k a i t d e n g a n

p e r j u a n g a n k e i a s . P e r j u a n g a n k e i a s i n i m e n g a n d u n g d i m e n s i i n t e r ­

n a s i o n a l , y a i t u p e r j u a n g a n m e i a w a n k a p i t a i i s m e y a n g t e i a h m e n j e i m a

m e n j a d i i m p e r e a i i s m e . K a r e n a i t u , m e n u r u t B a r a n , t i a d a h a r a p a n l a g i

u n t u k m e n g e j a r k e m a j u a n , h a n y a s u a t u r e v o i u s i b e r s e n j a t a d a r i n e g a r a

t e r b e l a k a n g y a n g m e m b u k a j a l a n k e m a s a d e p a n y a n g l e b i h b a i k .

S e d a n g k a n D e p e n d e n s i a ( l i h a t d a l a m S e t i a w a n , 1 9 9 9 , D j o j o h a d i k u s o m o ,

1 Namun dalam paper ini saya tidak akan ulas terlalu panjang.

66

Parjcligmd U l a m j d a l a m I lmu Ekonomi ddn Implikdsinya ...

1 9 9 1 , d a n D j o d j o h a d i k u s u m o , 1 9 9 4 ) y a n g d i p e r k u a t o i e h A n d r e G u n d e r

F r a n k m e n i i a i b a h w a t e i a h t e r j a d i p r o s e s k e t e r g a n t u n g a n a n t a r a n e g a r a

t e r b e l a k a n g (peri-peri) t e r h a d a p n e g a r a m a j u (centre), s e h i n g g a s a n g a t i a h

t i d a k a d i i b a g i n e g a r a t e r b e l a k a n g .

M e n g e n a i d a m p a k e k o n o m i i n t e r n a s i o n a l t e r h a d a p p e m b a n g u n a n

e k o n o m i n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g , a d a t i g a p e m i k i r a n y a n g b i s a m e w a k i i i

d a r i b e r b a g a i p e m i k i r a n y a n g a d a . P e r t a m a a d a i a h M y r d a i , d a i a m "Asian

Drama", m e n g g a m b a r k a n k e s u r a m a n d i A s i a , d i m a n a s a i a h s a t u n y a

d i s e b a b k a n o i e h a d a n y a backwash a k i b a t d a r i h u b u n g a n d e n g a n n e g a r a

m a j u . S e d a n g k a n P r e b i s h , i e b i h m e n e k a n k a n p a d a h u b u n g a n p u s a t d a n

p i n g g i r ( p h e r i p e r i t ) , d i m a n a h u b u n g a n e k o n o m i i n t e r n a s i o n a l b a g i

n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g t i d a k a h a d i i . I a m e n g a m b a r k a n b a h w a k e s e n j a n g a n

p e n d a p a t a n s e m a k i n j a u h , p e n g a n g g u r a n y a n g m e n j a d i - j a d i , n e r a c a

p e m b a y a r a n y a n g t i d a k m e n g u n t u n g k a n , d e m i k i a n j u g a n i i a i t u k a r y a n g

t e r u s m e m b u r u k . H a i t e r s e b u t d a p a t d i j e i a s k a n i e w a t m e k a n i s m e vaiiie

added, b a h w a n e g a r a centre m e n g h i s a p n e g a r a s e k i t a r n y a . S e i a n j u t n y a ,

S i n g e r , m e m p e r s o a i k a n m e n g e n a i e k p o r d a n i m p o r n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g

y a n g s a n g a t i n e l a s t i s , s e m e n t a r a d i n e g a r a m a j u s e b a l i k n y a .

3.6. Neo Keynessian

T o k o h : H i c k s , H a n s e n , S a m u e l s o n , H a r r o d - D o m a r , L e o n t i e f , J a m e s T o b i n ,

F . M o g d i i a n i , R . M . S o i o w , d a n J o h n B . T a y l o r N e o K e y n e s s i a n m a s i h

m e n d a s a r k a n d i r i p a d a K e y n e s s i a n y a n g m e i i h a t imperfect market s e b a g a i

a i a s a n p e m e r i n t a h d a i a m m e n j a i a n k a n k e b i j a k a n n y a . K e m b a n g a n n y a

a n t a r a l a i n a d a i a h d e n g a n m u n c u l n y a p e r d e b a t a n m e n g e n a i k e b i j a k a n

f i s k a i a t a u m o n e t e r k a h y a n g l e b i h e f e k t i f . K e r a n g k a I S - L M c u k u p i n t e n s

d i p e r g u n a k a n u n t u k a n a l i s a t e r s e b u t . D a i a m e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n

H a r r o d d a n D o m a r s e c a r a b e r s a m a a n s a n g a t d i k e n a i d a i a m k o n s e p

Incrementai Capitai Output Ratio ( I C O R ) - n y a , k e s a m a a n i t u d i b a n g u n d a r i

t e o r i m e r e k a y a n g b e r d a s a r k a n p a d a p e n d a p a t b a h w a i n t e r v e n s i

p e m e r i n t a h s a n g a t i a h d i p e r l u k a n d a i a m r a n g k a m e n g h i i a n g k a n

g a n g g u a n p a d a p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i . G a n g g u a n i t u a d a j i k a a n t a r a

tabungan-investasi-pendapatan t i d a k b e r a d a p a d a k o n d i s i e k u i l i b r i u m .

H a r r o d m e i i h a t b a h w a d a l a m p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i s e w a k t u - w a k t u

s e l a l u a d a k e m u n g k i n a n k e t i d a k s t a b i i a n y a n g m e n g g a n g g u k o n d i s i

e k u i l i b r i u m . S e m e n t a r a D o m a r b e r p e n d a p a t b a h w a j i k a t e r j a d i

p e n y i m p a n g a n d a r i i a j u p e r t u m b u h a n i n v e s t a s i y a n g d i p e r l u k a n u n t u k

6 7

M a d d a r e m m e n g A . Panennungi

m e n j a g a k e a d a a n e k u i l i b r i u m , d a n j i k a t i d a k d i i a k u k a n i n t e r v e n s i , m a k a

p e n y i m p a n g a n i t u a k a n t e r u s b e r i a n g s u n g . S e l a n j u t n y a s i i a k a n l i h a t

b a g a n d i b a w a h i n i :

Bagan 1 Theory Ilmu Ekonomi

GRAND THEORY I L M U

E K O N O M I

Paradigma Utama da lam I imu Ekonomi dan Impl ikas inya

4. I M P L I K A S I P A R A D I G M A G R A N D T H E O R Y I L M U E K O N O M I T E R H A D A P T E O R I P E R D A G A N G A N I N T E R N A S I O N A L : F R E E T R A D E V E R S U S S T R A T E G I C T R A D E P O L I C Y S E R T A S I R K U L I A S I O N I S V E R S U S P R O D U K S I O N I S

4 . 1 . Free T r a d e Versus S t r a t e g i c T r a d e P o l i c y

D a l a m h a m p i r s e m u a l i t e r a t u r e k o n o m i p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l ,

d i t e m u i k e s e p a k a t a n b a h w a free trade a d a l a h p i i i h a n t e r b a i k d a r i s e i u r u h

p i i i h a n y a n g a d a . L i t e r a t u r e k o n o m i k l a s i k d a n n e o k l a s i k m e n e k a n k a n

t i g a t e o r i d a s a r y a n g m e n y o k o n g p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l :

specialization m e n g h a s i l k a n k e u n g g u l a n a b s o l u t , K e u n g g u l a n k o m p e r a t i f ,

d a n reiatif abundant factor. T e o r i s p e s i a l i s a s i y a n g d i k e m b a n g k a n A d a m

S m i t h m e n d u k u n g t e r j a d i n y a p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l y a n g m e n g a c u

p a d a k e u n g g u l a n a b s o l u t , s e m e n t a r a R i c a r d o y a n g m e n g u s u n g

k e u n g g u l a n k o m p e r a t i f s e b e n a r n y a l e b i h b e r a k a r k e p a d a e f i s i e n s i a l i a s

k e m a m p u a n b e r p r o d u k s i s u a t u n e g a r a s e c a r a r e l a t i f . U n t u k relative

abundant factor ( a t a u f a k t o r k a r u n i a s e c a r a r e l a t i f y a n g d i k e n a l d e n g a n

H e c k s c h e r - O h l i n ) m e n c e r i t a k a n m e n g e n a i p e r b e d a a n s u m b e r d a y a y a n g

m e l i m p a h d i a n t a r a n e g a r a y a n g m e n d o r o n g p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l .

B e b e r a p a t o k o h p e m i k i r d a l a m i l m u p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l s e p e r t i

S t o l p e r - S a m u e l s o n , R i b z i n s k y d a n s e b a g a i n y a d a p a t d i l i h a t h a m p i r d i

s e m u a l i t e r a t u r i l m u e k o n o m i p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l .

P a d a m u l a n y a . Strategic Trade Policy ( S T P ) y a n g n a m p a k n y a m e i i h a t

a d a n y a c e l a h b a g i p e m e r i n t a h u n t u k i n t e r v e n s i d a l a m p e r e k o n o m i a n

y a n g c e n d e r u n g b e r a d a p a d a p a n d a n g a n K e y n e s s i a n d a n N e o k e y n e s s i a n

a t a u p u n M e r k a n t i i i s m e . T e o r i t e r s e b u t t i d a k l a i n m e r u p a k a n u p a y a p a r a

a h i i international trade d a l a m m e n g g u g a t a s u m s i d a l a m t e o r i

p e r d a g a n g a n t r a d i s i o n a l . H a l i n i b e r a n g k a t d a r i k e y a k i n a n b a h w a a s u m s i

y a n g l e b i h m e n d e k a t i k e n y a t a a n a k a n m e n d a p a t k a n a n a l i s a d a n p r e d i k s i

y a n g l e b i h t e p a t . A d a a s u m s i d a s a r y a n g k e t i g a t e o r i d a s a r d i a t a s

d i p e n u h i : constant retun to scale d a n perfect competition. L a i u b a g a i m a n a

j i k a d u a a s u m s i t e r s e b u t t i d a k b i s a d i p e n u h i ? S e b a b k i t a b i s a

m e m b a y a n g k a n b a h w a d a l a m d u n i a n y a t a , l e b i h d a r i 5 0 % p e r d a g a n g a n

d u n i a a d a l a h b a r a n g m a n u f a k t u r , d i m a n a s t r u k t u r p a s a r n y a c e n d e r u n g

o l i g o p o l i s t i k d a r i p a d a p e r s a i n g a n s e m p u r n a ( K r u g m a n d a n H e l p m a n ,

1 9 8 9 ) .

69

M a d d a r e m m e n g A . Panennungi

D a l a m b e b e r a p a r e f e r e n s i b u k u i n t e r n a s i o n a l , n a m p a k n y a a i a s a n d i

a t a s m e n j a d i d o m i n a n . N a m u n a d a h a l y a n g t e r l u p a k a n , b a h w a i d e - i d e

S T P s e b e n a r n y a b e n t u k k o m p r o m i a n t a r a F r e e T r a d e d e n g a n p e m i k i r a n

y a n g m e n e n t a n g n y a s e p e r t i y a n g t e r g a b u n g d a l a m a i i r a n n e o m a r x i s t ,

m i s a l n y a d e p e n d e n s i a , t e o r i s i s t e m d u n i a , a t a u unequal exchange ( l i h a t

b a g i a n b e r i k u t d a r i t u l i s a n i n i ) . T e t a p i , d a l a m k o n t e k s r e f e r e n s i b u k u

e k o n o m i i n t e r n a s i o n a l s t a n d a r , a r g u m e n d i a t a s y a n g m e n j a d i a i i r a n

u t a m a .

Strategic Trade Policy ( S T P ) m e m b e r i k a n a s u m s i y a n g l e b i h r e a l i s t i k ,

yaitu imperfect market d a n non constant return to scale. B e r a n g k a t d a r i

a s u m s i y a n g b a r u t e r s e b u t , m a k a a l a t a n a l i s a a k a n b e r u b a h d a r i s t r u k t u r

p e r d a g a n g a n s e m p u r n a m e n j a d i o l i g o p o l i a t a u d u o p o l i .

H a l p e r t a m a y a n g h a r u s d i p e r h a t i k a n a d a l a h , a p a k a h t u j u a n u t a m a

d a r i k e b i j a k a n ? M e n u r u t B r a n d e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) , a d a d u a h a l y a n g m e n j a d i t u j u a n

u t a m a e k o n o m i : p e r t a m a a d a l a h e f i s i e n s i , y a n g t i d a k l a i n m e r u p a k a n

m a k s i m a s i k e u n t u n g a n u n t u k p e r e k o n o m i a n d a l a m n e g e r i . K e d u a ,

d i s t r i b u s i p e n d a p a t a n , y a n g b a g i s e b a g i a n e k o n o m b i s a d i a b a i k a n ,

k a r e n a b i s a d i i a k u k a n d i s t r i b u s i l e w a t p a j a k .

I s t i i a h strategic d i s i n i m e m b e r i k a n i s y a r a t b a h w a a d a p i h a k k e t i g a

y a n g a k a n b e r f u n g s i s e b a g a i ' p e n e n t u k e m e n a n g a n ' d a l a m k o m p e t i s i ,

d a l a m h a l i n i a d a l a h p e m e r i n t a h . D a l a m k e a d a a n Increasing Return to

Scale ( I R S ) d a n Imperfect Competition ( I C ) , m a s i n g - m a s i n g n e g a r a b e r u s a h a

u n t u k m e l a k u k a n s t r a t e g i y a n g m e m u n g k i n k a n k e u n t u n g a n t e r b e s a r

b e r a d a p a d a p e r u s a b a a n d o m e s t i k / n e g a r a n y a m a s i n g - m a s i n g

( M a r k u z e n e t a l l , 1 9 9 5 ) .

B r a n d e r d a n S p e n c e r m e n c o b a u n t u k m e m b a g i d u a k e r a n g k a

a n a l i s a d a l a m S T P , y a i t u profit-shifting subsidies d a n protection and home

market effects. Y a n g p e r t a m a l e b i h m e n e k a n k a n s u b s i d i e k s p o r , y a n g

l a i n n y a m e n g h a r a p k a n r e s t r i k s i i m p o r . S e l a n j u t k a n k i t a a k a n m e i i h a t h a l

t e r s e b u t l e b i h j a u h .

4 . 1 . 1 . P r o f i t - s h i f t i n g subsidies

J a m e s B r a n d e r d a n B a r b a r a S p e n c e r m e n u r u n k a n m o d e l y a n g t e r k e n a i

s e b a g a i B - S ( B a r b a r a - S p e n s e r ) m o d e l y a n g m e r e p r e s e n t a s i k a n p e r a n a n

p e m e r i n t a h d a l a m strategic trade policy. M o d e l t e r s e b u t m e m a k a i

p e r a n g k a t Cournot Competition.

7 0

Paradigma Utama da lam I lmu Ekonomi dan Impl ikas inya

4. I M P L I K A S I P A R A D I G M A G R A N D T H E O R Y \ L M U E K O N O M I T E R H A D A P T E O R I P E R D A G A N G A N I N T E R N A S I O N A L : F / ? £ £ T R / I D E V E R S U S S T R A T E G I C T R A D E P O L I C Y S E R T A S I R K U L I A S I O N I S V E R S U S P R O D U K S I O N I S

4 . 1 . Free T r a d e Versus S t r a t e g i c T r a d e P o l i c y

D a l a m h a m p i r s e m u a l i t e r a t u r e k o n o m i p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l ,

d i t e m u i k e s e p a k a t a n b a h w a free trade a d a l a h p i i i h a n t e r b a i k d a r i s e i u r u h

p i i i h a n y a n g a d a . L i t e r a t u r e k o n o m i k l a s i k d a n n e o k l a s i k m e n e k a n k a n

t i g a t e o r i d a s a r y a n g m e n y o k o n g p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l :

specialization m e n g h a s i l k a n k e u n g g u l a n a b s o l u t , K e u n g g u l a n k o m p e r a t i f ,

d a n reiatif abundant factor. T e o r i s p e s i a l i s a s i y a n g d i k e m b a n g k a n A d a m

S m i t h m e n d u k u n g t e r j a d i n y a p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l y a n g m e n g a c u

p a d a k e u n g g u l a n a b s o l u t , s e m e n t a r a R i c a r d o y a n g m e n g u s u n g

k e u n g g u l a n k o m p e r a t i f s e b e n a r n y a l e b i h b e r a k a r k e p a d a e f i s i e n s i a l i a s

k e m a m p u a n b e r p r o d u k s i s u a t u n e g a r a s e c a r a r e l a t i f . U n t u k relative

abundant factor ( a t a u f a k t o r k a r u n i a s e c a r a r e l a t i f y a n g d i k e n a l d e n g a n

H e c k s c h e r - O h l i n ) m e n c e r i t a k a n m e n g e n a i p e r b e d a a n s u m b e r d a y a y a n g

m e l i m p a h d i a n t a r a n e g a r a y a n g m e n d o r o n g p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l .

B e b e r a p a t o k o h p e m i k i r d a l a m i l m u p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l s e p e r t i

S t o l p e r - S a m u e l s o n , R i b z i n s k y d a n s e b a g a i n y a d a p a t d i l i h a t h a m p i r | d i

s e m u a l i t e r a t u r i l m u e k o n o m i p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l .

P a d a m u l a n y a . Strategic Trade Policy ( S T P ) y a n g n a m p a k n y a m e i i h a t

a d a n y a c e l a h b a g i p e m e r i n t a h u n t u k i n t e r v e n s i d a i a m p e r e k o n o m i a n

y a n g c e n d e r u n g b e r a d a p a d a p a n d a n g a n K e y n e s s i a n d a n N e o k e y n e s s i a n

a t a u p u n M e r k a n t i i i s m e . T e o r i t e r s e b u t t i d a k l a i n m e r u p a k a n u p a y a p a r a

a h i i international trade d a l a m m e n g g u g a t a s u m s i d a l a m t e o r i

p e r d a g a n g a n t r a d i s i o n a l . H a l i n i b e r a n g k a t d a r i k e y a k i n a n b a h w a a s u m s i

y a n g l e b i h m e n d e k a t i k e n y a t a a n a k a n m e n d a p a t k a n a n a l i s a d a n p r e d i k s i

y a n g l e b i h t e p a t . A d a a s u m s i d a s a r y a n g k e t i g a t e o r i d a s a r d i a t a s

d i p e n u h i : constant retun to scale d a n perfect competition. L a i u b a g a i m a n a

j i k a d u a a s u m s i t e r s e b u t t i d a k b i s a d i p e n u h i ? S e b a b k i t a b i s a

m e m b a y a n g k a n b a h w a d a l a m d u n i a n y a t a , l e b i h d a r i 5 0 % p e r d a g a n g a n

d u n i a a d a l a h b a r a n g m a n u f a k t u r , d i m a n a s t r u k t u r p a s a r n y a c e n d e r u n g

o l i g o p o l i s t i k d a r i p a d a p e r s a i n g a n s e m p u r n a ( K r u g m a n d a n H e l p m a i i ,

1 9 8 9 ) . 1

69

M a d d a r e m m e n g A . Panennungi

D a l a m b e b e r a p a r e f e r e n s i b u k u i n t e r n a s i o n a l , n a m p a k n y a a i a s a n d i

a t a s m e n j a d i d o m i n a n . N a m u n a d a h a l y a n g t e r l u p a k a n , b a h w a i d e - i d e

S T P s e b e n a r n y a b e n t u k k o m p r o m i a n t a r a F r e e T r a d e d e n g a n p e m i k i r a n

y a n g m e n e n t a n g n y a s e p e r t i y a n g t e r g a b u n g d a l a m a i i r a n n e o m a r x i s t ,

m i s a l n y a d e p e n d e n s i a , t e o r i s i s t e m d u n i a , a t a u unequal exchange ( l i h a t

b a g i a n b e r i k u t d a r i t u l i s a n i n i ) . T e t a p i , d a l a m k o n t e k s r e f e r e n s i b u k u

e k o n o m i i n t e r n a s i o n a l s t a n d a r , a r g u m e n d i a t a s y a n g m e n j a d i a i i r a n

u t a m a .

Strategic Trade Policy ( S T P ) m e m b e r i k a n a s u m s i y a n g l e b i h r e a l i s t i k ,

yaitu imperfect market d a n non constant return to scale. B e r a n g k a t d a r i

a s u m s i y a n g b a r u t e r s e b u t , m a k a a l a t a n a l i s a a k a n b e r u b a h d a r i s t r u k t u r

p e r d a g a n g a n s e m p u r n a m e n j a d i o l i g o p o l i a t a u d u o p o l i .

H a l p e r t a m a y a n g h a r u s d i p e r h a t i k a n a d a l a h , a p a k a h t u j u a n u t a m a

d a r i k e b i j a k a n ? M e n u r u t B r a n d e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) , a d a d u a h a l y a n g m e n j a d i t u j u a n

u t a m a e k o n o m i : p e r t a m a a d a l a h e f i s i e n s i , y a n g t i d a k l a i n m e r u p a k a n

m a k s i m a s i k e u n t u n g a n u n t u k p e r e k o n o m i a n d a l a m n e g e r i . K e d u a ,

d i s t r i b u s i p e n d a p a t a n , y a n g b a g i s e b a g i a n e k o n o m b i s a d i a b a i k a n ,

k a r e n a b i s a d i i a k u k a n d i s t r i b u s i l e w a t p a j a k .

I s t i i a h strategic d i s i n i m e m b e r i k a n i s y a r a t b a h w a a d a p i h a k k e t i g a

y a n g a k a n b e r f u n g s i s e b a g a i ' p e n e n t u k e m e n a n g a n ' d a l a m k o m p e t i s i ,

d a l a m h a l i n i a d a l a h p e m e r i n t a h . D a l a m k e a d a a n Increasing Return to

Scale ( I R S ) d a n Imperfect Competition ( I C ) , m a s i n g - m a s i n g n e g a r a b e r u s a h a

u n t u k m e l a k u k a n s t r a t e g i y a n g m e m u n g k i n k a n k e u n t u n g a n t e r b e s a r

b e r a d a p a d a p e r u s a b a a n d o m e s t i k / n e g a r a n y a m a s i n g - m a s i n g

( M a r k u z e n e t a l l , 1 9 9 5 ) .

B r a n d e r d a n S p e n c e r m e n c o b a u n t u k m e m b a g i d u a k e r a n g k a

a n a l i s a d a l a m S T P , y a i t u profit-shifting subsidies d a n protection and home

market effects. Y a n g p e r t a m a l e b i h m e n e k a n k a n s u b s i d i e k s p o r , y a n g

l a i n n y a m e n g h a r a p k a n r e s t r i k s i i m p o r . S e l a n j u t k a n k i t a a k a n m e i i h a t h a l

t e r s e b u t l e b i h j a u h .

4 . 1 . 1 . P r o f i t - s h i f t i n g subsidies

J a m e s B r a n d e r d a n B a r b a r a S p e n c e r m e n u r u n k a n m o d e l y a n g t e r k e n a i

s e b a g a i B - S ( B a r b a r a - S p e n s e r ) m o d e l y a n g m e r e p r e s e n t a s i k a n p e r a n a n

p e m e r i n t a h d a l a m strategic trade policy. M o d e l t e r s e b u t m e m a k a i

p e r a n g k a t Cournot Competition.

7 0

Paradigma Ut . imn d a l j i n I lmu Ekonomi dan Impl ikas i i l ya . . .

D a l a m m o d e l Cournot Competition, d i a s u m s i k a n a d a d u a p e r u s a b a a n

b e s a r d a r i n e g a r a y a n g b e r b e d a d a n b e r k o m p e t i s i d i n e g a r a k e t i g a .

D a l a m m o d e l s t a t i k t e r s e b u t s e t i a p p e r u s a b a a n d a l a m m e n e n t u k a n

outptitnya d e n g a n m e n g a s u m s i k a n output p e r u s a b a a n l a i n n y a given.

K e s e i m b a n g a n a k a n t e r j a d i s a a t o u t p u t y a n g t e r j a d i t i d a k m u n g k i n l a g i

b a g i p e r u s a b a a n u n t u k m e n d e v i a s i k a n n y a . D a l a m m o d e l i n i , B - S

m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a p e m e r i n t a h y a n g l e b i h d u i u b e r i n i s i a t i f u n t u k

m e n a w a r k a n s u b s i d i e k s p o r p a d a p e r u s a b a a n d o m e s t i k , m a k a

k e u n t u n g a n t e r b e s a r b e r a d a d i p i h a k d o m e s t i k , d e n g a n k e r u g i a n d i

p i h a k a s i n g .

N a m p a k n y a s e c a r a s e p i n t a s , d a l a m p a s a r Cournot i n i , itratcgic trade

poiicy d e n g a n s u b s i d i m e n g u n t u n g k a n u n t u k s a t u n e g a r a d a n n e g a r a

l a i n n y a a k a n m e r u g i . I n i a k a n k i t a b a h a s l e b i h l a n j u t d a l a m k o n t r o v e r s i .

4.1 .2 . P r o t e c t i o n and home m a r k e t effects

I d e m e n g e n a i p r o t e k s i i n d u s t r i d a l a m n e g e r i i n i b e r a s a l d a r i F r e d e r i c b

L i s t s a a t a w a l i n d u s t r i a i i s a s i J e r m a n ( S o e d e r s t e n d , 1 9 9 7 ) . K a d a n g l e b i h

d i k e n a l s e b a g a i infant industry argument. K e b i j a k a n i n i d i m a k s u d k a n

u n t u k m e m b e r i k a n p e r l i d u n g a n t e r h a d a p i n d u s t r i y a n g b a r u t u m b u h d i

d a l a m n e g e r i d e n g a n t a r i f a t a u k u o t a i m p o r . H a s i l y a n g d i h a r a p k a n

a d a l a h i n d u s t r i d a l a m n e g e r i b i s a t u m b u h d e n g a n b a i k d a n

m e n d a p a t k a n s k a l a e k o n o m i s y a n g p a d a a k h i r n y a b i s a b e r s a i n g d e n g a n

i n d u s t r i y a n g s a m a d a r i l u a r n e g e r i .

A r g u m e n t e r s e b u t j u g a l e b i h j e l a s d i t e r a n g k a n o l e h K r u g m a n

d e n g a n m e n u r u n n y a marginai cost d a n p r o s e s teaming curve y a n g p a d a

g i l i r a n n y a m e m b e r i k a n k o n t r i b u s i p a d a s k a l a e k o n o m i s . H a l i n i l a h y a n g

k e m u d i a n d i k e n a l s e b a g a i infant industry argument l a n j u t a n ( l i h a t

B r a n d e r , 1 9 8 7 ) . K r u g m a n m e n g g a m b a r k a n n y a s e b a g a i "protection as

export promotion".

4.1 .3 . Kontroversi: Free T r a d e dan S T P

D a l a m p e m b a h a s a n k o n t r o v e r s i i n i , p e n u l i s t i d a k m e m b e d a k a n a n t a r a

y a n g m a n a m e r u p a k a n a r g u m e n e k o n o m i m u r n i , d a n y a n g m a n a

m e r u p a k a n e k o n o m i p o l i t i k ( m i s a l n y a M . l k h s a n , 1 9 9 7 ) . A i a s a n p e n u l i s

a d a l a h d a l a m strategic trade poiicy, e k o n o m i s u d a h m e n y a t u d e n g a n

p o l i t i k s e c a r a i n h e r e n , s e h i n g g a t i d a k b i s a d i p i s a b k a n a n a i i s a n y a . A d a

MaclcldreniiiK'iig A. Panennungi

p u n p e m b a g i a n b e r i k u t i n i a d a l a h m e n g a c u p a d a k e b e r a t a n d u a m o d e l

y a n g d i k e m b a n g k a n o l e h B r a n d e r d i a t a s .

4.1.4. Brander and Spencer (B-S) Model

Pertama, E a t o n d a n G r o s s m a n ( 1 9 8 5 ) m e n g e m b a n g k a n l e b i h l a n j u t

m o d e l B - S d e n g a n m e n g u b a h n y a m e n j a d i Bertrivid Coiiipctitioii. P e r b e -

d a a n n y a t e r l e t a k k e p a d a p e r u s a b a a n y a n g m e n g a s u m s i k a n b a h w a h a r g a

d a r i s a i n g a n n y a s e b a g a i given. D a l a m s i t u a s i B e r t r a n d , p e r u s a b a a n

d o m e s t i k b e r l a k u s e a k a n - a k a n m e l a k u k a n p e n u r u n a n h a r g a ( d e n g a n

m e n a i k k a n o u t p u t n y a ) n a m u n t a k m e n y e b a b k a n p e r u s a b a a n l u a r n e g e r i

(foreign firm) m e n u r u n k a n h a r g a n y a . A r t i n y a p e r u s a b a a n d o m e s t i k

b e r a s u m s i b a h w a p e r u s a b a a n d i l u a r n e g e r i a k a n m e r e s p o n d e n g a n

m e n u r u n k a n o u t p u t d e m i m e m p e r t a h a n k a n h a r g a . N a m u n d a l a m

k e n y a t a a n n y a , p e r u s a b a a n l u a r n e g e r i a k a n m e r e s p o n d e n g a n

m e n u r u n k a n h a r g a l e w a t k e n a i k a n o u t p u t . D a l a m h a l i n i p e r u s a b a a n

d o m e s t i k b e r l a k u s e a k a n - a k a n p a s a r k u r a n g k o m p e t i t i f m e n y e b a b k a n i a

m e m p r o d u k s i t e r l a l u b a n y a k . D a l a m h a l i n i p e m e r i n t a h m a l a h

d i h a r a p k a n m e m b e r i k a n p a j a k e k s p o r y a n g a k a n m e n g u n t u n g k a n

p e r u s a b a a n d a l a m n e g e r i d a n a s i n g . H a l i n i d i d u k u n g o l e h f a k t a b a h w a

p e m b e r i a n s u b s i d i a k a n a m b i g u i s p e n g a r u h n y a t e r h a d a p weifare ( B o w e n

e t a l . 1 9 9 7 ) .

P i h a k S T P k e m u d i a n m e n j a w a b p e r t a n y a a n t e r s e b u t d e n g a n

m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a d a l a m p e r u s a b a a n , h a n y a p a d a p e m a s a r a n o u t p u t

s a j a m e l i b a t k a n k o m p e t i s i h a r g a (Price), s e m e n t a r a p a d a l e v e l I n p u t ,

R & D , d a n s e b a g a i n y a b e r a d a d a l a m k o m p e t i s i k u a n t i t a s (Quantity).

S e h i n g g a t e o r i B - S a k a n l e b i h v a l i d p a d a non marketing o u t p u t ( l i h a t M .

I k h s a n , 1 9 9 7 ) .

Kedua, Profit-shifting subsidies b a n y a k d i p a k a i s e b a g a i a r g u m e n o l e h

n e g a r a m a j u ( b e s a r d a l a m p e r d a g a n g a n k o m o d i t i t e r t e n t u ) . S u b s i d i i n i a k a n

m e n y e b a b k a n h a r g a d u n i a a k a n m e n j a d i t u r u n ( b i s a d i g a m b a r k a n d a l a m

partiai equiiibrium). D a l a m t e o r i generai equiiibrium, m i s a l n y a s u b s i d i d i b e r i ­

k a n d a l a m b e n t u k k a p i t a l , h a l i n i a k a n m e n u r u n k a n h a r g a k a p i t a l , s e h i n g g a

DKY(Domestik Rate of Transformation = M R T d a l a m n e g e r i ) t i d a k s a m a d e n g a n

D R S (Domestik Rate of Substitution) d e m i k i a n j u g a d e n g a n F R T (Foreign Rate of

substitidion=MRT f o r e i g n ) . J a d i D R T < a t a u > d a r i D R S = F R T . D i s t o r s i i n i

m e n y e b a b k a n o v e r p r o d u k s i p a d a b a r a n g y a n g d i s u b s i d i , s e k a l i g u s

p e r e k o n o m i a n a k a n b e r p r o d u k s i d i d a l a m F F F ( l i h a t B h a g w a t i , e t a l . 1 9 9 8 ) .

72

Paradigm, ! U l a m a d a l a m i imu Ekonomi dan impi ikas inya .

Ketiga, D i x i t ( 1 9 8 4 ) m e n c o b a m e i i h a t s e n s i t i f i t a s k e b i j a k a n t e r h a d a p

j u m i a h p e r u s a b a a n H a l i n i b e r k a i t a n d e n g a n m a s a i a h excessive entry o l e h

G r o s s m a n ( 1 9 8 6 ) . K e b i j a k a n b e r u b a h - u b a h s e s u a i d e n g a n p e r u b a h a n

d a l a m a s u m s i t e r s e b u t ( s e l a n j u t n y a l i h a t B o w e n e t a l l ( 1 9 9 7 ) , M a r k u z e n

e t a l l ( 1 9 9 5 ) ) .

4.1.5. Infant Industri Argument

Pertama, k e m u n g k i n a n a k a n t e r j a d i p e r a n g t a r i f y a n g a k a n m e r u g i k a n

k e d u a n e g a r a ( B h a g w a t i , e t a l . ) .

Kedua, D a l a m game theory, d i d a p a t k a n h a s i l y a n g m i r i p d e n g a n

prisoner diiemma. K e a d a a n i n i m e m b e r i k a n e m p a t p i i i h a n b u a t s u a t u

n e g a r a . K e b i j a k a n y a n g d i i k u t i o l e h n e g a r a l a i n n y a m a l a h a k a n

m e n y e b a b k a n s e m u a n y a r u g i b e s a r . P i h a k S T P m e n e m u k a n s e m a c a m

strategy tiieory y a n g m e r e k a n a m a k a n 'tit for tat " poiicy ( l i h a t B r a n d e r ,

1 9 8 7 ) , a r t i n y a k e b i j a k a n y a n g d i a m b i l a d a l a h s e b a g a i r e a k s i a t a s

k e b i j a k a n y a n g d i a m b i l p i h a k l a w a n . |

Ketiga, k e m u n g k i n a n immiserizing growth b i s a s a j a t e r j a d i . Y a i t u

p e r t u m b u h a n y a n g t e r j a d i m a l a h m e n u r u n k a n k e s e j a h t e r a a n n e g a r a

t e r s e b u t ( l i h a t B h a g w a t i ) .

Keempat, T e o r i d i s t o r s i m e n g a t a k a n b a h w a k e b i j a k a n a p a p u n d a r i

p e m e r i n t a h a k a n m e n y e b a b k a n d i s t o r s i . S e k a l i l a g i , b a h w a s e c a r a u m u m ,

p e r e k o n o m i a n b e r a d a p a d a k e s e i m b a n g a n y a n g o p t i m u m s a a t

D R T = D R S = F R T . K e t i k a d i b e r i k a n p a j a k p a d a b a r a n g i m p o r , m a k a F R T

t i d a k s a m a = D R T = D R S ( B h a g w a t i , 1 9 9 7 ) .

Kelima, a r g u m e n t a r i f i n i s a n g a t l e m a h t e r h a d a p t e k a n a n d a r i

pressure group ( p r o d u s e n ) u n t u k m e n d a p a t k a n p e r l i n d u n g a n . M e r e k a

m e n d a p a t a p a y a n g disebut rent seeking activities, ( B h a g w a t i , 1 9 9 7 ) .

P e r m i n t a a n p r o t e k s i d a r i s e k e l o m p r o k p r o d u s e n y a n g b e r s e d i a u n t u k

m e m b a y a r s e b e s a r k u r v a A p a d a s e t i a p l e v e l t a r i f u n t u k m e n d a p a t k a n

benefit s e p e r t i k u r v a B . O p t i m a l t e r j a d i p a d a t i t i k t * . S u p p l a i p r o t e k s i

a d a l a h k e b i j a k a n p e m e r i n t a h y a n g s a n g a t b e r g a n t u n g k e p a d a

p e r t i m b a n g a n u n t u k t e t a p b e r k u a s a d i m a s a b e r i k u t n y a .

4.2. Sirkuliasionis Versus Produksionis

P a d a t a h u n 7 0 - a n , b a n y a k s e k a l i l a h i r p e m i k i r - p e m i k i r r a d i k a l y a n g

m e r u j u k k e p a d a k a r y a M a r x . H a l i n i d i s e b a b k a n o l e h k e t i d a k a d i l a n y a n g

7 3

Madclarcn in ieng A . Panonnungi

d i r a s a k a n a n t a r a n e g a r a m a j u d a n b e r k e m b a n g / t e r b e l a k a n g . P a d a s a a t

i t u p a r a d i g m a y a n g b e r k e m b a n g a d a l a h p e m b a n g u n a n a t a u m o d e r e n i -

s a s i d e n g a n m e n g a c u k e p a d a p a r a d i g m a klasik/neoklasik d a n k e y n e s ­

s i a n / ) a ' 0 keynessian. T e r n y a t a k e m u d i a n t e o r i r a d i k a l i n i t e r b u k t i e f e k t i f

d a l a m m e n y u a r a k a n k e t i d a k a d i l a n d a l a m k o n s e p m o d e r n i s a s i . D a s a r

e m p i r i k n y a a d a l a h k a s u s h u b u n g a n A m e r i k a L a t i n d e n g a n A m e r i k a

S e r i k a t s e b a g a i c o n t o h y a n g k o n g k r i t .

Kaum neo marxist m e n c o b a m e n g e m b a n g k a n t e o r i m a r x i s t y a n g

t a d i n y a t e r b a t a s p a d a b a g a i m a n a p e r e k o n o m i a n d i d a l a m s e b u a h n e g a r a

b e k e r j a m e n j a d i b a g a i m a n a p e r e k o n o m i a n d u n i a b e k e r j a . D a l a m d u n i a

k o l o n i a l i s a s i , m e n u r u t n y a t e l a h t e r j a d i p e n g i s a p a n s u r p l u s n e g a r a -

n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g a t a s n e g a r a m a j u , s e b a b n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g

t e r p a k s a m e m b e l i b a r a n g n e g a r a m a j u y a n g t i d a k b i s a d i j u a l d i

n e g a r a n y a . S e m e n t a r a i t u , n e g a r a m a j u a k a n m e n j a d i k a n p r o d u k s i n y a

s e m a k i n p a d a t m o d a l d a n t e r j a d i p e n e k a n a n u p a h b u r u h . S a a t i t u j u g a

p a r a k a p i t a l i s a k a n m e m i n d a h k a n p e r u s a h a a n n y a k e n e g a r a

b e r k e m b a n g / t e r b e l a k a n g d e m i m e n d a p a t u p a h b u r u h y a n g m u r a h .

S e t e i a h k o l o n i a l i s a s i b e r a k h i r , k a u m n e o m a r x i s t m e n c o b a u n t u k

m e m f o k u s k a n d i r i p a d a muitinationai corporations ( M N C ) y a n g

m e n g u a s a i p e r d a g a n g a n , m o d a l , s u m b e r d a y a , t e n a g a k e r j a , d a n p a s a r d i

n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g / t e r b e l a k a n g . K a r e n a i t u k a u m n e o m a r x i s t m e n c o b a

u n t u k m e l a k u k a n d u a u s u i a n u t a m a . P e r t a m a a d a l a h d e n g a n a u t a r k i

y a n g b e r a r t i h a n y a m e n d a y a k a n p r o d u k s i d a n k o n s u m s i d a l a m n e g e r i .

S e m e n t a r a y a n g k e d u a a d a l a h d e n g a n m e l a k u k a n u p a y a i s o l a s i

s e m e n t a r a l e w a t k e b i j a k a n s u b s t i t u s i i m p o r . M e r e k a i n i t e r m a s u k k a u m

n e o m a r x i s t y a n g m e r u p a k a n b a g i a n d a r i t e o r i d e p e n d e n s i a . M e r e k a

m e i i h a t b a h w a p e r d a g a n g a n t i d a k a d i l d i s e b a b k a n o l e h term of trade

n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g / t e r b e l a k a n g k o n s t a n . H a l i n i d i s e b a b k a n o l e h

p r o d u k h a s i l p e r t a n i a n y a n g m e r u p a k a n k o m o d i t i e k s p o r n e g a r a

b e r k e m b a n g b e r s i f a t i n e l a s t i k , s e d a n g k a n p r o d u k h a s i l n e g a r a m a j u

e l a s t i k y a n g b e r a r t i n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g / t e r b e l a k a n g h a r u s m e n j u a l l e b i h

b a n y a k u n t u k m e n d a p a t k a n b a r a n g n e g a r a m a j u y a n g s a m a . S e l a i n i t u ,

p a s a r k o m o d i t i p e r t a n i a n c e n d e r u n g d a l a m k o m p e t i s i s e m p u r n a ,

s e m e n t a r a b a r a n g p r o d u k s i n e g a r a m a j u u m u n y a p a d a p a s a r y a n g t i d a k

s e m p u r n y a , b a h k a n c e n d e r u n g k e o l i g o p o l i k a i a u b u k a n m o n o p o l i /

d u o p o l i . U n t u k a i a s a n k e d u a i n i , k a r t e l b i a s a n y a m e n j a d i c a r a e f e k t i f

u n t u k m e i a w a n k e t i d a k a d i l a n t e r s e b u t .

74

Paradigm, ! U tama da lam I lmu Ekonomi dan Impl ikas inya . . .

G a b r i e l P a l m a m e m b e d a k a n t e o r i d e p e n d e n s i k e d a l a m t i g a

p e n d e k a t a n u t a m a ( b a g i a n i n i b a n y a k m e n g u t i p S e t i a w a n , 1 9 9 9 ;

D j o j o h a d i k u s u m o , 1 9 9 4 , s e r t a B u d i m a n , 1 9 9 4 ) . P e r t a m a o l e h A n d r e

G u n d e r F r a n k y a n g k e m u d i a n d i l a n j u t k a n o l e h D o s S a n t o s , M a r i n i ,

C a p u t o , d a n P i z a r r o — m e r e k a b e r a s a l d a r i Centra de Estitdios Sociales

( C E S O ) , d i C h i l i . S e l a i n i t u H i n k e l a m m e r t d a r i C E R E N ( C t ' H f r o de Estiidios

de la Reaiidad Nacionai) d a r i U n i v e r s i t a s K a t o l i k C h i l i . P e n d e k a t a n m e r e k a

i n i m e m u s a t k a n d i r i p a d a k e t e r g a n t u n g a n e k o n o m i . P e n d e k a t a n k e d u a

d i k e m b a n g k a n o l e h O s v a l d o S u n k e l d a n G e l s o F u r t a d o y a n g b e r u s a h a

k e m b a l i u n t u k m e r u m u s k a n a n a l i s i s E C L A {Economic Commision for Latin

America) t e n t a n g p e m b a n g u n a n A m e r i k a L a t i n d a r i p e r s p e k t i f k r i t i k

t e r h a d a p h a m b a t a n - h a m b a t a n b a g i p e m b a n g u n a n n a s i o n a l . S e m e n t a r a

y a n g k e t i g a d i k e m b a n g k a n o l e h F e r n a n d o H e n r i q u e C a r d o s o y a n g l e b i h

m e i i h a t k e t e r g a n t u n g a n s e b a g a i m e k a n i s f o r m a l . A r g u m e n u t a m a n y a

a d a l a h a s a l m u l a d a n m e k a n i s m e d a r i s t r u k t u r k e t e r b e l a k a n g a n a k i b a t

k e t e r g a n t u n g a n m a s y a r a k a t p i n g g i r a n / s a t e l i t k e p a d a m a s y a r a k a t

p u s a t / m e t r o p o l i s . I n i m e n g a n d u n g i m p l i k a s i m e n g e n a i m a s a i a h

p e r a i i h a n k e d u n i a k a p i t a l i s y a i t u i n t e g r a s i m a s y a r a k a t k a p i t a l i s k e

d a l a m s i s t e m k a p i t a l i s d u n i a .

S e l a i n t e o r i k e t e r g a n t u n g a n , m u n c u l j u g a T e o r i S i s t e m D u n i a

d e n g a n p e m i k i r u t a m a I m m a n u e l W a l l e r s t e i n , A r g h r i I m m a n u e l , d a n

S a m i r A m i n . K o n s e p m e r e k a y a n g t e r k e n a i a d a l a h iinequai excliange, y a i t u

a d a n y a p e r b e d a a n t i n g k a t u p a h a n t a r a p u s a t ( n e g a r a m a j u ) d a n

p i n g g i r a n ( n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g / t e r b e l a k a n g ) m e m u n g k i n k a n p e n g a m b i l -

a n n i l a i l e b i h y a n g t i n g g i o l e h p u s a t . A r g u m e n i n i m e n d a s a r i p e n j e l a s a n

W e l l e r s t e i n t e n t a n g s a t u - s a t u n y a c a r a p r o d u k s i , y a i t u k a p i t a i i s m e g l o b a l ,

y a n g d i k a r a k - t e r i s t i k k a n s e b a g a i p r o d u k s i k o m o d i t i u n t u k l a b a d i

p a s a r a n d u n i a . B e n t u k p r o d u k s i i n i d i i a k u k a n d a l a m m a c a m - m a c a m

b e n t u k e k s p i o i t a s i k e r j a d a l a m k o n t e k s h u b u n g a n y a n g t i d a k s e j a j a r

a n t a r a n e g a r a - n e g a r a y a n g b e r k u a s a d a n w i l a y a h p i n g g i r a n . B a i k T e o r i

K e t e r g a n t u n g a n m a u p u n T e o r i S i s t e m D u n i a , d i a n g g a p s e b a g a i s a t u

a i i r a n y a n g d i s e b u t S i r k u l a s i o n i s d i m a n a p u s a t a n a l i s a p a d a h u b u n g a n

p e r t u k a r a n y a n g h a n y a m e n y a n g k u t s i r k u l a s i m o d a l d a n k a r e n a n y a

t i d a k d a p a t m e n g u b a h h u b u n g a n - h u b u n g a n s o s i a i d i m a s y a r a k a t n y a .

A i i r a n P r o d u k s i o n i s m u n c u l d e n g a n m e n g e m b a l i k a n k e p a d a

k o n s e p d a s a r d a r i M a r x y a i t u m e n g e n a i m o d e p r o d u k s i {mode of

production). T o k o h u t a m a n y a a n t a r a l a i n E r n e s t o L a c l a u , R o b e r t B r e n n e r ,

75

Macldarummeng A . Panennungi

M a u r i c e G o d d e l i a r , E m m a n u e l T e r r a y , G e o r g e D u p r e , d l l . P a n d a n g a n

m e r e k a i n i m e i i h a t b a h w a s i s t e m k a p i t a i i s m e h a n y a b i s a d i l i h a t n e g a r a

p e r n e g a r a , b u k a n s e b a g a i s e b u a h s i s t i m k a p i t a i i s m e d u n i a . B a n y a k l a g i

k o n s e p s i y a n g b e r a s a l d a r i k a u m p r o d u k s i o n i s i n i , n a m u n p e n u l i s t i d a k

m e l a n j u t k a n n y a d i s e b a b k a n k u r a n g r e l e x a n s i n y a d e n g a n t e o r i

p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e r n a s i o n a l .

Bagan 2 Teori Perdagangan Internasional

T E O R I P E R D A G A N G A N I N T E R N A S I O N A L

SINTESIS: N E O K E Y N E S S I A N /

M E R K A N T I L I S

S T R A T E G I C T R A D E P O L I C Y

76

Por, idigin, i U tama da lam I lmu Ekonomi dan impi ikas nya

5. K E S I M P U L A N D A N C A T A T A N

S e p e r t i d a l a m p a r a d i g m a K u h n , p a r a d i g m a - p a r a d i g m a b e s a r a k a n

t e r g a n t i k a n b i l a m a n a p a r a d i g m a t e r s e b u t m e n g a i a m i k r i s i s d a l a m

m e n j a w a b p e r m a s a i a h a n a t a u p u n k e t i d a k m a m p u a n m e n j e l a s k a n

f e n o m e n a y a n g a d a . N a m u n , s e p e r t i y a n g t e l a h k i t a s a k s i k a n , p a r a d i g m a

K u h n t e r s e b u t t i d a k l a h s e p e n u h n y a b e r l a k u u n t u k i l m u s o s i a i ,

k h u s u s n y a i l m u e k o n o m i . T e r b u k t i b a h w a m u n c u l n y a p a r a d i g m a b a r u

t i d a k s e r t a m e r t a m e m a t i k a n p a r a d i g m a l a m a , n a m u n p a d a s a a t t e r t e n t u

p a r a d i g m a l a m a m u n c u l d e n g a n w a j a h b a r u y a n g m e m i l i k i k e m a m p u a n

l e b i h d a l a m m e n j e l a s k a n p e r m a s a i a h a n .

D a l a m i l m u e k o n o m i a d a t i g a t e o r i b e s a r y a n g s a l i n g b e r t a r u n g d a n

m e m i l i k i a k a r s e r t a s e j u m l a h p e n d u k u n g y a n g h a m p i r b e r i m b a n g .

M e r e k a a d a l a h y a n g t e r g a b u n g k e d a l a m A i i r a n K a u m K j a s i k ,

K e y n e s s i a n , d a n M a r x i s t . T e r l i h a t b a h w a k e t i g a n y a t i m b u l d a n

t e n g g e l a m , t e r k a d a n g s a l i n g m e n g g a n t i k a n , s e k a l i - k a l i d i s i n t e s a k a n .

N a m u n h i n g g a s a a t i n i p e n g a r u h c J a r i k e t i g a n y a s a n g a t k u a t , a p a l a g i

d e n g a n m u n c u l n y a n e o k l a s i k , n e o k e y n e s s i a n , d a n n e o m a r x i s t . B e g i t u

p u l a d a l a m c a b a n g e k o n o m i i n t e r n a s i o n a l , k e t i g a t e o r i b e s a r t e r s e b u t i k u t

m e r a m a i k a n n y a .

N a m u n , p e r k e m b a n g a n m u t a k h i r d a l a m i l m u e k o n o m i y a n g d i a n u t

b a n y a k n e g a r a , m e n g a c u k e p a d a A m e r i k a S e r i k a t , d i m a n a p e n e r u s d a r i

k a u m k l a s i k s a n g a t d o m i n a n , y a i t u n e o k l a s i k , t e r k a d a n g d i s i n t e s a k a n

d e n g a n n e o k e y n e s s i a n . P e r k e m b a n g a n m e r e k a i n i d i d u k u n g o l e h

u n i v e r s i t a s b e s a r d i A m e r i k a , E r o p a h , d a n A u s t r a l i a d e n g a n d u k u n g a n

i l m u k u a n t i t a t i f / m a t e m a t i k a y a n g s e m a k i n r u m i t . D e m i k i a n j u g a

p e r a l a t a n k o m p u t a s i u n t u k p e n g e t e s a n t e o r i d a n p r e d i k s i . S e h i n g g a i l m u

e k o n o m i s e r i n g d i a n g g a p k e h i l a n g a n a k a r n y a d a r i r e a l i t a s , m e l a i n k a n

t e o r i d i b a n g u n d a r i m a t e m a t i k a u n t u k d i b e l a , h a l i n i k e m u d i a n d i k r i t i k

s e c a r a k e r a s o l e h O r m e r o d s e b a g a i i l m u e k o n o m i o r t o d o k s .

S e b a g a i . c a t a t a n , p e t a a t a u k l a s i f i k a s i d a r i i l m u e k o n o m i d i a t a s

h a n y a l a h m e r u p a k a n p e n y e d e r h a n a a n d a l a m r a n g k a m e i i h a t i l m u

e k o n o m i d a r i p e r s p e k t i f f i l s a f a t p e m i k i r a n . S e m e n t a r a i t u , b a n y a k s e k a l i

a i i r a n y a n g t u m b u h y a n g j e l a s m e m i l i k i k a r a k t e r i s t i k m a s i n g - m a s i n g .

B e b e r a p a u p a y a u n t u k m e l a k u k a n k l a s i f i k a s i d i a n t a r a n y a Z i m m e r m e n

( 1 9 5 0 ) , D j o d j o h a d i k u s u m o ( 1 9 9 4 ) , C o l e ( 1 9 9 9 ) . N a m u n p a d a h a k e k a t n y a

s e t i a p c a r a s e l a l u p u n y a k e l e b i h a n d a n k e k u r a n g a n . S e l a i n i t u h a m p i r

7 7

Miic lc larcmmeng A . Panennungi

t i d a k a d a i l m u y a n g b i s a d i p e t a k a n d e n g a n p e m b a g i a n y a n g b e t u l - b e t u l

h i t a m - p u t i h .

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dan Peiaksanaan: 70 Taiiuii Widjojo", J a k a r t a : F E U l .

A z i s , I w a n J a y a , 1 9 9 6 . "Kesenjangan Antara Ekonomi Makro dengan Gejaia

Mikro: Keterbatasan iimu Ekonomi?" P i d a t o G u r u B e s a r F E U l , J a k a r t a

L P F E U l .

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N J : P r e n t i c e H a l l .

B h a g w a t i , J . , 1 9 8 8 . "Seiccted Rending Intcrnationai Trade", C a m b r i d g e : M I T .

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trade", C a m b r i d g e : M I T P r e s s .

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B o r r u s , T y s o n , d a n Z y m a n , 1 9 8 7 . "Creating Advantage: Intra trade in

semiconductor industry, daiam Stategic Trade Poiicy and Tiie New

Internationai Economics", C a m b r i d g e : M I T P r e s s .

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N Y .

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P o l i c y " , d a l a m Stategic Trade Poiicy and Tiie New Internationai

Economics, G a m b r i g e d : M I T P r e s s .

B r a n s o n d a n K l e v o r i c k , 1 9 8 7 . " S t r a t e g i c b e h a v i o r a n d T r a d e P o l i c y d a l a m

S t a t e g i c T r a d e P o l i c y a n d T h e N e w I n t e r n a t i o n a l E c o n o m i c s " ,

C a m b r i d g e : M I T P r e s s , 1 9 8 7 .

B u d i m a n , A r i f , 1 9 9 6 . "Teori Pembangunan Negara Ketiga", J a k a r t a :

G r a m e d i a .

B u t t e r f i e l d , H e r b e r t , 1 9 6 5 . " T h e O r i g i n o f m o d e r n s c i e n c e " . N e w Y o r k :

T h e F r e e P r e s s .

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Poracligina Ulamo clalaiu Ilmu tkononii clan Implikasinya

C l i n e , W . R . , 1 9 8 7 . "US Trade and Industrial Poiicy: Textiies. Sleet, and

Autoniobii" d a l n m S t a t e g i c T r a d e P o l i c y a n d T l i e N e w I n t e r n a t i o n a l

E c o n o m i c s , C a m b r i d g e : M I T P r e s s .

C o l e , K e n , 1 9 9 9 . , "Eca / !0)Hi/ , Environment, Deiviopmcnt, Knowiedge", N e w

Y o r k : R o u t h l e d g e .

C o r d e n , W . M a x , 1 9 9 6 . "Strategic Trade Poiicy. daiam A Guide lo Modern

economics", T h o m p s o n P u b l i s h i n g , 1 9 9 6

D e r w i s , e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 . "Generai Equiiibrium Models for Development Poiicy",

W B R e s e a r c h P u b l i c a t i o n .

D j o d j o h a d i k u s L i m c ! , S u m i t r o , 1 9 9 4 . "Dasar teori Ekonomi Pertnmbidian dan

Pembangunan", J a k a r t a : L P 3 E S .

P r e y d a n W e c k - H a n n a m e n , 1 9 9 6 . "Tiie Poiiticai Economy of Protection,

daiam Current issues in Internationai Trade", M a c M i l l a n .

G i d d e n s , A n t h o n y , 1 9 8 6 . "Kapitaiisme dan teori Sosiai Modern (tcrjemaiian)",

J a k a r t a : U I P r e s s , 1 9 8 6

G r e e n w a y ( e d ) , 1 9 9 6 . "Current issues in Internationai Trade", M a c M i l l a n .

G r e e n w a y , e t a l . ( e d ) , 1 9 9 6 "A Guide to Modern economics", T h o m p s o n

P u b l i s h i n g .

G r a i s , e t a l l , 1 9 8 6 . " A G e n e r a l E c i u i l i b r i u m E s t i m a t i o n o f t h e E f f e c t s o f

R e d u c t i o n i n T a r i f f s a n d Q u a n t i t a t i v e R e s t r i c t i o n i n T u r k e y 1 9 7 8 ,

d a l a m S r i n i v a s a n , e t a l . ( E d s ) " , Generai Equiiibrium Trade Poiicy

Modeiiing.

G r o s s m a n , G . M , 1 9 8 7 . " S t r a t e g i c E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n : A C r i t i c q u e " , d a l a m

Stategic Trade Poiicy and Tlie New International Economics,

G a m b r i g e d : M I T P r e s s .

G r o s s m a n d a n R o g o , "Handbook oflnternationai Economics", V o l . 3 , 1 9 9 7

H e l p m a n d a n K r u g m a n , 1 9 8 9 . "Trade Poiicy dan Market Structure",

C a m b r i d g e : M I T P r e s s .

I k h s a n , M o h a m a d , 1 9 9 7 . " T e o r i P e r d a g a n g a n B a r u d a n I m p l i k a s i n y a

t e r h a d a p S t r a t e g i P e r d a g a n g a n I n d o n e s i a " , J a k a r t a : Ekonomi dan

Keuangan Indonesia V o I . X L V , N o . 2 .

I k h s a n , M o h a m a d , "Catatan Kuiiah Internationai Trade I", m i m e o , 1 9 9 9 -

2 0 0 0

7 9

Maclclaremnieng A. Panennungi

J h o n s o n , H . G , 1 9 8 8 . " O p t i m a l T r a d e l n t e r \ ' e n t i o n i n t h e P r e s e n c e o f

d o m e s t i c D i s t o r t i o n s " , d a l a m Selected Reading internationai Trade,

M I T .

K h u n , T h o m a s , 1 9 7 0 . "Tlie Structure of Scientific Revoiutions", C h i c a g o

P r e s s .

K l a m e r , A r j o , 1 9 8 4 . "Conversation ivitli Economist", R o v v m a n & A l l a n h e l d .

K r u g m a n a n d O b s t f e l d , 1 9 9 5 . I n t e r n a t i o n a l E c o n o m i c s .

K r u g m a n ( e d ) : 1 9 8 7 . "Stategic Trade Poiicy and Tiie New Internationai

Economics", C a m b r i d g e : M I T P r e s s .

K u n t j o r o - J a k t i , D o r o d j a t u n , 1 9 9 5 . "Perencanaan Ekonomi Nasional

Mengliadapi Giobaiisasi", P i d a t o G u r u B e s a r E E U I . J a k a r t a : E E U I

P r e s s .

L a v i n e , T . Z , 1 9 8 4 . "From soctrates To Sartre: Tiie piiiiosbopic Quest",

B h a n t a m B o o k s ,

L e a r n e r a n d S t e r n , 1 9 6 6 . "Quantitative internationai Economics", A l d i n

P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y , C h i c a g o , 1 9 6 6

M a r k u z e n , e t a l . 1 9 9 5 . "internationai Trade Tiieory and Evidence", M c G r a w

H i l l .

O E C D , Cost and Benefits of Protection, 1 9 8 5

O r m e r o d , P a u l , M a t i n v a I l m u e k o n o m i ( t e r j e m a h a n ) , KPQ, 1 9 9 4

N o e r , D e b a r , 1 9 9 7 "Pemikiran Politik di Negeri Barat", B a n d u n g : M i z a n .

P r e s s m a n , S t e v e n , 2 0 0 0 . "Lima Puiuh Pemikir Ekonomi Dunia (terjemahan)",

J a k a r t a : G r a f i n d o .

P r i a m b o d o , B a m b a n g , 1 9 9 5 . " S t r a t e g i K o m p e t i s i d a l a m P a s a r T i d a k

S e m p u r n a " , J a k a r t a : Ekonomi dan Keuangan Indonesia V o l . X L I I I ,

N o . 2 .

R i c h a r s o n , J . D , 1 9 8 7 . " T h e n e w P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y o f T r a d e P o l i c y " ,

d a l a m Stategic Trade Poiicy and The Neiv Internationai Economics,

G a m b r i g e d : M I T P r e s s .

R o d r i q u e s d a n R o d r i k , " T r a d e P o l i c y a n d e c o n o m i c s G r o w t h : A S k e p t i c ' s

G u i d e T o T h e C r o s s - N a t i o n a l E v i d e n c e " , National Bureau of

Economic Research ( N B E R ) , A p r i l 1 9 9 9

8 0

Pcirddigma Ut.inid ddldm Ilmu Ekonomi ddn impiikdsiiiyd ...

S a d a u l e t a n d d e J a v v r e y , 1 9 9 5 . "Quantitative Deveiopmenl Poiicy", J o h n

H o p k i n s .

S e t i a w a n , B o n n i e , 1 9 9 9 . "Peraiiiian Ke Kapitaiisme Dunia Ketiga", P u s t a k a

P e l a j a r .

S r i n i v a s a n d a n W h a l i e y ( E d ) , 1 9 8 6 . "Generai Eipiiiibrium Trade Poiicy"

M o d e l l i n g , C a m b r i d g e : M I T P r e s s , 1 9 8 6 .

V o u s d e n , N e i l , 1 9 9 0 . " T h e e c o n o m i c s o f t r a d e p r o t e c t i o n " , C a m b r i d g e .

Y a m a m u r a , K . , " C a v e a t E m p t o r : T h e I n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y o f J a p a n " , d a l a m

Stategic Trade Poiicy and Tiie New Internationai Economics,

G a m b r i g e d : M I T P r e s s , 1 9 8 7 .

Z i m m e r m a n , L . J , 1 9 5 0 . "Sedjarali Pendapat-pendapat Tentang Ekonomi",

B a n d u n g : V o r k i n v a n H o e v e •

8 1