pain part 2
DESCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPT
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Pain ManagementPain Management
Part II
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Pain Intensity or Rating ScalesPain Intensity or Rating Scales
• Numbers
• Visual analogue
• Words
• Colors
• Faces
• Behavior / physiologic signs
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Pain Intensity or Rating ScalesPain Intensity or Rating Scales
• Patient’s report of pain– Single most important indicator of intensity
of pain– Provider’s overrate or underrate pain– Inaccuracy greater when patient’s pain is
severe
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Pain Intensity or Rating ScalesPain Intensity or Rating Scales
• Pain intensity scales
• Easy and reliable
• Provide consistency in communication of pain
• 0 – 10 range
• Word modifiers may help some apply
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Pain Intensity or Rating ScalesPain Intensity or Rating Scales
• Effective Use– Understand use of scale– Educated about how information will be used
• Determine changes in condition• Effectiveness of pain management interventions
– Ensures adequate pain management achieved
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No Pain Worst Pain
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Numeric Scale
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No Pain
Mild Moderate Severe Very Severe
Worst
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No Pain Worst Pain
Visual-Analogue Scale*
Usually 0-10 cm long line.Placed either vertical or horizontal.
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VAS: Coloured Analogue Scale(Ref: McGrath, PA, et al: Pain, 1996.)
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Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale
0 2 4 6 8 10
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Sample of Child’s FACES Pain Rating Scale
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• Oucher scale (Beyer)
• White child, 3 year-old male
Photographic/Numeric Pain Scale
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• Oucher scale (Beyer)
• Black child, school age, male
Photographic/Numeric Pain
Scale, cont.
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• Oucher scale (Beyer)
• Hispanic child, school age, male
Photographic/Numeric Pain
Scale, cont.
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Cultural Preference for Scales
100 African-American children with SCD rated preference of 3 scales:
• FACES -- 56%• Black Oucher -- 26%• VAS -- 18%• Validity was strongest for FACES, then
Oucher and VAS
Ref: Luffy R: Pediatric Nursing, Jan 2003.
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Pain Intensity or Rating ScalesPain Intensity or Rating Scales
• Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale– Children– Elderly with impairments
• Cognition • Communication
– People who do not speak English
• Includes number scale in relation to each expression
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Pain Intensity or Rating ScalesPain Intensity or Rating Scales
• When a scale can’t be used– Rely on observation of behavior– Rely on physiologic signs– Use input of significant others
• Parents/caregivers• Help interpret observations
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Nonverbal responses to painNonverbal responses to pain
• Facial expression
• Vocalizations like moaning and groaning or crying and screaming
• Immobilization of the body or body part
• Purposeless body movements
• Behavioral changes such as confusion and restlessness
• Rhythmic body movements or rubbing
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QUESTTQUESTT
• Question the patient
• Use pain rating scale
• Evaluate behavior and physiologic signs
• Secure family’s involvement
• Take cause of pain into account
• Take action and assess effectiveness
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Comprehensive Pain History Comprehensive Pain History • COLDERR
– Character– Onset– Location– Duration– Exacerbation– Relief– Radiation
– O– L– D– D– E– R
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Characteristics of PainCharacteristics of Pain
• Quality– What does it feel like– Record patient’s words that he describes– Provides information useful in diagnosing
cause of pain
• Intensity– Important to obtain estimate of intensity– Evaluate effectiveness of treatment
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Characteristics of PainCharacteristics of Pain
• Aggravating and Alleviating Factors– Include behaviors or activities that influence pain– Helps in care planning
• Associated Manifestations– Impact on ADLs
• Sleep, work, activities• Appetite, mood, sexual function, recreational activities
– Pain is fatiguing• Longer experience pain the greater the fatigue• Stress response of pain continues in sleep
– Physiological consequences• Pain more severe in morning
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Characteristics of PainCharacteristics of Pain
• Meaning of Pain– Soldier vs civilian
• Objective Data– Physiologic
• Activates sympathetic nervous system– ↑ HR, RR, BP, – Diaphoresis, pallor, muscle tension, dilated
pupils
• Chronic pain shows adaptation
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Characteristics of PainCharacteristics of Pain
• Behavioral– Crying, moaning– Rubbing site, restlessness– Distorted posture, clenched fists, guarding– Frowning, grimacing
• Speaks of discomfort
• Restless
• Afraid to move
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Characteristics of PainCharacteristics of Pain
• Location– Point to place in body– Ask if more than one site– Radiates, deep, superficial
• Onset, Duration– How long existed– Triggers– Patterns – worse am, pm, getting up, etc.
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Nurse’s RolePatient Advocate
Nurse’s RolePatient Advocate
• Primary Concern-Comfort
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Practice GuidelinesPractice Guidelines
• Establish a trusting relationship
• Consider client’s ability and willingness to participate
• Use a variety of pain relief measures
• Provide pain relief before pain is severe
• Use pain relief measures the client believe are effective
• Align pain relief measures with report of pain severity
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Practice GuidelinesPractice Guidelines
• Encourage client to try ineffective measures again before abandoning
• Maintain unbiased attitude about what may relieve pain
• Keep trying
• Prevent harm
• Educate client and caregiver about pain
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Barriers to Effective TreatmentBarriers to Effective Treatment
• Lack of knowledge of the adverse effects of pain
• Misinformation regarding the use of analgesics
• Misconceptions about pain
• May not report pain
• Fear of becoming addicted
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Pharmacologic InterventionsPharmacologic Interventions
• Opioids (narcotics)
• Nonopioids/nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS)
• Co-analgesic drugs
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Opioids (Narcotics)Opioids (Narcotics)
• Full agonists– No ceiling on analgesia– Dosage can be steadily increased to relieve
pain– morphine, oxycodone, hydromorphone
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NSAIDSNSAIDS
• Vary little in analgesic potency – vary in anti-inflammatory effects, metabolism,
excretions, and side effects
• Have a ceiling effect
• Narrow therapeutic index
• acetaminophen, ibuprofen, aspirin
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Coanalgesic DrugsCoanalgesic Drugs
• Antidepressants
• Anticonvulsants
• Local anesthetics
• Others
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WHO Ladder Step Approach for Cancer Pain Control
WHO Ladder Step Approach for Cancer Pain Control
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Rational PolypharmacyRational Polypharmacy
• Evolved from WHO three step approach• Demands health professionals be aware of all
ingredients of medications that alleviate pain • Use combinations to reduce the need for high
doses of any one medication• Maximize pain control with a minimum of side
effects or toxicity• Combined with multimodal therapy (e.g.
nondrug approaches)
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Oral AdministrationOral Administration• Preferred because of ease of
administration
• Duration of action is often only 4 to 8 hours
• Must awaken during night for medication
• Long-acting preparations developed
• May need rescue dose of immediate-release medication
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Transdermal AdministrationTransdermal Administration
• Transmucosa and Transnasal– Enters blood immediately– Onset of action is rapid
• Transdermal – Delivers relatively stable plasma drug level– Noninvasive
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RectalRectal
• Useful for clients with dysphagia or nausea/vomiting
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Medication AdministrationMedication Administration
• Intramuscular– Should be avoided– Variable absorption– Unpredictable onset of action and peak effect– Tissue damage
• Intravenous– Provides rapid and effective relief with few
side effects
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IntraspinalIntraspinal• Provides superior analgesia with less medication used
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PCAPCA
• Patient-controlled analgesia– Minimizes peaks of
sedation and valleys of pain that occur with prn dosing
– Electronic infusion pump
– Safety mechanisms
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Cognitive-Behavioral(Mind-Body)
Cognitive-Behavioral(Mind-Body)
• Providing comfort• Eliciting relaxation
response• Repatterning thinking• Facilitating coping
with emotions
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Body InterventionsBody Interventions• Reducing pain triggers• Massage• Applying heat or ice• Electric stimulation (TENS)• Positioning and bracing (selective immobilization)• Acupressure• Diet and nutritional supplements• Exercise and pacing activities• Invasive interventions (e.g. blocks)• Sleep hygiene
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Mind InterventionsMind Interventions
• Relaxation and imagery
• Self-hypnosis
• Pain diary and journal writing
• Distracting attention
• Re-pattern thinking
• Attitude adjustment
• Reducing fear, anxiety, stress, sadness, and helplessness
• Providing information about pain
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Spirit InterventionsSpirit Interventions
• Prayer
• Meditation
• Self-reflection
• Meaningful rituals
• Energy work (therapeutic touch, Reiki)
• Spiritual healing
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Social InteractionSocial Interaction
• Functional restoration• Improved communication• Family therapy• Problem-solving• Vocational training• Volunteering• Support groups