The Ottoman Army

1908 – 1918

A Decade of Turmoil

The Ottoman Empire (circa 1912)Regime Change 1908 and 1913The Three PashasStrategic Objectives 1914The Ottoman Army & its SoldiersFifth Army and III Corps at GallipoliThe Ottoman NavyThe Ottoman Air ForceOttoman Women in the ServicesOttoman Victories in WW1Propaganda – power of the Press

Topics:

Which is Correct???

Ottomanor

Turkish …

Strictly speaking, the term should be “Ottoman”.

The Sultan ruled an Empire which had existed for more than 600 years and encompassed parts of three continents.

The reigning Sultan & Caliph was Mehmed Rashad V who came to power in 19o9.

Unfortunately, the Empire known widely as “the sick man of Europe” as various parts of the empire fell apart, or sought independence.

The terms “Turk” and “Turkish” are now used interchangeably with “Ottoman”.

The Ottoman Empire

Essentially a Muslim state controlled by a hereditary emperor, both Sultan (head of state) and Caliph (head of religion).

Many ethnic & religious groupings (as at 1908):TurksArabsArmeniansGreeksAlbaniansBulgariansSerbiansJewsKurds

The Ottoman Empire

Dates: Nov 1844 – July 1918

(age 73). Dynasty: House of

Osman. Reign: April 1909 – July

1918

Came to throne in 1909, but

was largely a figurehead in the

political machinations of the

day.

Rarely left Topkapi or Yildiz

Palaces in Constantinople

throughout his life. Had five

wives & two children.

Declared a jihad against the

Allies in November 1914, but

did not agree with siding with

Central Powers.

Appointed

Generalfeldmarschal by

Kaiser Wilhelm in 1917.

MEHMED V Sultan of the Ottoman Empire

Caliph of Islam

The Shrinking Empire

The Ottoman Empire - 1912

Modern Turkey founded 1923

Honorifics were used as a common courtesy for groupings of military (and civilian) ranks:

Efendi – Subaltern officer ranks – 2Lt, Lt, Captain

Bey – Field officer ranks – Major, Lt Colonel, Colonel

Pasha – General officer ranks from Brigadier to General and Field Marshal

Ataturk – Mustafa Kemal “Father of the Turks”

Honorific is placed after the name, e.g. Zeki Bey

Ottoman Army Ranks / Honorifics

April 1908: Young Turk Revolution. Reversed 1878 suspension of the General Assembly (Parliament).

An unlikely union of reformists – nationalists, pro-Westerners or anyone who blamed the then Sultan Hamid II for the collapse of the once great Empire.

Installing new Constitution was neither simple nor bloodless – a counter-coup of 1909 led by Islamists & monarchists was defeated: the ‘31 March Incident’ in Constantinople – Hamid dethroned and Mehmed V installed to reign under Constitutional law

New power behind the throne – Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) with huge military backing

Regime Change 1908 - 1913

January 1913 Coup d’état. The CUP had fallen out of favour with Parliament, which was also under pressure from European countries to hand over city of Edirne (Adrianople) to Bulgaria – a sore point.

On 23 Jan, a group of CUP officers entered a Cabinet meeting and shot the Minister of War, Nazim Pasha and forced the Grand Vizier, Kamil Pasha to resign.

Action reinforced the reform movements of 1908.

Installed the “Three Pashas” as de facto rulers of the Empire until late 1918. Enver Pasha was new Minister of War and Commander-in-Chief.

Regime Change 1908 - 1913

Three senior members of the Committee for Progress & Unity (CUP). This triumvirate essentially controlled the Empire’s strategic and internal affairs from January 1913 to October 1918.

They were known as “The Three Pashas” –

Ismail Enver Pasha

Ahmed Djemal Pasha

Mehmed Taalat Pasha

The Three Pashas

Dates: Nov 1881 – August 1922 (Age 40)

Commenced service about 1900; a

member of the Committee for Union and

Progress (CUP); a key leader in the

Young Turk Revolution of 1908.

Exchange posting to Germany; very pro-

German and now seen as the main

architect of Ottomans joining Central

Powers in 1914.

Not a successful field commander;

married Sultan’s daughter; loved medals

& uniforms; ambitious, vain and

arrogant.

Fled to Germany in Oct 1918 then

Russia. KIA with counter-rev troops in

Tajikistan by Red Army cavalry in 1922.

Ismail Enver PashaOttoman Minister for

War 1913 - 1918

Dates: may 1872 – July 1922 (Age

50).

Commenced military service

1893. Member of the Committee

for Union and Progress (CUP).

Favoured an alliance with the

French

Military commander of

Constantinople until 1915 when

he went to Damascus to lead

attacks on Suez Canal and put

down Arab revolts. Not a

successful field commander.

Fled to Germany in October

1918.

Assassinated in Tbilisi, Russia in

1922 by survivors of Armenian

Massacres.

Ahmed Djemal PashaOttoman Minister of the

Navy 1913 - 1918

Dates: 1874 – March 1921 (age 47).

Civilian politician and member of

the Committee of Union and

Progress (CUP).

Minister of both Finance and

Interior 1913 -1917

Became Grand Vizier (PM) in 1917.

Named as prime motivator in

p0grom against Armenians.

Fled to Germany in Oct 1918

Assassinated in Berlin in 1921 by a

survivor of the Armenian

massacres.

Mehmed Taalat Pasha

Minister for the Interior 1913 - 1918

After joining Central Powers, the Ottoman hierarchy appeared to have few & vague strategic objectives:

- Re-garrison & retain remaining pieces of the Empire?

- Possibly win back some lost possessions in Balkans?

- Construction of Berlin to Baghdad railway for supply of military materiel in exchange for oil products?

- Seize the Suez canal to control trade routes?- Share in Central Powers economic expansionism?- Always, for Ottomans an underlying motivator was

…

Strategic Objectives??

After joining Central Powers, the Ottoman hierarchy appeared to have few & vague strategic objectives:

- Re-garrison & retain remaining pieces of the Empire- Possibly win back some lost possessions in Balkans- Construction of Berlin to Baghdad railway for supply of

military materiel in exchange for oil products- Seize the Suez Canal to control trade routes?- Share in Central Powers economic expansionism?- Always, for Ottomans an underlying motivator was …

fear of RUSSIA

Strategic Objectives??

The Sultan’s Army

The Sultan’s ArmyOttoman Army Battle Flag for 600 years until

1918.

Officer Corps. General Staff surprised by sudden war option during re-organisation (Neutrality preferred).

Senior officers well-trained; war college; German training advisers and doctrine since 1887.

Need to boost numbers of junior officers & NCOs.

Army relied on serious augmentation by reserves to reach war strength.

The Ottoman Soldier in WW1

Foot-soldier/Asker/ ‘Mehmet’. Conscription for Muslim citizens compulsory for 3 years from age 20 up to age 45 in one of three categories:

- Active force (Nizamiye) - Reserve force (Redif) - Territorial force (Mustahfiz)

Estimated 1 million men & 210,00 animals available, but in 1914 had 200,000 men and 8,000 officers under arms (5 armies = 13 corps and 33 understrength infantry divisions).

To meet war establishment, needed 500,000 men and 12,500 officers.

Vast amount of experience in Libya & Balkan Wars, but high casualties in junior officer and senior NCO ranks.

The Ottoman Soldier in WW1

Foot-soldier/Asker/ ‘Mehmet’. A hardy, stolid and long-suffering soul, used to privation and operating with minimal logistic or medical support.

A variety of theatres of operation: Caucasus, Anatolia, Middle East, Egypt, Sinai, Mesopotamia, Balkans etc.

The Ottoman Soldier in WW1

Infantry Weapons. At the outbreak of war, Ottoman Army had 1.5 million rifles, mostly of German origin. The ‘asker’ was lightly equipped, but his rifle was the superb Mauser, with sights graded to 2,000 metres.

Mauser Rifle. M1903 (or earlier variants) in 7.65mm.

Officer’s Pistol. Preferred weapon was the Mauser C96 “Broomhandle” in 9mm parabellum.

The Ottoman Soldier in WW1

Marksmen. Ottomans placed great value on their battle-hardened veterans of the Balkan Wars; each unit had a selected group of marksmen who used the standard Mauser rifle for shots out to 500 – 600m.

There were NO SNIPERS on Gallipoli on either side!!! Fully trained snipers with telescopic-sighted rifles did not appear until 1916 on the Western Front…

The Ottoman Soldier in WW1

Machine-Gunners. Used the 7.92mm Maxim MG-08 on Nordic tripod. Allocation: 4 guns per regiment.

NO MGs at the pre-dawn landing on 25 April!! Did not arrive until late morning on Walker’s Ridge. Under control of the 57th Regt commander.

The Ottoman Soldier in WW1

Cavalry. A highly-trained and very effective corps, especially in Sinai and Palestine; worthy opponents of the Aust Light Horse and NZ Mounted Rifles .

Photo of an Ottoman cavalry regiment in M. East:

The Ottoman Soldier in WW1

Field Artillery: Arty regiments used a variety of field guns, including pack howitzers in 75mm calibre. In 1914, they had a mix of French Schneider, German Krupp or Austro-Hungarian Skoda guns; 24 per Div.

Corps artillery: 12 x 105mm howitzers per corps.

The Ottoman Soldier in WW1

Garrison Artillery. 120mm calibre guns used for coastal defence, usually in reinforced gun positions.

Dardanelles Forts. Defences included 115 guns in calibres: 355mm, 280mm, 240mm and 150mm mostly German Krupp, but dating from late 1800s – some ammo shortages during campaign to force Narrows.

The Ottoman Soldier in WW1

Formed March 1915 to defend Gallipoli Peninsula and the Dardanelles Straits; HQ in Gelibolu

Commanded by Lt-Gen Liman von Sanders 1915-18

Strength in April 1915 – about 84,000 men; most were veterans of the Balkan Wars – key factor!

III Corps – Commander: Esat Pasha – (Gallipoli Peninsula)

VX Corps – Commander: Colonel Hans Kannengiesser (Canakkale area)

Dardanelles Fortified Command – heavy

artillery, fixed coastal artillery, engineers, signals, logistic troops

1st Aircraft Squadron, Ottoman Air Force

Ottoman Fifth Army (1915)

III Corps – (Gallipoli Peninsula)5th Division7th Division9th Division (25th, 26th, 27th Regiments - on the coast)

19th Division (Corps Reserve) (Mustafa Kemal Bey (Lt Col)) 57th Regt, 72nd Regt, 77th Regt, 39th Artillery Regt

VX Corps –(Canakkale area)3rd Division11th Division

Dardanelles Fortified Command – commanded all forts and coastal artillery on both sides of the Dardanelles in the areas of Maidos (now Ecebat) and Chanakkale – 115 guns in 15 forts.

Ottoman Fifth Army (1915)

General von Sanders believed Allied landing would occur north at Bulair to cut off the Peninsula.

Disposition near the Dardanelles in April 1915:

Ottoman Fifth Army

Dates: Oct 1862 – Nov 1952 (age 90).

An outstanding soldier and commander.

Served in the Ottoman Army 1884 –

1919. Graduate of Prussian War

Academy 1894.

Commanded Yanya Corps in Greece

1913.

Commanded III Corps; the only Corps

which met the mobilisation schedule in

1914, as most units were Balkan Wars

veterans; the best trained corps.

He was the most senior Ottoman

commander in the field in the Gallipoli

campaign under von Sanders. Planned

the defence of the Peninsula.

Mehmet Esad Pasha

Commander III Corps at Gallipoli - 1915

Disposition on Gallipoli Peninsula in April 1915:9th Div (Aker Bey) holding coast picquet

positions; one Bn of 27th Regt opposite Anzac Cove

19th Div (Kemal Bey)around Boghali as Corps reserve

Ottoman III Corps (Fifth Army)

Military service: 1893 – 1920

1905 – 1911: War College & staff

positions. 1908 – key military member

of the Committee of Union and Progress

(CUP).

1911 -1912: Italo-Turkish War (Libya).

1912 – 1913: Balkan Wars.

1913-1914: Mil Attaché - Sofia, Bulgaria.

1914 – 1918: Gallipoli; Caucasus; Sinai

& Palestine Campaigns. (Favoured

neutrality)

1918 – 1920: Ministry of War; Inspector

General. Resigned July 1920.

War of Independence 1920- 1922.

Founder of Turkish State 1923.

“Ataturk”

Mustafa Kemal1881 - 1938

Lt Col Kemal was commander of 19th Div (HQ at Boghali) on 25 April 1915. His decisive actions blocked the ANZAC advance towards the guns at the Narrows.

To withdrawing men: “I don’t order you to fight, I order you to die. In the time it takes us to die, other troops can come and take our places.”

Kemal at Gallipoli 1915

The Ottomans were meticulous in their record keeping right across the Empire; military losses were no exception – statements that casualties for various campaigns are “unknown” are quite simply false.

Recently opened Turkish archives for the Canakkale (Gallipoli) Campaign show:

DEAD: 56,643WOUNDED: 107,007MIA & POW: 11,178TOTAL: 174,828SICK (estim): 64,000

Ottoman Casualties - Gallipoli

Also known as Harp Madalyasi (Turkish) or the Eisener Halbmond (German) – ‘Gallipoli Star’ is incorrect!!

Approved by Sultan Mehmed Reshad on 1 March 1915 (1333 Mohammedan calendar)

Could be awarded for either gallantry in the field or military merit on operations

Could be awarded to all Ottoman troops regardless of rank, plus any deserving Central Powers troops

Awarded for several Ottoman campaigns in WW1

Ottoman War Medal

Ottoman War Medal & Ribbon

• Approved by the Sultan

in 1915. Ribbon was

worn separately in

tunic buttonhole.

• NOT a Gallipoli Star!

• Awarded for bravery or

merit in several

Ottoman campaigns:

• CHANAK

• GAZA

• KANAL

• KUT-AL-AMARA

• SANATORIUM

ANZAC soldier in the trenches

ANZAC vs ‘Johnny Turk’ - 1915

Ottoman “Mehmet” Private

Who was the better soldier???Ottoman soldiers had several advantages:

Fighting on home soil – drive out the invaderSoldiers tough & battle-hardened from Balkan WarsLeadership was combat-ready and staff experiencedShorter lines of supply – fresh food & waterExercised on ground where the battle occurredAllied High Command underestimated the determination

and skill of Ottoman forces, many of whom were ‘locals’

ANZACs of 1915 described as “enthusiastic amateurs” with little combat experience or leadership skills!

ANZAC vs ‘Johnny Turk’ - 1915

Ottoman Navy

In 1908 the CUP decided to upgrade the existing Navy fleet which consisted of a number of ‘ancient’ vessels from the 1880s and 1890s bought from other countries.

Public subscriptions were taken up to purchase new vessels from the UK:2 x Dreadnoughts; 2 x Cruisers; 4 x Destroyers

Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, cancelled these deliveries in 1914 and enraged the Ottomans!

Key factor in tipping them to the German side in October 1914.

Who is the villain of the piece here??

Ottoman Navy – Upgrade 1908+

Ottoman Navy strength in 1914-15 (includes 2 x loaned German ships under Admiral Souchon).

Majority were sadly outdated.

Battle Cruiser x 1 (GOEBEN)Battleships x 2 Coastal Defence Ship x 1Heavy Cruisers x 2Light Cruiser x 1 (BRESLAU)Destroyers x 8Minelayers (various, e.g. “Nusret”)1 x Captured French sub “Turquoise”

Ottoman Navy - Strength 1914-15

Battle Cruiser SMS GOEBEN –

Yavus Sultan Selim

German ships join Ottoman Fleet

Light CruiserSMS BRESLAU –

Midilli

Minelayer “Nusret”/ “Nusrat”Arguably the most famous ship in the Ottoman

Navy.Laid a string of mines on eastern side of the

Narrows on night of 17/18 March 1915 which caused chaos to attempted penetration by the Allied fleet.

Ships sunk: “Bouvet”, “Irresistible”, “Ocean”. Damaged: “Inflexible”, “Ocean” and “Gauloise” (by artillery shell below waterline).

Commemorated now in three forms:Original ship on display in port of Tarsus.Museum replica at CanakkaleTurkish Navy replica / tourist vessel

Minelayer “Nusret”“The deadliest warship in the Ottoman Navy.”Built in Kiel, Germany in 1913; 360 tons as a

purpose-built minelayer. Commander: Lt. Tophaneli Hakki.

Laid 26 mines near Erin Keul Bay (Asiatic shore) in a line that was not cleared by British minesweepers.

Faced Allied fleet of 18 French and British battleships.

Minelayer “Nusret”Map showing belts of mines laid across the

Narrows and the single belt laid by “Nusret” on 8 March 1915.

Minelayer “Nusret” (1)Original “Nusret” – Decommissioned 1955;

then to merchant service. Sank at Mersin 1989. Salvaged & restored in 2008 and now on display in city of Tarsus.

Minelayer “Nusret” (2)Museum Display – A full-sized replica on

display in the grounds of Canakkale Naval Museum and fortress, with an on-board museum theme.

Replica Vessel “Nusret” (3)Turkish Navy (Museum Ship) N-16

“Nusret” – a full-sized working vessel in its 1915 configuration, commissioned into the Turkish Navy in 2011 and now used as a tourist vessel in the Dardanelles.

Ottoman Air Force

First Ottoman pilot Capt. Fesa, then 8 others trained by France in 1912.

17 planes of various types used during Balkan Wars

By 1914, air force consisted of 6 planes & 7 pilots

Photo (right) pilot Vecihi BeyPhoto (centre) Ottoman pilot’s wingsPhoto (left) decorated Ottoman pilot

Ottoman Air Force

Total of 300 planes, mostly provided by Germany in WW1, including Albatros, Gotha, Fokker, Halberstadt, Pfalz, Rumpler, SPAD, Nieuport.

Planes shown with Ottoman 1914-15 markings:

Ottoman Air Force

1st Ottoman Air Sqn at the Dardanelles, 1915

3 x recon aircraft and 1 x recon seaplaneCommanded by German Lt Ludwig Pruessner Lt Cemal bombs HMS “Majestic” on 1 March,

causing significant damage.

Ottoman Air Force

Ottoman Women in the Services

Ottoman Nursing Staff – both Muslim and Christian

Canakkale Campaign. Naval victory in the Dardanelles in March 1915, followed by the withdrawal of the Allied land forces by January 1916.

Siege of Kut. Maj-Gen. Townsend’s 6th (Indian) Div besieged in Kut (100km south of Baghdad) Dec 1915 to April 1916. Several British relief efforts failed; 11,000 men taken into captivity.

Sinking of HMS “Ben my Chree”. A British seaplane carrier sunk off the island of Castellorizo on 11 Jan 1917 by Ottoman field artillery on the nearby mainland. Ship’s mission was to conduct aerial reconnaissance of suspicious Ottoman military movements!

Ottoman Victories in WW1

Naval assault defeated 18 March

Map showing Allied naval assault against forts and belts of mines laid across the Narrows - 18 Mar 1915.

Mesopotamia Campaign. Kut garrison surrendered in April 1916. Photo shows Gen. Townsend & staff with Khalil Pasha & staff. Townsend criticised for living in luxury villa while his men were in squalid POW camps.

Siege & Surrender of Al-Kut

First ever carrier sinking in naval history – Jan 1917.

Sunk in shallow waters of Castellorizo Harbour; no casualties; mascot dog and cat saved!

Extremely embarrassing for Royal Navy… later salvaged.

Sinking of HMS Ben my Chree

Propaganda was widely used by both the Allies and the Central Powers in the Press of the day - Newspapers, Magazines, Postcards and later silent movie films.

The aim was to enhance one’s own point of view and lambast the opposition to show how evil he was.

Common themes: Greatness of national leaders. Brothers-in-Arms against the foe. Strategic objectives.Small children in the nursery with their toys.

The Power of Propaganda

Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Constantinople in 1917 to help prop up the crumbling Ottoman war effort.

These two photos show him wearing the full uniform and regalia of a Field Marshal of the Ottoman Empire.

The Power of Propaganda

The Three Emperors of the Central Powers: Kaiser Wilhelm II - Germany, Mehmed V –

Ottoman Empire, Franz Joseph – Austria-Hungary.

Propaganda (1)

The Four Kids at play: Germany, Austria, Hungary and the

Ottomans building the strategic Berlin to Baghdad Railway.

Propaganda (2)

Three kids of the Central Powers stand together:

Propaganda (3)

Soldiers of the Central Powers: German, Ottoman, Austrian, Hungarian.

Propaganda (4)

The UK view from PUNCH magazine, 1916: Germans saddling themselves with an

unwilling (Ottoman) camel in the Middle East.

Propaganda (5)

Canakkale Martyrs’ Memorial at Morto Bay, celebrating 253,000 Turks who participated in the campaign at Gallipoli. Officially opened in 1958; stands 41.7m/137ft high; includes museum & cemetery.

Monuments - Canakkale Campaign

57th Regiment Memorial and cemetery on Second Ridge / “The Chessboard” at Gallipoli.

Focus of Turkish national military commemorations every Anzac Day.

Monuments – 57th Regiment

Turkish asker or mehmet – 57th

Regiment

Monuments on GallipoliRescue of wounded

British soldier

At the 57th Regiment Memorial Gallipoli

2009

Turkish Soldiers – a comparison

Turkish Conscript in 1915

tropical uniform

National War Museum Istanbul

(Daily performances)

Centuries of Tradition – Janissary BandNational Monument –

Gallipoli Peninsula -18th March

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkHhLXmDox8

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DZr1ibaFE_4

Questions???

Presentation © CopyrightDavid Wilson

AIF Research ServicesMay 2014