original article effect of consumption of a cassis ...1)3442.pdf · ... such as skin transpiration...

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IntroductionCassis (Ribes nigrum L.) fruit contains a variety of

organic ingredients, such as hydroxycinnamic acid 1) and polysaccharides 2), that stimulate the immune system, as well as polyphenols, such as anthocyanin and f lavonol, that have antioxidative properties 1). We have reported that cassis polysaccharides (CAPS) may effect skin condition,and thus might be useful as an Anti-Aging Medicine 3-5).

We have reported improvements in subjective QOL symptoms, particularly those pertaining to skin condition, and decreases in diastolic blood pressure following cassis consumption 3). Measures of blood vessel function and body surface temperature improved 4).

The mechanisms underlying these physiological responses are unknown, but previous research has found that cassis consumption inhibits expression of genes of α-adrenoceptor, thromboxane A2 receptor and calcium (Ca) channel. These genes control the pathway of Ca influx into vascular smooth muscle 5).

Taken together, this evidence suggests that cassis juice consumption may moderate gene expression in vascular endothelial cells.

Here, we conducted a double-blind study to evaluate the effect of cassis juice on subjective and objective measures of ski condition, including skin resilience, moisture retention, and resistance to UV damage.

Original Article

Effect of Consumption of a Cassis Polysaccharide-Containing Drink on Skin Function: a Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial of 9-Week Treatment

Yoshikazu Yonei 1), Hiroshi Ashigai 2), Mari Ogura 1), Masayuki Yagi 1), Yasuji Kawachi 2), Takaaki Yanai 2)

1) Anti-Aging Medical Research Center and Glycation Stress Research Center, Graduate School of Life and Medical Sciences, Doshisha University2) Kirin Holdings Company, Limited

AbstractObjective: The effect of cassis (Ribes nigrum L.) juice consumption, containing cassis polysaccharides (CAPS), on the skin was investigated in a randomized controlled trial over nine weeks.Methods: In healthy women (n=36, age 49.2±5.4 years), who presented with a low minimum erythema dose (MED) value, assigned to one of two cassis groups (polysaccharide (CAPS) content cassis juice: 6.0, 12.5 mL) or placebo control group, the following parameters were assessed: for skin elasticity, water-content retention ability, color tone, ultra violet (UV) damage, and catalase (CAT) activity.Results: Patients reported improvements in several subjective symptoms (“stiffness in shoulder”, a “palpitation”, and “dropsy”), although other subjective assessments did not change or did not differ between the test and control groups. After nine weeks consumption, several objective assessments of skin condition (pore-area, silverfish, freckles and wrinkles) did not differ between control and dose groups; skin water transpiration, MED and CAT Index differed between control and dose groups.Conclusion: The present study found intake of cassis juice containing CAPS might improve several subjective and objective measures of skin condition, such as skin transpiration rate and resistance to UV damage. These changes may be caused by changes in antioxidation capability.

KEY WORDS: Ribes nigrum L., transepidermal water loss (TEWL), catalase, ultra violet, minimal erythema dose (MED)

Received: Dec 30, 2011 Accepted: Feb. 1, 2012Published online: Feb. 29, 2012

Anti-Aging Medicine 9 (1) : 34-42, 2012(c) Japanese Society of Anti-Aging Medicine

Prof. Yoshikazu Yonei, M.D., Ph.D.Anti-Aging Medical Research Center, Graduate School of Life and Medical Sciences Doshisha University

1-3, Tatara Miyakodani, Kyotanabe city, Kyoto Prefecture 610-0321, JapanTel: +81-774-65-6382 / Fax: +81-774-65-6394 / E-mail: [email protected]

Method

SubjectsA sample of fifty healthy women volunteers, age 35 to

50, without skin melanism, skin phototype of II and III were selected by using the questionnaire for skin phototypes and skin condition tested in an initial screening from the more than 70 initial voluntary participants .

Volunteers were assessed for sensitivity to sunburn following Fitzpatrick’s classification 6), and those with Skin phototype I, (highly sensitive) were excluded from the study. Each volunteer’s skin was checked for melanin level, erythema, and the color difference measurement. Fifty samples and performed the below-mentioned ultra-violet (UV) irradiation to the direction beyond ITA-degree (The Individual Tyoplogy Angle) 28 degree.

Skin melanin and erythema levels were measured with a Mexameter (MX18; Courage & Khazaka Electric Gmbh, Köln, Germany) 7). Skin color difference (L*a*b*) was measured with a spectral-colorimetry meter (CM-2600d; Konica Minolta Sensing, Sakai-city, Osaka, Japan) 8). ITA-degrees were calculated from the formula:

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Effect of Cassis Polysaccharides (CAPS) on Skin Function

35

ITA°= [Arc Tangent (( L* – 50 )/b* )] 180/3.1416and are equivalent to:Very bright ITA-degree >55°Bright ITA-degree 41–55°Moderate ITA-degree 28–41°Suntan ITA-degree 10–28°Brown ITA-degree –30–10°Black ITA<degree –30°

This formula indicates the likelihood of sunburn from UV. The visual value (L*) of the skin color, it carried out the group division. The minimum UV exposure measured in Mexameter required to produce purple stigmata plasty is termed the minimum erythema dose: MED.

The MED in all volunteers was measured and 36 (49.2±5.4 years old of average age) who presented with a low MED value were selected. Subjects were prepared with or without CAPS content cassis juice (Table 1).

The CAPS content cassis juice was prepared from black carrant juice (Kirin Holdings Co.,Ltd. Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan). The juice contained enzymatic partially digested polysaccharide with a mean MW of approximately 20,000 with β-galactosidase

2,9). Nutritional content is shown in Table 2. The placebo was formulated with a high-fructose corn syrup and cassis flavor, and was indistinguishable the drinks by color, taste or aroma.

Test designThe trial was designed as a double-blind dose controlled

trial with three groups: low-dose (LD), high-dose (HD) and placebo control groups. All groups were provided with sufficient drink to provide a daily CAPS intake of: control, 0 mg/day; LD group, 62.5 mg/day; HD group, 125 mg/day.

Volunteers were instructed to drink one bottle (50 ml) of the test drink daily after breakfast for nine weeks, or at the time breakfast was usually taken if breakfast was not eaten. Volunteers recorded test product consumption, meals, activity and lifestyle in a diary during the trial period. The compliance rate for consumption of the test product was100.0% for the control, 99.9% LD, and 99.3% HD groups, and the group mean was 99.7%.

At the beginning and end of the trial period, skin response to UV (ultraviolet-irradiation) skin condition were tested.

Subjects evaluated subjective skin condition using the Anti-Aging QOL Common Questionnaire (AAQol) 3-5,7,8).

Volunteers were instructed to avoid overeating, excessive exercise, and to ensure they obtained adequate sleep during the trial period. We assume that lifestyle and food consumption, apart from the consumption of the test drinks, did not change significantly during the trial.

The trial was completed between September and December 6, 2010 at the DRC (Data Research Coordination) examination laboratory (DRC, Inc., Kita-ku, Osaka-city, Osaka, Japan). Information on the purpose of the trial and the content of the test products was provided to all participants prior to the study, and all participants provided prior written approval.

Objectiveskin conditionThe color-difference,water content, transdermal water

transpiration, melanin and erythema-index were measured. Silverfish patterns and wrinkles were evaluated by image analysis. All skin measurements were taken after 20 minutes acclimation at a room temperature of 25 °C and 50% humidity.

The color difference was measured with a spectral-colorimetry meter (CM-2600d) 8). Skin water content of the left and right cheek of the face and the regiones dorsales was measured. Skin moisture was measured with Colneo meter (CM825; Courage & Khazaka Electric Gmbh), which measures the water content in the corneum by electric capacitance 10). The amount of melanin and erythema index evaluated in the regiones dorsales. Melanin and erythema index were measured by Mexsa meter (MX18; Courage & Khazaka Electric Gmbh), which irradiates the skin specific wavelength light andmeasures the reflected light with a photodiode; the meter computes a melanin and erythemaindex 11,12).

Trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL)TEWL from the face cheek and the regiones dorsales was

measured with a Tewameter (TM210; Courage & Khazaka Electric Gmbh) 13). The vapor tension at several points two millimeters from a skin surface was measured to compute the water lost (g/h·m2). Measurements were taken after the face had been washed out water and soap and allowed to acclimatize for 20 minutes indoors at a room temperature of 25 °C and 50% humidity.

Image analysis of the facial skinThe facial skin was imaged with shot apparatus (VISIATM

Evolution, Fairfield, NJ, USA) 14) pigmented lesions and face

Table 1 Raw-material composition of the test-drinks

Low-dose (LD)group

CAPS content cassis juice

Red sweet potato pigment

Citric acid

Sodium citrate

Corn syrup

Cassis flavor

Water

Total

(ml)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g)

Trial article Trial article Placebo

High-dose(HD) group

Controlgroup

6

0.13

0

0

3

0

40.87

50

12.5

0.13

0

0

3

0

34.37

50

0

0.13

0.075

0.115

3

0.00005

43.68

50

Table 2 Nutritional information

Low-dose (LD)group

Energy

Carbohydrate

Protein

Lipid

Sodium

(kcal)

(g)

(g)

(g)

(g)

Trial article Trial article Placebo

High-dose(HD) group

Controlgroup

11.6

2.9

0

0

0

14.8

3.7

0

0

0

8.4

2.1

0

0

0

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wrinkles quantitatively evaluated. This technique distinguishes different pigments by color temperature and is capable of distinguishing brown, red and UV spots.

The catalase activity in the corneumr by UV-irradiation trial

In order to examine, the skin damage by UV of a trial article. The potential protective affect of cassis consumption was assessed by conducting a UV-irradiation trial. The trial followed “The Japan Cosmetic Industry Association SPF (sun protection factor) Method, Standard version 2007”.

Six circular areas on the back, 8 mm diameter, were irradiated with a high-efficiency ultraviolet-irradiation machine (DRC Solar UV Simulator 6P-100, DRC) for 40 -55 seconds at 50 kJ/m2 to 80 kJ/m2. Average MED in Japanese is 60-70 kJ/m2

15).MED was evaluated 16–24 hours after irradiation and

the redness of skin visually assessed. In this test, it verified the restitution effect of the quality of skin by which has little redness.

Catalase (CAT) activity in the corneum was assessed one week after UV irradiation by sampling a specimen of the corneum by tape stripping (Scotch tape, 15 mm; Nichiban Co., Ltd., Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan). The first two samples (superficial skin layer) were discarded to avoid contamination, and the third sample was used for analysis.

Corneum CAT activity was measured in a circular 6 mm of corneum incubated with hydrogen peroxide incubated for 2 hours 16).

Following incubation, the sample was f ixed using 4-aminoantipyrine, and the remaining perhydrides were estimated by perhydride oxidation. This reaction generates a red diazo-compound from 4-aminoantipyrine and phenolic compounds, in which the color measured at 550 nm optical absorbance the amount of protein in the sample. The protein concentration is related to the CAT activity by the amount of hydrogen peroxide extinctions (nmole/g protein) per unitary protein. A CAT Index, representing an index of UV damage, can be calculated by comparing the activity in UV-exposed and non-exposed skin from the following formula 16).

CAT Index = (CAT activity in UV-non-exposed skin: vicinal site) - (CAT activity in UV-exposed skin).

Ethical standards and conflict of interestThe trial followed Japanese Ministry of Health and

Welfare Ordinance No.28 “Standards of implementation of the clinical trial of a pharmaceutical” (March 27, Heisei 9)” and was completed at a third-party medical institution (DRC examination site). The trial was approved by the Ethics Committee of DRC, Inc. and by Kirin Holdings Co., Ltd., and complied with the Japanese Society of Internal Medicine and conflict-of-interests rule of the Doshisha University.

Statistical analysisTest results are expressed as a mean ± standard deviation

(SD). Differences in variables between the start (0w), and at four (4w) and eight weeks after (8w), were tested with paired-t test, and verified by Wilcoxon rank sum test or by Dunnett’s test. Analysis of covariance between groups was calculated for all variables. Statistics were calculated with Dr.SPSSII (IBM Japan, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan), and the level of significance was set at < 5% (two-tailed test). The safety of the test products was evaluated by individual hazard assessment.

Results

Subjective evaluation assessed by AAQOL In both the HD and LD groups, 3 of the 33 physical

symptoms measured by the AAQOL significantly improved when compared with control: “stiff shoulders” at 4w in the HD group (p = 0.020), “palpitations” at 8w in LD (p = 0.004) and HD (p = 0.002) groups, “edematous” at 4w in the HD group (p = 0.026) (Fig. 1).

Five skin symptoms also showed significant improvements (Fig. 2), namely “concerned about pores” at 4w in the LD group (p = 0.041),“concerned about spots or freckles,” at 8w in the HD group (p = 0.024), “not elastic, not glossy” at 8w in the LD group (p = 0.024), “concerned about crows feet” at 8w in the LD group (p = 0.004), and “concerned about rough skin” at 8w in both the LD (p = 0.018) and HD (p = 0.015) groups. No significant change was seen in any mental symptoms.

Transepidermal water loss (TEWL)By 4w, TEWL in back skin of all groups decreased from

8.24 ± 1.70 to 6.05 ± 1.45 in the HD group (p < 0.001) (Fig. 3). The average of right and left cheek TEWL decreased from 16.22 ± 3.98 to 13.37 ± 4.09 at 8w in the HD group (p = 0.008), and the TEWL of the HD group differed from the control group (p = 0.044).

Facial and back skin structure (assessed by image analysis)

By 4w, the area of pores measured by image analysis on the left cheek in the LD group was larger than that in the control (p= 0.011) and by 8w, the wrinkle area was also larger than that in the control (p = 0.005). By 8w, the area of spots on the right cheek in the HD group was significantly smaller than that in the control group (p = 0.013) (Fig. 4).

By 4w, the skin color tone (index a*) of the back skin decreased in the LD and the HD groups (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01); at 8w, the erythema index decreased in the HD group (p = 0.039); and by 4w, the melanin index decreased in the LD and the HD groups (p < 0.01) (Fig. 5). However, neither the LD nor the HD group differed from the control, in which index a*and the melanin index also decreased by 8w (p = 0.018 and p < 0.001).

UV radiation test (MED and CAT index)At 8w, the MED in the LD group decreased after UV

radiation from 52.92 ± 2.57 to 52.13 ± 3.45 kJ/m2 in the control group and to 50.83 ± 1.95 kJ/m2, while MED in the HD group increased to 56.96 ± 4.68 kJ/m2, with a significant inter-group difference (p = 0.022) (Fig. 6). In other words, the redness induced by UV was significantly less in the HD group.

By 4w, CAT activity in the irradiated area of the control group had increased from 6.33 ± 2.66 to 9.04 ± 3.59 nmole/μg protein (p = 0.013), and by 8w to 8.83 ± 2.51 nmole/μg protein (p = 0.018). No significant change was noted in the HD group (0w: 8.19 ± 5.21, 4w: 10.91 ± 6.70, 8w: 10.23 ± 3.49 nmole/μg protein at 8w), but by 8w in the LD group, CAT activity had increased from 7.29 ± 4.32 to 10.13 ± 3.56 nmole/μg protein (p = 0.004). There was no significant inter-group difference (Fig. 7).

At 4w, CAT activity in the area adjacent to the irradiated skin, increased in the control group from 5.87 ± 2.49 to 8.83 ± 3.95 nmole/μg protein (p = 0.001), and at 8w, to 9.46 ± 2.99 nmole/μg protein (p = 0.002). No significant change was noted in either the LD and HD groups or in the between groups difference (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 1. Physical symptoms as assessed by AAQol.a: “Stiff shoulders”, b: “Palpitations”, c: “Edematous”.Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation of score change ratio from values at 0w (n = 12 for each group). *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01vs. control by Dunnett’s test.

Fig. 2. Skin condition as assessed by AAQol.a: “Concerned about pores”, b: “Concerned about spots or freckles”, c: “Not elastic, not glossy”, d: “Concerned about crows feet”, and e: “Concerned about rough skin”.Mean± standard deviation of score change ratio from values at 0w (n = 12 for each group). *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 vs. control by Dunnett’s test.

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Fig. 3. Change of trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL).a: back, b: cheek (average of right and left).Mean± standard deviation of change ratio from values at 0w (n = 12 for each group).**p < 0.01 vs. values at 0w, vs. control by Dunnett’s test. *** p < 0.001 vs. values at 0w ; #p < 0.05 vs. control by Dunnett’s test

Fig. 4. Image analysis of cheek skin.a: pores (left), b: wrinkles (left), c: spots (right).Mean± standard deviation (n = 12 for each group). **p < 0.01 vs. control by Dunnett’s test.

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Fig. 5. Tone analysis of back skin.a: a* index,b: erythema index, c: melanin index.Mean± standard deviation (n = 12 for each group).*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 vs. values at 0w by Dunnett’s test.

Fig. 6. Minimum erythema dose (MED) by ultra violet (UV) radiation.Mean ± standard deviation (n = 12 for each group). *p < 0.05 vs. control by Dunnett’s test.

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At 8w, the CAT index (UV damage) increased in the control group, but tended to decrease in the LD and HD groups at 4w and 8w. The change of CAT index from 0w to the average of the values at 4w and 8w in the HD group differed from that in the control (p = 0.048) (Fig. 7). This data suggests UV damage was significantly milder in the HD group than that in control.

DiscussionIn this study, we investigated the effect of cassis (Ribes

nigrum L.) juice consumption, which contains CAPS, on the skin in a randomized controlled trial over nine weeks. In both the LD and HD groups, participants reported an improvement in subjective symptoms, such as “stiff shoulders”, “palpitations”, and “edematous” and in their assessment of skin condition indicators, such as pores, spots, freckles, elasticity, glossyness, and rough-dry skin. The subjective assessment was supported by objective measurements of TEWL, image analysis, and the MED and CAT indices.

These significant improvements in subjective symptoms, i.e., “Concerned about rough skin” by and “Concerned about spots or freckles” were confirmed by improvements in objective skin function indicators, namely image analysis for spots, MED tests and CAT index. The score improvements in “Stiff shoulders” and skin symptoms, including pores, spots, freckles, crows feet, and rough skin are consistent with previous findings 3-5).

Fig. 7. Change of skin catalase (CAT) activity induced by ultra-violet (UV) radiation.a,b: CAT activity (UV-radiation area and adjacent area, respectively), c: CAT index.Data are expressed as change ratio from values at 0w, mean± standard deviation (n= 12 for each group). *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 vs. values at 0w by Dunnett’s test; # p < 0.05 group means vs. control by t test.

Influence on skin structureTaken together, this evidence suggests that cassis juice

consumption may have a direct or indirect effect on skin condition. Cassis fruit juice has been reported to interact with skin collagen, phospholipid, and proteoglycan. Skin tissue, which it suffers, activates enzyme matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and resolves collagen and the elastin 16-18). As anthocyanin extracted from berry fruits is reported to inhibit elastase in vitro 16), anthocyanin consumption may alleviate deleterious effects of UV by strengthening or repairing collagen fibers. This interaction occurs in the skin matrix, outside collagen and the blood vessel, where anthocyanin may cross link collagen fibers and interact with the collagen metabolism thus strengthening collagen fiber 17,18).

Anthocyanins may also have beneficial effects on other tissues. For example, other authors report anthocyanins decrease the biosynthesis of structural glycoprotein and polymeric collagen, which are implicated in capillary wall thickening of diabetics 19), and alterations in the gene expression of collagenase 5).

P rev ious re sea rch u si ng m ic roa r r ay a na lysi s of gene expression found that the administration of CAPS containing cassis controlled the appearance of many matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), such as stromelysin (MMP11&19) and collagenase (MMP1) 5). These enzymes inf luence skin aging by controlling the condition of the extracellular skin matrix 5). These findings suggest that these enzymes may alter skin wrinkling and elasticity 20,21).

The result of the pathway analysis admits the change of a significant gene expression in the MMPs pathway. For example,

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enzymes are superoxide dismutase, CAT, GSH peroxidase, and GSH reductase 30). The CAT level in epidermis is much higher than in the dermis, and decreases after a single UV exposure, recovering 3-4 weeks after exposure 31). The present result shows that the cassis juice component acted defensively to the UV irradiation-induced reduction of CAT activity, thus resulting the increase of MED. Further investigation will be necessary to elucidate the precise mechanism.

Although image analysis showed decrease in red tones (index a* and erythema index) in facial skin, this result is compatible with MED improvement after UV irradiation. In previous research, we found a change in gene expression following consumption of cassis juice. These results indicated alteration of the oxidation stress pathway 5). In particular, the expression of Transcription factor Sp1 (SP1) (Chromosome: 12), which is concerned with transcriptional activation as an adaptive response, and the expression of Proto-oncogene protein c-fos (FOS) (Cellular oncogene fos) (G0/G1 switch regulatory protein 7) of immediate-early gene induction. The present results support this previous gene expression research.

ConclusionHere we show that consumption of cassis juice containing

CAPS was associated with an improvement in var ious measures of skin condition in healthy Japanese woman. Skin transpiration and resistance to UV damage were also improved, which suggests the possibility of changes in the anti-oxidizing properties of skin. Further research is required to identify the active component of cassis juice.

AcknowledgementThe authors are indebted to Dr. R. Yamamoto (Mercian

Co., Ltd., Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan) for her valuable comments.

Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest:Ashigai H, Kawachi Y and Yanai T undertake research

for manufactures of cassic products as employees of Kirin Holdings Company, Limited.

Yonei, Y, Ogura, M, and Yagi M declare no financial or other conflict of interests in the writing of this paper.

inhibition of plasminogen gene may have a beneficial effect on skin formation, as plasmin (fibrinolysin) interferes with skin formation and the differentiation of the epidermal cells from the basal layer 22).

As a result, skin condition may improve. However, the mechanism that underlies changes in skin transpiration is uncertain. We hypothesize that improvements in collagen stability may change skin barrier composition, thus altering moisture loss through the skin.

In contrast, we did not find any amelioration of skin wrinkles, as measured by face image analysis. However, the eight-week trial period may have been too short to allow detection of any beneficial change, and a longer trial (three months or more) may be necessary.

The image analysis did identify an increase in pore-area. Similar changes in pore-area and other measures of bodily functions, such as IGF-I and the DHEA-s, have been observed amongst women undertaking a moderate exercise program for two months 23).

Wnt-signaling pathway and cell-cycle pathwayPrevious research has suggested that cassis juice containing

CAPS tends to inhibit the Wnt-signaling pathway 5). This pathway is associated with an increase in tissue fibrosis, which may be related to wrinkle formation 24). The Wnt-signaling pathway may play a role in long-term sclerosis of blood vessel walls, and an increase in tissue fibrosis is one of characteristics of individual aging. A strong Wnt signal may cause an increase in tissue and vessel fibrosis, and skin thickening which are symptoms of premature aging.

In Klotho mice, the Wnt signal is activated easily and a proportion of skeletal muscle is transformed into fibrous tissue. Younger mice exhibit small intestine fibrosis, and the blood of older mice contains many substances that promote fibrosis 25). These results indicate that Klotho expression may suppress Wnt activity 25). If cassis juice ingestion is also able suppress the Wnt signal, then it might thereby inhibit skin fibrosis.

The effect of CAPS on antioxidant capacity of skinThe non-invasive tape-stripping method used in this

study is a well-established method for measuring skin CAT activity conveniently and with high sensitivity 26). SOD activity at corneum and glutathione (GSH) peroxidase activity are unaffected by UV radiation 27), and levels of these enzymes have seasonal change 28). However, UV exposure decreases CAT activity 27,28), and this is reported to be correlated with a decline in elasticity of skin (Cutometer index R7 (Ur1/Uf1)) 26). As such, the results from the present study indicate that the CAT Index might provide a useful index of potential UV damage.

In the present study, we found the MED increased in the HD group, and the CAT Index improved in both the LD and the HD group. MED values are various in individuals, ranging 40~50 kJ/m2 in the sensitive skin to sunburn and 90~100 kJ/m2 in the skin resistant to sunburn. The present results suggest that resistance to UV damage may be positively associated with consumption of the test product.

We hypothesize that the individual variance may occur due to the difference of defense mechanism of the skin, especially the difference of anti-oxidative enzyme activity. The skin is protected from reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced damages by enzymes which convert ROS to harmless water and molecular oxygen 29). Major endogenous anti-oxidative

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