Organizational Behaviour

Chapter 1Definition: field of study devoted to understanding, explaining and ultimately improving the attitudes and behaviours of individuals and groups in organizations.

-Scholars in management dept conduct OB experiment and then managers find out whether they meet “real world” challenges

Contrasts:

Human Resources Management- explores the applications of OB principles. OB study: relationship between leraning and job performance HRM study: best ways to structure training programs to promote employee learning

Strategic Management- explores the product choices and industry characteristics that affect and organization’s profitability. SM study: relationship between firm diversification and firm profitability

Sociology, economics and organizational psychology all play parts of Organizational Behaviour

The Role of Management Theory

Fredrick Taylor- “father” of scientific management” (using scientific method: careful observations, measurements, experimentation). One example is the optimization of brick laying (reducing the number of hand movement less fatigue more $$$ teach to workers and give incentives to apply

Max Weber bureaucracy. Didn’t look at one work process, but the big picture.

Characteristics:

1) division of labour with a high level of technical specialization

2) Strict chain of command (authority hierarchy)

3) System of formal rules and procedures that ensure consistency

4) Decision making at the top

Classical view of low productivity job level problems (ie. Design flaws, failure to implement specified processes, inadequate working conditions)

Human Relations Movement-> psychological attributes (needs, attitudes) + social forces within groups had an effect on workers

Individual Outcomes: Job Performance and Organizational commitment. Both workers and managers want it to succeed.

Individual Mechanisms: mechanisms that directly affect job performance and organization commitment:

Job Satisfaction-captures what employees feel when thinking about their jobs and doing their day to day work.

Stress Motivation

Trust, Justice and Ethics- the degree to which employees feel that their company conducts business with fairness, honesty and integrity

Learning and Decision Making- how employees gain job knowledge and how they use it during the job

Individual Characteristics and Group Mechanisms- The factors that improve individual mechanisms

Personality ,Cultural Values and ability

Teams, diversity , and communication- norms, member roles and the way members depend and relate to each other

Power, Influence and negotiation- how individuals and leaders acquire power and how it is utilized in day to day conflicts

Leadership styles and behaviour- how different leaders behave and when different styles are appropriate

Organizational Mechanisms

Organizational Culture and Change- Every company has certain rules, norms and values that shape employee attitudes. Sometimes they are change and can make issues arise.

Building a Conceptual Agreement

Resource Base View- valuable resource that are capable of creating a long term profit for the company: related to OB- knowledge, decision making and abilities of the work force + image of the company

Resources are more valuable when they’re RARE or INIMITABLE

Things that are inimitable?

History- experience, wisdom and knowledge that give an upper hand to an organization. Ie. West Jet having a history in the discount airline industry over Zip, a short-lived expansion of Air Canada.

Numerous Small Decisions- Big decisions can be copied (Pepsi lime twist came out two months after diet coke lime), but the small details such as West Jet’s playful and whimsical flight attendants and personnel is not.

Socially Complex Resources- Culture, teamwork, trust and reputation. Cannot be bought like tangible resouces. Not clear how they came about, but we know when companies have it.

Rule of one-eight: the belief that at best one eight, or 12 percent of organizations will actually do what is required to build profits by putting people first

The Scientific Method by Sir Francis Bacon

Theory: A collection of verbal and symbolic assertions that specify how and why variables are related, as well as the conditions in which they should ( and should) be related.

Hypotheses: written predictions that specify relationships between variables ie. Social recognition behaviours on the part of managers will be positively related to the job performance and organization commitments of their units.

Correlation- the statistical relationship between two variables (it can be positive or negative and range from 0 to +- 1 . 0= no relationship 1= perfect match

Meta-analysis- combining the results of multiple scientific studies by calculating a weighted average correlation across studies

Chapter 2Job Performance- employee behaviours that contribute either positively or negatively to the accomplishment of organizational goals

Task Performance- employee behaviours that are directly involved in the transformation of organization resources into the good or services that the organization performance. The explicit obligations that an employee must do to retain their job. Ie. Firefighter- put out fires, help rescue people in fires.

Routine Task Performance- Predictable, habitual or banal act for an employee.ie. Flight attendant telling passengers how to put seatbelts

Adaptive Task Performance- novel, unusual or at least unpredictable tasks. Ie. Me having to take out a oven to the back of Home Depot ie. Flight attendants getting people out of a burning airplane

Creative Task Performance – When individuals develop Ideas or physical outcomes that are both novel and useful. Example: in 1946 a fashion designer coming up with the idea of the bikini.

Not a CTP, Steel plated Bikini, creative, but not useful.

Job Analysis – A process by which an organization determines requirements of specific jobs

Process of creating a Job Analysis:

Step 1- list all activities involved in the job from observations, surveys and interviews of employees.

Step 2- list is rated according to things like the importance and frequency of the activity

Step 3- List is edited to keep the most important and frequent tasks

National Occupation Classification (NOC) – A national database of occupations in Canada, organizing over 30,000 job titles into 520 occupational group descriptions. Good start for employers to figure out the important tasks of a job, but it does not capture the uniqueness of each company.

Citizenship Behaviour- Voluntary employee behaviour that contribute to organizational goals by improving the context in which work takes places

Interpersonal citizenship behaviour- going beyond normal job expectations to assist, support and develop co-workers and colleagues

Sub categories:

Interpersonal

Helping- assisting co-workers who have heavy work-loads, aiding them with personal matters or helping new employees around. Ie. Bill showing me around the lot

Courtesy- Keeping co-workers informed of information that is relevant to them. Not concealing secrets. Ie. Telling other lot associates you will be leaving early.

Sportsmanship- Maintaining a good attitude with co-workers even when times are tough or when someone is annoying.

Organizational

Voice- Speaking up and giving suggestions for change. Not nagging about bad rules or policies, but doing something about it

Civic Virtue- participation in the company operations at a deeper than normal level through voluntary meetings, readings and keeping up with company news. Ie. Home Depot community volunttering

Boosterism- Positively represting the organization when in public. Ie. Keeping kitchen horror stories to yourself.

Counterproductive Behaviour – employee behaviours that intentionally hinder organization goal accomplishments.

Organizational Counterproductive

SERIOUS

Property deviance: behaviours that harm the organization’s assets and possessions

Sabotage- purposeful destruction of physical equipment, organizational processes, or company products. Ie. MCA employee morale lowering after IBM merger and sabotaging cleanliness of laser disk production leading to a 90% disk failure rate

Theft- Stealing company products or equipment from the organization. 47% of shrink in companies comes from workers

MINOR

Production deviance: intentionally reducing organizational efficiency of work output

Wasting resources- Using too many materials or too much time to do too little work. Ie. Taking too long of a work, manufacturing employee who uses to much wood or metal

Substance abuse- if employees are abusing alcohol or drugs before or during work then their efficiency and work quality will decrease

Interpersonal Counterproductive

Political Deviance- behaviour that intentionally disadvantages other individuals

SERIOUS

Personal aggression- hostile verbal and physical actions directed toward other employees

Subcategories

Harrasment- unwanted physical contact or verbal remarks from a colleague ie. Sexual harassment or verbal

Abuse- employee assault or endangerment from which physical or psychological injuries may occur

MINOR

Gossiping- conversations about people in which the facts are not confirmed as true. Such behaviours undermine the morale of individual and group friendships

Incivility- communication that’s rude, impolite, discourteous and lacking in good manners. Weakens relationships in office, makes team work weaker

No correlations between task performance and counterproductive behaviour, many times the best employees will be the least likely to be blamed

Performance Management:

Management by Objectives (MBO)- Bases employee evaluations whether specific performance have been met. Usually managers will sit down with employees to set goals and to put a timeline on the goals. Ie. “reduce production waste by 35% in 3 months

Behaviourally anchored Rating scales- use of examples of critical incidents to evaluate an employee’s job performance behaviour directly. Ie. Rating an employee from 5-1 on their adaptive skills. 5 being excellent and 1 being poor. Manager will rate several performance dimensions and then take the average. Constructive criticism for employee and a good compliment to MBO’s

360 degree feedback- A performance evaluation system that uses ratings provided by supervisors, coworkers, customers and the employee themselves.

Forced Ranking- created by Jack Welch of GE, managers have to put their employees into three categories: top 20 percent, vital middle 70 percent and the bottom ten percent. Bottom ten was usually let go by Welch

Chapter 3Organizational Commitment- An employee’s desire to remain a member of an organization.

Turnover can be both voluntary and involuntary (quitting and being fired)

Withdrawal behaviour- employees who are not committed to their organization engage in this behaviour. Actions that are intended to avoid work situations.

FORMS OF COMMITMENT

Affective Commitment: desire to remain a member of an organization due to an emotional attachment with the organization.

Moderately strong correlation between affective commitment and citizenship behaviour

Erosion Model a model that suggests that if a worker has fewer connections with co-workers then they’re most likely to quit. Less attached to co-workers, easier to leave.

Social Influence Model- employees who have direct linkage with workers who leaver are more likely to leave. Quitting can become contagious in organizations

Continuance Commitment: cost-based reason to stay- salary, benefits, promotions and well-being of family.

Embeddedness- a person’s links to the organization and the community, their sense of fit with the organization and what they would have to give up for a job change

Normative Commitment- a sense that debt is owed to boss, colleague or the company. Staying because you ought to.

Focus of Commitment- the people, places and things that inspire a desire to remain a member of an organization

Withdrawal Behaviours

Exit- an active destructive action by which an individual ends or restricts organizational membership. i.e removing yourself from a situation or being absent more often

Voice- a response often in a negative work event, in which an employee offers constructive suggestions for change

Loyalty: maintaining your effort despite your unhappiness. Passive constructive action that maintains supports for the situation while hoping for change

Neglect: destructive response to a negative work event in which one’s interest and effort in work declines

Psychological Withdrawal: consists of actions that provide a mental escape from the work environment. “lights are on but nobody is home”

Daydreaming- an employee appears to be workings but is distracted by random thoughts or concerns

Socializing- discussing non work topics with other coworkers at the cubicles or around the office

Looking Busy- An intentional desire on the part of an employee to look like they’re working even when they’re not doing anything. Ie. George Costanza’s trick of looking annoyed for his boss to think he is busy.

Moonlighting-psychological withdrawal in which employees use work time and resources to do non work activities

Cyberloafing- using internet, e-mail and social networking for their personal enjoyment rather than work duties.

Psychological Withdrawal- a physical escape , short or long term from the work environment

Eg. Tardiness and Long Breaks

Missing Meetings- neglecting important work while being out of work

Independent Forms Model – A model of withdrawal which argues that various withdrawal behaviour are uncorrelated with one another, occur for different reasons and fulfill different needs.

Compensatory forms model- Model that argues that various withdrawal behaviours negatively correlate to one another. Dong one means you will do less of another. If you cyberloaf at work then at you won’t have to want to miss work a lot.

Progression Model- The model that argues that withdrawal behaviours are positively correlated. If you socialize/day dream then you’ll start to come in late or take long breaks which then can lead to quitting or being absent.

Chapter 4 Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction- defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences. How you feel or think about your job.

Values- The things people consciously or subconsciously want to seek or attain. A good wage? Sense of achievement? Nice colleagues?

Value Percept theory- A theory that argues that job satisfaction depends on whether the employee perceives that his or her job supplies those things that they value.

Dissatisfaction= (Vwant –Vhave) x (Vimportance)

Pay Satisfaction- employee’s feeling about their age, whether it is as much as they deserve, secure and adequate for both normal expenses and luxury items.

Pay satisfaction also matter in terms of how much the employees are paid compared to others.

Promotion Satisfaction- employee’s feelings about the company’s promotion policies and their execution, including frequency, fairness and based on ability.

Supervision Satisfaction- Employee’s feeling about their boss, including his or her competency, communication and personality. Do they reward good performance? Do they have a good personality?

Co-worker Satisfaction- employee’s feeling about their fellow employees. Are they smart, responsible helpful fun etc. Can they help me do my job? Do I enjoy being around them?

Satisfaction with the work itself- employee’s feelings about the work itself, is it challenging enough? Respected? Make use of their skills? Repetitive?

THREE CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES that make work satisfying

Meaningfulness of Work- the degree to which work tasks are viewed as something that “counts” in the employee’s system of philosophy and beliefs. Trivial tasks are less meaningful to employees than tasks that they feel aid the organization or society

Responsibility of Outcomes- captures the degree to which employees feel that they are key drivers of the quality of the unit’s work. Sometimes employees feel like their because work out comes are dictated by effective procedures, efficient technologies or more influential colleagues.

Knowledge of results- which reflects the extent to which employees know how well (or how poorly) they are doing.

Job Characteristics Theory- A theory that argues that five core characteristics combine to result in high levels of satisfaction with the work itself.

Variety- the degree to which a job requires different activities and itself.

Identity- the degree to which a job requires completing a whole, identifiable, piece of work from beginning to end with a visible outcome. Ie. Truck driver doing trip from start to end

Significance- the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives of other people, particularly people in the world at large. Ie. Fireman vs washroom attendant

Autonomy- the degree to which the job provides freedom, idenependence and discretion to the individual perfomring the work. Control of time, scheduling, and sequence of work activities.

Feedback- degree to which carrying out the activities required by the job provides the worker with clear information about how well he or she is doing.

Knowledge and Skill- the degree to which employees have the aptitude and competence needed to succeed in their job

Growth Need Strength- The degree to which employees desire to develop themselves further

Job Enrichment- When job duties and responsibilities are expanded to provide increased level of core job characteristics. Such that duties and responsibilities are expanded to provide more variety, autonomy, satisdaction, identity and feedback

Moods and Emotions

Moods- state of feeling that are often mild in intensity. Your mood can quickly change throughout the day, go up from a funny conversation and go down when paperwork is overdue.

Affective Events Theory- workplace event can generate affective reactions that then go on to influence work attitudes an behaviours. These events can trigger emotions, anger at a boss etc.

Emotional Labour- The management of their emotions that employees must do to complete their job duties successfully

Emotional contagion- the ideas that emotions can be transferred from one person to another

Chapter 5- StressStress- the psychological respond to demands when there is something at stake for the individual, and when coping with these demands would tax or exceeds the individual’s capacity or resources

Stressors- demands that cause the stress response

Strains- negative consequences of the stress response

Primary appraisal- evaluation of whether a demand is stressful and if it is, the implications of the stressor in terms of personal goals and well beings

Cashiers can be stressed due to machines always breaking down

Or can be stressed because of having to train other workers, receiving merchandise from vendors and doing inventory, but might appraise the demands as providing an opportunity to learn and to demonstrate their competence.

Benign job demands- job demands that are not appraised as being stressful. Eg. Cashiers doing their routine work

Types of stressors-

Hindrance stressors- stressful demands that are perceived as hindering progress towards personal accomplishments or goal attainment. Tend to trigger negative emotions anger and anxiety

Challenge stressors- Stressors that tend to be appraised as opportunities for growth and achievent

Hindrances-

Role conflict- others having differing expectations of what an individual needs to do in a role (call centres having to do a certain amount of calls in an hour, but responding all the questions and concerns raised by the people who they call)

Role Ambiguity- A lack of direction and information about what needs to be done in a role (a lack of information in a project)

Role overload- an excess of demands on an employee preventing him or her from working effectively

Daily Hassles- Minor day-to day demands that interfere with work accomplishment (unnecessary paper work, office equipement malfunction, conflict with abrasive coworkers etc

Challenge Stressors-

Time Pressure- the sense that the amount of time allotted to do a job is not quite enough (more challenging than hindering)

Work Complexity- the degree to which job requirements tax or just exceed employee capabilities (knowledge, skills and abilities)

Work Responsibilities- the number and importance of the obligations that an employee has to others (air controllers that have the responsibility of people’s lives have a high work responsibility)

Non Work Hindrance Stressors

Work-family conflict- a form of role conflict in which the demands of work role hinder the fulfillment of the demands in a family role (or vice versa)

Eg. Work to family People who have lots of frustrations at work unable to switching off impatient with family and friends

Family to work- salesperson who is experiencing the stress of maritial conflict comes to work with negative feelings making his job harder

Negative life events- events such as a divorce or death of a family members hinder the ability to achieve life goals and are associated with negative emotions

Financial Uncertainty- uncertainties with regard to the potential for loss of livelihood, savings or the ability to pay expense. Ie economic recesssions people are getting laid off and losing homes and live savings hard to do their job

Non-Work Challenge Stressors-

Family time demands- the amount of time committed to fulfilling family responsibilities (travelling, attending social events and organized activities)

Personal development- participation in activities outside of work that foster growth and learning (hobbies, extra education, music lessors, sports related)

Positive Life Events- Events such as marriage or the birth of a child that tend to be appraised as a challange

How do people cope with stressors?

Secondary Appraisal- When people determine how to cope with various stressors they face. What should I do? What can I do

Coping- behaviours and thoughts used to manage stressful demands and the emotions associated with the stressful demands

Behavioural coping- physical activities used to deal with a stressful situation (working faster, coming in late to work in order to avoid daily hassles)

Cognitive Coping- Thoughts used to deal with a stressful situation (thinking of different ways to accomplish a task more efficiently when time pressured, convincing oneself that daily hassles aren’t that bad)

Emotion-focused coping- Behaviours and cognitions of an individual intended to help manage emotional reactions to the stressful demands

Physiological strains- Reactions from stress that harm the human body (cardiovascular system, stomach aches, headaches, back pains etcs)

Psychological strains- negative psychological reactions from stressors such as depression, anxiety and anger

Burnout- the emotional, mental and physical exhausting from coping with stressful demands on a continuing basis

Behavioural Strains- patterns of negative behaviours that are associated with other strains (chewing guy, smoking a lot, overuse of alcohol, being bossy, grinding teeth)

Type A Behaviour Pattern- People who tend to experience more stressors, to appraise more demands as stressful, and to be prone to experiencing more strains

Social Support- the help people receive from others when they are confronted with stressful demands

Instrumental support- the help people receive from others that can be used to address a stressful demand directly

Emotional support- the empathy and understanding people receive from others that can be used to alleviate emotional distress from stressful demands

Stress Management-

Stress Audit- An assessment of the sources of stress in workplace

Reducing stressors-

Job Sharing- when two people share the responsibilities of a single job

Training interventions- practices that increase employees’ competencies and skills

Supportive practices- Ways in which organizations help employees manage and balance their demands (flexible hours, allow workers to work from home, encourage staff to take care of sick child/elderly, eliminate unnecessary meetings

Reducing Strains- Relaxations techniques- calming activities to reduce stress (taking a walk, writing in a journal, deep breating)

Cognitive- behavioural-techniques- various practices that help workers cope with life’s stressors in rational manners

Health and Wellness programs- Employee assistance programs that help workers with personal problems such as alcoholism and other addictions

Chapter 6- MotivationMotivation- a set of energetic forces that determine the direction, intensity and persistence of an employee’s work effort

Engagement- contemporary synonym for high levels of intensity and persistence. Employees who are “engaged” completely invest themselves and their energy into their jobs.

Outwardly engaged workers devote a lot of energy to their jobs, striving as hard as they can to take initiative and get the job done.

Inwardly, engaged employees focus a great deal of attention on their work, sometimes becoming so absorbed that they lose track of time.

Expectancy Theory- A theory that describes the cognitive process employees go through to make choice among different voluntary responses.

Choices depend on three specific beliefs that are based in our past learning and experience: expectancy, instrumentality and valence.

Expectancy: the belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in a successful performance on some task.

E P represented from 0 (no chance!) to 1 (a mortal lock!)

Self-efficacy- The belief that a person has the capabilities needed to perform the behaviours required on some task. Self-confidence or a task-specific version of self-esteem.

-Higher efficacy tend to perceive higher levels of expectancy- and therefore will be more likely to put in more effort.

Self-efficacy levels can come from three things seen at half-time pep talks by coaches” references to past comebacks or victories (past accomplshments), pep talks about how good the team is (verbal persuasion) and cheers to rally the troops (emotional cues)

Instrumentality- The belief that successful performance will result in some outcome or outcomes.

Subjective probabilities ranging from 0 to 1.

PO *Instrumentality comes from instrumental like reading this chapter will be instrumental to getting a good grade.

Valence- The anticipated value of the outcomes associated with successful performance

Salary increases, bonuses and other informal rewards are positively valenced outcomes and displinary actions, demotions and terminations are negalitvely valenced outcomes

Outcomes are deemed more attractive when they help satisfy needs. Needs- groupings or clusters of outcomes viewed as having critical psychological or physiological consequences

Existence- physiological, safety. Relatedness- love, belongingness, Control- Autonomy, responsibility, Esteem- self-regard, growth, Meaning- self actualization

Extrinsic motivation- Desire to put forth work effort due to some contingency that depends on task performance- Pay, bonuses, promotions, benefits and perks, Praise, job support, free time, lack of disciplinary action demotions or terminations

Intrinsic motivation- Desire to put forth work effort due to the sense that task performance serves as its own reward- Enjoyment, interestingness, accomplishment, knowledge gain, skill development, personal expression.

Meaning of money- the idea that money can have symbolic value (achievement, respect, freedom) in addition to economic value

Motivational force: E P x [(P O) x V]

Goal setting theory- A theory that views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort.

People will give higher results with specific and difficult- stretching an employee to the max while staying within the boundaries of their abilities (difficult does not mean impossible)

Self set goals- “you can lead a horse to water buy you can’t make it drink it”

The internalized goals that people use to monitor their progress that have been show to drive motivation and behaviour.

Moderators- three variables that specify when assigned goals will have stronger or weaker effects on task performance.

Feedback- in goal setting theory, it refers to progress updates on work goals. Playing Halo and not knowing your friend’s score that you have to beat.

Task Complexity- the degree to which the information and actions needed to complete a task are complicated

Goal Commitment- the degree to which a person is determined to reach the goal

SMART GOALS: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Results-based, Time-sensitive goals

Equity Theory- employees create a mental ledger of the outcomes they receive for their job inputs, relative to some comparison of other

Comparison of other- another person who provides a frame of reference for judging equity. IF they are doing a similar project than you but receiving a bigger reward. Playoff tickets!

Equity distress- An internal tension that results from being overrewarded or unrewarded relative to some comparison other

Cognitive distortion- A reevaluation of the inputs an employee brings to a job, often occurring in response to equity distress

Internal comparisons- comparing oneself to someone in your same company

External comparisons- someone outside of the company

Psychological empowerment- An energy rooted in the belief that task are contributing to some larger purpose

Meaningfulness- A psychological state reflecting one’s feelings about work tasks, goals and purposes and the degree to which they contribute to society and fulfill one’s ideals and passions

Self-Determination- A sense of choice in the initiation and continuation of work tasks

Competence- the capability to perform work tasks successfully. Competence brings with it a sense of pride and mastery that is itself motivating.

Impact- the sense that a person’s actions “make a difference” that progress is being made toward fulfilling some important purpose

Chapter 7: Trust, Justice and Ethics

Trust- the willingness to be vulnerable to an authority based on positive expectations about the authority’s actions and intentions . Willing to take the risk of putting yourself “out there” (buying a pair of nike shoes or a potential recruit trusting the words of Nike Management)

Justice- The perceived fairness of an authority’s decision making (high justice means that employees think the decision outcomes are fair and that ecision making processes are designed and implemented in a fair manner)

Ethics- the degree to which the behaviours of an authority are in accordance with generally accepted moral norms

Trust-

Disposition based trust- trust that is rooted in one’s own personality as opposed to a careful assessment of the trustee’s worthiness (you naturally trust others)

Has to do more with the trustor than with the trustee

Trust- propensity- a general expectation that words, promises and statements of individuals can be relied upon “faith in human nature” Inherently trusting

Comes from nature and nurture- if parents untrusting then one might be too genetically or model their behaviour

Nation in which you live also has an impact

Cognitive Based Trust- Trust that is rooted in a rational assessment of the authority’s trustworthiness. Measuring trustworthiness Driven by the autority’s “track record”

Affect- Based

Trustworthiness- Characteristics or attributes of a person that inspire trust, including ability, benevolence and integrity

Ability- The skills competencies and areas of expertise that enable an authority to be successful in some specific area (you wouldn’t trust a mechanic to perform a surgery or a doctor to fix your car)

Benevolence- the belief that an authority wants to do good for a trustor, apart from selfish or profit centred motives

Integrity- The perception that an authority adheres to a set of values and principles that the trustor finds acceptable “walk the talk”

Affect-based trust- Trust that depends on feelings toward the authority that go beyond any rational assessment of trustworthiness- we trust them because we like them

Justice-

Distributive Justice- the perceived fairness of decision making outcomes ( gauge distributive outcomes such as pay, rewards, work assignments etc are allocated using proper norms equity with more outcomes allocated to those who contribute more inputs

Procedural Justice- The perceived fairness of decision making processes (giving the employees a voice to express their opinions and views during decision making)

Correctability- provides a change for employees to request an appeal when a procedure seems to have worked ineffectively

Interpersonal Justice- the perceived fairness of interpersonal treatment received by employees from authorities-

Respect rule- whether authorities treat employees in a dignified and sincere manner

Propiety rule- whether authorities refrain from making improper or offensive remarks

Informal Justice- the perceived fairness of the communications provided to employees from authorities.

The justification rule- authorities explain decision making procedures and outcomes in a comprehensive and reasonable manner

Truthfulness rule- require that those communications be honest and candid

Ethics-

Whistle blowing- employees’ exposing illegal or immoral actions by their employees (especially ethical as whistle blower risk retaliation by other members of organization especially when they lack power)

Four Component Model- model that argues that ethical behaviours result from the multistage sequence of moral awareness, moral judgement, moral intent and ethical behaviour

Moral Awareness- recognition by an authority that moral issues exists in a situation. Sometimes companies act unethically as they don’t perceive that moral issues are relevant to the given situation/. Is putting a sex scene easter egg immoral in GTA San Andreas?

Moral Intensity- The degree to which an issue has ethical urgency. Act that injures 1000 is more intense than one that might injure 10.

Moral Attentiveness- The degree to which people chronically perceive and consider issues of morality during their experience- People pay more attention to stimuli that are significant, vivid and recognizable. Ie. Morally attentive people are likely to report facing several ethical dilemmas in a typical day.

Moral Judgement- When an authority can accurately identify the “right” course of action, ethical and unethical

Cognitive Moral Development- As people age and mature, they move through several states of moral development, each more mature and sophisticated than the prior one

Moral principles- Prescriptive guides for making moral judgements

Moral Intent- An authority’s degree of commitment to the moral course of action. People know something is wrong, but still choose to do it. Companies may possess unethical cultures, where violations of moral codes are the rule rather than the exception (McWayne)

Moral Identity- the degree to which a person views himself as a moral person

Learning and Decision Making

Learning- a relatively permanent change in an employee’s knowledge or skill that results from experience. Impact on decision making.

Decision Making- The process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem. The more knowledge and skills employees possess, the more likely they are to make accurate and sound decisions

Expertise- the knowledge and skills that distinguish experts from novices

Types of Knowledge

Explicit Knowledge- Knowledge that is easily communicated and available to everyone (what companies teach during training sessions) Something in a manual or textbook

Tacit Knowledge- Knowledge that employees can learn through experience – highly personal in nature, sometimes holders don’t recognize they have it, hard to articulate to others

Methods of Learning

Reinforcement

Contingencies of Reinforcement- Four specific consequences used by organizations to modify employee behaviour

Positive Reinforcement- a reinforcement contingency in which a positive outcome follows a positive behaviours (a reward, increased pay, promotion). Employee must see connection between behaviour and reward

Negative Reinforcement-unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behaviour (not getting yelled at for doing a job right)

Extinction- the removed of a positive outcome following an unwanted behaviour. Purposeful or accidental Purposeful: not reacting to a co-worker making an racist joke Accidental: not acknowledging that an employee works late to finish up a job task

Positive reinforcement and extinction most commonly used

Schedules of Reinforcement- the timing of when contingencies are applied or removed

Continuous reinforcement- A schedule of reinforcement in which a specific consequence follow each and every occurrence of a certain behaviour

Fixed Interval Schedule- A schedule whereby reinforcement occurs at fixed time periods. Employees are rewarded after a certain amount of time and the length time between periods is the same

Variable-interval schedule- A schedule whereby reinforcement occurs at random periods of time

Fixed ratio schedule- a schedule wereby reinforcement occurs following a fixed number of desired behaviours (ie. Creating x number of products)

Variable-ratio Schedule- A schedule whereby behaviours are reinforced after a varying number of them have been exhibited (commission for salespeople)

Observations-

Social learning theory- theory that argue that people in organization learn by observing others

Behavioural modelling- when employees observe the actions of other, learn from what they observe and then repeat the observed behaviours (Harry Potter teaching other wizards how to perform certain spells by doing them with the wizards) One of the best ways to acquire tacit knowledge

Goal Orientation-

Learning orientation- a predisposition or attitude according to which building competence is deemed more important by an employee than demonstrating competence. Try doing new types of tasks even if they fail

Performance- prove orientation- attitude by which employees focus on demonstrating their competence so that other think favourly of them

Performance-avoid orientation- An attitude by which employees focus on demonstrating their competence so that other will not think poorly of them

Methods of Decision Making

Programmed decisions- Decisions that are somewhat automatic because the decision maker’s knowledge. Automatic to it as they’ve done something similar before.

Intuition- an emotional judgement based on quick unconscious guy feelings

Crisis Situation- A change- sudden or evolving that results in an urgent problem that must be addressed immediately.(unless pre crisis planning has been done, intuition must be used)

Non-programmed decisions- decisions made when a new problem is complex, new or not recognized

Rational decision-making model- A step by step approach to making decisions that is designed to maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives. Identity the criteria that are important taking into account all parties generate a list of alternatives model alternatives to criteria laid out select best outcome

Decision making Problems-

Bounded rationality- the notion that people do not have the abilities or resources to process al available information and alternatives when making a decision. People simplify and miss information

Satisficing- What a decision maker is doing who chooses the first acceptable alternative considered

Faulty Perceptions

Selective Perception- the tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations “you only see what you want to see”. Affects our ability to identify problems etc.

Projection bias- the faulty perception by decision makers that others think, feel and act as they do.

Social Identity Theory- A theory that people identify themselves according to the various groups to which they belong and judge others according to the groups they associate with. (ie. Demographics, workplace or nationality)

Stereotype- Assumptions made about others based on their social group membership

Heuristics- Simple and efficient rules of thumb that allow one to make decisions more easily

-The availability bias- the tendency for people to base their judgements on information that is easier to recall

Eg. Afraid of flying

eg. The letter r

Faulty Attributions-

Fundamental Attribution Error- the tendency for people to judge others behaviours as being due to internal factors such as ability, motivation or attitudes. (judging Joe for being late due to being lazy.)

Self serving Bias- When one attributes one’s own failures to external factors and success to internal factors (we were late because of the alarm clock not working, we got the promotion due to hard work)

Escalation of commitment- the decision to continue to follow a failing course of action.

A tendency to escalate their commitment to precious decisions, even in the face of obvious failures. (put 10 million dollars on building a bridge, even if it’s not going well halfway you continue due to sink cost)

Chapter 9- Personality, Cultural Values and Ability

Personality- the structures and propensities inside a person that explain his or her characteristic patterns or thought, emotion and behaviours; personality reflects what people are like and creates their social reputation. A collection of multiple traits.

Traits- recurring trends in people responses to their environment (eg. Responsible, easygoing, polite)

Cultural Values- shared beliefs about desirable states or modes of conduct in a given culture that influence the expression of trains (traditional, informal, risk averse or assertive)

Ability- relatively stable capabilities of people for performing a particular range of elated activities

The Big Five Taxonomy-

Conscientiousness- dimension of personality reflecting traits like being dependable, organized, reliable, ambitious, hardworking and persevering

Why is conscientious valuable?

Prioritize Accomplishment striving- a strong desire to accomplish task related goals as means of expressing one’s personality. Eg. Conscientious people will set higher sales goals for themselves

Agreeableness- Dimension of personality reflecting traits like being kind, cooperative, sympathetic, helpful, courteous and warm

Prioritize Communion Striving- a strong desire to obtain acceptance in personal relationships as a means of expressing one’s personality

Neuroticism- nervous, moody, emotional, insecure and jealous

Negative affectivity- A dispositional tendency to experience unpleasant moods such as hostility, nervousness and annoyance. Explains why neurotic workers experience less job satisfaction than less neurotic people

Locus of control- One’s tendency to view the cause of events and personal outcomes as internally or externally controlled- neurotic people tend to hold an external locus of control. Events that occur around them is due to chance, luck or fate. (work, life, relationships etc)

Openness to Experience- imaginative, creative, complex, refined and sophisticated

-tend to learn more as they are more curious

Extraversion- Dimension of personality- reflecting traits like being talkative, sociable, passionate, assertive bold and dominant

Zero acquaintance situation- situations in which two people have just met (easy to tell if a person is an introvert or extrovert)

Status Striving- A strong to desire to obtain power and influence within a social structure as a means of expressing one’s personality. . Extroverts care about being successful and influential.

Positive affectivity- A dispositional tendency to experience pleasant, engaging moods such as enthusiasm, excitement and elations

Cultural Values-

Culture- the shared values, beliefs, motives, identities and interpretations that result from common experiences of members of a society and are transmitted across generations

Geert Hofstede

Individual collectivism- the degree to which a culture has a loosely knit social framework (individualism) or a tight social framework (collectivism)

Power distance- the degree to which a culture prefers equal power distribution (low power distance) or an unequal power distribution (high power distance)

Uncertainty avoidance- the degree to which a culture tolerates ambiguous situations (low uncertainty avoidance) or feels threatened by them (high uncertainty avoidance)

Masculinity- femininity- the degree to which a culture values sterotpically male trains or stereotypically female traits

Short term vs long term orientation- the degree to which a culture values that are past and present oriented (short term oriented) or future oriented (long term orientation)

Ethnocentrism- one who views his or her cultural values as “right” and values of others as wrong

Three Subsets of Abilities-

Cognitive Ability- capabilities related to use of knowledge to make decisions and solve problems. (Actual knowledge about topic)

Verbal Ability- Various capabilities associated with understanding and expressing oral and written communication

Dyslexia- Tom Cruise has poor written comprehension but excellent oral comprehension learns his lines through tape

Quantitative Ability- Capabilities associated with doing basic mathematical operations and selecting and applying formulas to solve mathematical problems

Reasoning ability- A diverse set of abilities associated with sensing and solving problems using insight, rules, and logic

Spaital ability- Capabilities associated with visual and mental representation and manipulation of objects in space.

-Good spatial orientation having a good understanding of where one is relative to their surroundings

-Visualization- ability to imagine how separate things will look if they were put together in a particular way. Ie. Being able to image a rearranged room

Perceptual Ability- the capacity to perceive, understand, and recall patterns of information\

General Mental Ability- The general level of cognitive ability that plays and important role in determining the more narrow cognitive abilities

Emotional Ability-

Emotional Intelligence- A set of abilities related to the understanding and use of emotions that affect social functioning

Self-awareness- the ability to recognize and understand the emotions in oneself

Other Awareness- The ability to recognize and understand the emotions that other people are feeling

Emotion Regulation - The ability to recover quickly from emotional experiences

Use of Emotions- the degree to which people can harness emotions and employ them to improve their chances

Physical Ability-

Strength- the degree to which the body is capable of exerting force

Stamina- the ability of a person’s lungs and circulatory system to work while they are engaging in prolonged physical activity

Flexibility- the ability to twist, bend, or reach,

Coordination- the quality of physical movement in terms of synchronization of movements and balance

Psychomotor Ability- Capabilities associated with manipulating and controlling object( reaction time and steadiness)

Sensory Ability- Capabilities associated with vision and hearing (near and far vision, night vision, colour)

Chapter 10: Teams, Diversity and Communication

Team- two or more people who work interdependently over some period of time to accomplish common goals related to some task oriented purpose

Types of Teams

Work Teams- A relatively permanent team in which member work together to produce good and or provide services (long term, high member involvement)

Management Teams- A relatively permanent team that participates in managerial level tasks that affect the entire organization. Responsible for coordinating the activities of organizational subunits- to achieve organizational long term goals. Usually members of team are heads of department, so their commitment is higher to their departments.(Long life span, moderate team involvement, ie. Top management team)

Parallel Team- A team composed of member from various jobs within the organization that meets to provide recommendations about important issues. They usually often form to deal with unique issues or issues that arise only periodically (lifespan varies, Low involvement)

Project Teams- A team formed to take on one time tasks, most of which tend to be complex and require input from members from different functional areas. Although project teams only exist as long as their project, some projects can take years to complete. Eg. Architects, designers and engineers designing a town centre (one year, full commitment). Artists and engineers designing a toothbrush (one month, working on other projects) (lifespan varies, involvement varies)

Action team- A team of limited duration that performs complex tasks in contexts that tend to be highly visible and challenging. Toronto Raptors- team plays games against other teams, team varies per year ACDC- performs concerts together for year. Surgical teams work together for a single two hour surgery

Variations within teams- A team in which the members are geographically dispersed, and interdependent activity occurs through email, Web conferencing and instant messaging

Five Stages of a Team

1. Forming- members orient themselves by trying to understand their boundaries in the team, what is expected of them and who is in charge

2. Storming- members remain committed to the ideas they bring with them to the team. Unwillingness to accommodate other’s ideas triggers conflict and negative interpersonal

3. Norming- members realize that they need to work together to accomplish team goals and cooperate with one another

4. Performing- members are comfortable working within their roles and team makes progress toward goals

5. Adjourning- members experience anxiety and other emotions as they disengage and ultimately separate from the team

Punctuated equilibrium- members realize that they have to change their task paradigm fundamentally to complete it on time. Take the opportunity to plan a new approach during this transition tend to do well

Team InterdependenceTask interdependence- The degree to which team members interact with and relay on other team members for information, materials, and resources needed to accomplish work for the team

Pooled Interdependence- group members complete their work assignments independently and then this work is simply piled up to represent the group’s output

Sequential Interdependence- different tasks are done in a prescribed order and the group is structured such that the members specialize in these tasks. Only have interaction between members of tasks that are next to each other in the sequence (assembly lines)

Reciprocal Interdependence- Members are specialized to perform specific tasks, however instead of strict sequence of activities members interact with a subset of members to complete team’s work.

Comprehensive Interdependence- highest level of interaction and coordination among members as they try to accomplish work. Each members has a great deal of discretion in terms of what they do and with whom they interact in the course of the collaboration

Goal interdependence- the degree to which team members have a shared goal and align their individual goals with that vision. Eg. Rowing a boat , each person has to paddle a certain direction if that’s where they all want to go. Good mission statement can help accomplish this (describe what team is trying to accomplishment)

The Outcome Interdependence- The degree to which team members share equally in the feedback and rewards that result from the team achieving its goals. (high means everybody gets the same despite input, low receive more praise or punishment for performance)

Team Composition- The mix of various characteristics that describe the individuals who work in the team

Role- the behaviour a person is generally expected to display in a given context

Team task roles- the behaviours that directly facilitate the accomplishment of team tasks.

Eg. Orienter- establishes direction of the team Devil’s advocate- who offers constructive challenges to the team’s status quo Energizer- motivates team members to work harder towards the team goals

Team building roles- behaviours that influence the quality of team’s social climate

Eg.Harmonizer- steps in to resolve difference among teammatesEncourager- who praises the work of teammatesCompromiser- helps the team see alternative solutions that teammates can accept

Individualistic roles- behaviours that benefit the individual at the expense of the team

Eg.Aggressor- puts down or deflates fellow teammatesRecognition seeker- takes credit for team successThe Dominator- manipulates teammates to acquire control and power

Member ability-

Disjunctive tasks- with an objectively verifiable best solution, member who possess the highest level of relevant ability will have the most influence

Conjunctive tasks- Team’s performance is based on the abilities of the weakest link (Nascar mechanics working on 4 separate wheels)

Additive tasks- contributions resulting from the abilities of every member add up to determine team performance

Team Diversity- degree of difference between members

Value in diversity problem-solving approach- a theory explaining that supports diversity because it provides a larger pool of knowledge and perspectives

Similarity Attraction Approach- a theory explain that team diversity can be counterproductive because people tend to avoid interacting with other who are unlike themselves

Surface-level diversity- Diversity of observable attributes such as race, gender, ethnicity and age. May have negative effect at the beginning of group, but tend to disappear as the members become more knowledgeable about each other.

Deep level Diversity- Diversity of attributes that are inferred through observation or experience such as one’s values or personality. Time increases the negative effects of deep level diversity

Team Size-

Bigger group good for management and project teams but not in production tasks. Work that is complex and knowledge intensive

Smaller group good for routine tasks that are less complex. Having too many people result in unnecessary coordination and communication problems.

Most teams satisfied with 4-5 members

Team Processes and Communication

Team process- the different types of activities and interactions that occur within a team as the team works towards its goals

Why are some teams more than the sum of their parts?

Process gain- When team outcomes are greater than expected based on the capabilities of the individual members. AKA Synergy in which group members combine their skill and knowledge to solve a complex task

Process loss- loss considered to have occurred when team outcomes are less than expected in view of the capabilities of the individual members

Can happen due to coordination loss- team members having to spend time coordinate activities with their teammates which might otherwise be devoted to task activity

Can happen when one member has to wait for another before the can do their part- production block

Motivational loss- when team members don’t work as hard as they could. Team members uncertain regard “who contributes what” results in team members feeling less accountable for team outcomes.

Taskwork Processes- The activities of team members that relate directly to the accomplishment of team tasks

Creative behaviour- generating novel and useful ideas and solutions

Brainstorming- face to face meetings in which all ideas that come to mind are expressed, quantity over quality, no criticizing and build on the ideas of others

Nominal Group Technique- improved method of brainstorming, ideas written down before, each person gets to express their ideas and the discussion of ideas/rankings after

Decision Making-

What factors account for a team’s liability to make effective decisions?

Decision infirmity- whether members possess adequate information about their own responsibilities

Staff validity- degree to which members make good recommendations to the leader

Hierarchical sensitivity- the degree to which the leader effectively weighs the recommendations of the members. Whom does he listen to and ignore?

Boundary Spanning- activities with individuals and groups outside of the team

Ambassador activities- refers to communications that are intended to protect the team, persuade others to support the group or obtain resources for the team. Usually taking with somebody higher up in management

Task Coordinator Activities- involves communication to coordinate task related issues with other groups or people in other functional areas

Scout Activities- things team members do to obtain information about technology, competitors or broader marketplace

Teamwork Processes- - the interpersonal activities that promote the accomplishment of team tasks but do not involve task accomplishment itself

Transition Processes- teamwork processes such as mission analysis and planning that focus on preparation for future work in the team

Action Processes- Teamwork processes, such as helping and coordination, that aid in the accomplishment of teamwork as the work is actually taking place

Interpersonal Processes- motivating and confidence building, that focus on the management of relationships among team members

Communication- the process by which information and meaning is transferred from a sender to a receiver

Communicator Competence- interpretation by the sender/ receiver. Skills involved in ecoding, transmitting a receiving message.

Gender Difference- men tend to use a style of communication that helps them achieve and maintain status, power and independence meanwhile women tend to send messages and use a style that builds and strengthens their relationships

Noise- Distance of communication, having a conversation in a bar/restaurant.

Information richness- the amount of depth and information that gets transmitted I a messages. Face to face messages have the highest level of information richness.

Network Structure-

All channel- highly decentralized, everybody talks to each other

Wheel- Highly centralized, everybody has communication with just one authority

Y Structure (talk with one main person, but others on the side) and Circle (all connected only interact with 2 people)

Team States- Specific types of feeling and thoughts that coalesce in the minds of team members as a consequence of their experience working together

Cohesion-occurs when members of the team develop strong emotional bonds to other members of the team and to the team itself

Highly cohesive not good leads to Group Think- behaviours that support conformity and team harmony at the expense of other team priorities.

Potency- a team state reflecting the degree of confidence among team members that the team can be effective across situations and tasks

Mental Modes- the degree to which team members have a shared understanding of important aspects of the team and its task

Transactive Memory- the degree to which team members’ specialized knowledge is integrated into an effective system of memory for the team

Chapter 11: Power, Influence and Negotiation

Power- the ability to influence the behaviour of others and resist unwanted influence in return

Organizational Power

Legitimate power- based on authority or position. Derived from a position of authority inside the organized aka “formal authority”

Reward power- A form of organizational power based on the control of resources or benefits (eg. Raises, performance evaluations, rewards etc

Coercive Power- A form of organizational power based on the ability to hand out punishment (fire, demote, lower pay etc)

Personal Power

Expert Power- A form of organizational power based on expertise or knowledge

Referent Power- A form of organizational power based on the attractiveness and charisma of the leader

Contingency Factors-

Substitutability- the degree to which people have alternatives in accessing the resources that a leader controls

Discretion- the degree to which managers have the right to make decisions on their own eg. If they have to organizational rules and policies then their influence is reduces

Centrality- How important a person’s job is and how many people depend on that person to accomplish their task

Visibility- how aware others are of a leader and the resources that leader can provide

Influence- the use of behaviours to cause behavioural or attitudinal changes in others. Can be directional, downwards managers influencing employees or vice versa, but also lateral (peers influencing)

Influencing tactics

Top 4 Most Effect

Rational persuasion- the use of logical arguments and hard facts to show someone that a request’s worthwhile. Best when showing that proposal is important and feasible

Consultation- An influence tactic whereby the target is allowed to participate in deciding how to carry out or implement a request

Inspirational Appeal- An influence tactic designed to appeal to one’s values and ideals, whereby creating an emotional or attitudinal reaction

Collaboration- An influence tactic whereby the leader makes it easier for the target to complete request by offering to work with and help the target

Moderately Effective

Ingratiation- the use of favours, compliments or friendly behaviour to make the target feel better about the influence

Personal Appeal- An influence tactic in which the requestor asks for something based on personal friendship or loyalty

Exchange tactic- an influence tactic in which the requestor offers a reward in return for performing a request

Apprising- the requestor clearly explains why performing the request will benefit the target personally

Least Effective-

Pressure- the requestor attempts to use coercive power through threats and demands

Coalition- the influencer enlists other people to help influence the target

Response to influence tactics

Internalization- response to influence tactics where the target agrees with and becomes committed to the request

Compliance- When targets influence are willing to do what the leaders asks but do it with a degree of ambivalence

Resistance- When a target refuses to perform and puts forth and effort to avoid having to do it

Organizational Politics- Individual actions directed toward the goal of furthering a person’s self interest

Political Skill- ability to understand others and the use of that knowledge to influence them to further personal or organizational objectives

Two aspects of political skill-

Network ability- an adeptness at identifying and developing diverse contacts

Social astuteness- the tendency to observe others and accurately interpret their behaviour

Interpersonal influence- involves having an unassuming and convincing personal style that’s flexible enough to adapt to different situations

Apparent sincerity- appearing to others that you’re sincere and honest

Conflict resolution

Competing- A conflict resolution style by which one party attempts to get his or her own goals met without concern for other party’s results (high assertiveness, low cooperation)

Avoiding- which one party wants to remain neutral, stay away from conflict, or postpone the conflict to gather information or let things cool down (low assertiveness, low cooperation)

Accommodating- in which one party gives in to the other and acts in a completely unselfish way (lower assertiveness, high cooperation)

Collaboration- whereby both parties work together to maximize outcomes (high assertiveness, high cooperation)

Compromise- A conflict resolution style by which conflict is resolved through give and take concessions(high assertiveness, moderate cooperation)

Negotiation- a process in which two or more interdependent individuals discuss and attempt to reach agreement about their differences

Negotiation strategies

Disruptive Bargaining- in which one person gains and the other person loses

Integrative Bargaining- achieves an outcome that is satisfying for both parties (win-win scenario)

Negotiating Stages

Preparation- each party determines what its goals are for the negotiation and whether the other party has anything to offer

BATNA- A negotiator’s best alternative to a negotiated agreement

Exchanging information- each party makes a case for its position and attempts to put all favourable information on the table.

Bargaining- During this stage, both parties likely must make concessions and give up something to get something in return

Closing and Commitment- entails the process of formalizing an agreement reached during the previous stage

Chapter 12: Leadership and Behaviours

Leadership: the use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement

Leader Member-Exchange Theory- a theory describing how leader member relationships develop over time on dyadic basis

Role Taking- the phase in a leader- follower relationship when a leader provides an employee with job expectations and the follower tries to meet those expectations

Role making- the phase in a leader follower relationship when a follower voices his or her own expectations for the relationship resulting in a free flowing exchange of opportunities and resources for activities and effort

Why are some leaders some effective than others?

Leader effectiveness- the degree to which the leader’s actions result in achievement of goals, the continued commitment of the unit’s employees and the development of mutual trust, respect and obligation in leader- member dyads

Leader emergence- the process of becoming a leader in the first place

Leader Decision Making Styles-

Autocratic Style- A leadership style where the leader makes the decision alone without asking for opinions or suggestions of the employees in the work unit

Consultative style- A leadership style in which the leader presents the problems to employees asking for their opinions and suggestion before ultimately making the decision themselves

Facilitative style- A leadership in which the leader presents the problem to a group of employees and seeks consensus on a solution, making sure his or her own opinion receives no more weight than anyone else’s

Delegative Style- A leadership style where the leader gives the employee the responsibility for making decision within some set of specified boundaries

Driven Model of Leadership- A model that suggest that seven factor, including the importance of the decision, the expertise of the leader, and the competence of the followers combine to make some decision making styles more effective than others in a given situation

Decision Significance: is the decision significant to the success of the project or the organization?

Importance of Commitment- is it important the employees buy into the problem?

Likelihood of Commitment. How likely is it that employees will trust the leader’s decision and commit to it?

Shared Objectives- Do employees share and support the same objectives, or do they have an agenda of their own?

Employee expertise: Do the employees have significant knowledge or expertise regarding the problem?

Teamwork skills: Do the employees have the ability to work together to solve the problem, or will they struggle with conflicts or inefficiencies

Day to Day Leadership Behaviours-

Initiating Structure- A pattern of behaviour where the leader defines and structures the roles of employees in pursuit of goal attainment (deadlines, schedules, planning)

Consideration- The leader creates job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect, for employee ideas, and consideration of employee feelings (treat others as equals, listen to their problems)

The life cycle theory of leadership- A theory stating that the optimal combination of initiating structure and consideration depends on the readiness of the employees in the work unit

Readiness- the degree to which employees have the ability and the willingness to accomplish their specific tasks

Low R1- Eager but inexperienced

Telling- high initiating structure and low consideration- when the leader provides specific instruction and closely supervises performance

Moderate R2- Tasks seems harder than expected

Selling- High initiating structure and high consideration- in which the explains key issues and provides opportunities for clarification

Moderate R3- Starting to work well together

Participating- Initiating Structure low, Consideration High- Leader behaviour in which the leader shares ideas and tries to help the group conduct its affairs

High R3- Firing on all cylinders

Delegating- low initiating structure, low consideration. Leader behaviour in which the leader turns responsibility for key behaviours over to employees.

Transformational Leadership Behaviours- A pattern of behaviour in which the leader inspires followers to commit to a shared vision that provides meaning to their work while also serving as a role model who helps followers develop their own potential and view problems from new perspectives

Laissez-faire Leadership- when the leader avoid leadership duties altogether (Passive, ineffective)

Transactional Leadership- a pattern of behaviour in which the leader reward or disciplines the follower on the basis of performance

Passive management-by exception- A type of transactional leadership in which the leader wait around for mistakes and errors then takes correction action as necessary. “if it ain’t broken, don’t fix it”

Active Management by Exception- A type of transactional leadership in which the leader arranges to monitor mistakes and errors actively, and takes correction action when required “Leader directs attention towards failures to meet standards”

Contingent Reward- More active and effective type of transactional leadership in which the leader attains follower agreement on what needs to be done using rewards in exchange for adequate performance “carrot and stick approach”

Four dimensions of Transformational Leadership: The Four I’s

Idealized influence- the power held by a leader who behaves in ways that earn the admiration, trust, and respect of followers, causing followers to want to identify with and emulate the leader

Inspirational Motivation- A type of influence in which the leader behaves in ways that foster an enthusiasm for and commitment to a shared vision of the future

Intellectual Stimulation- A type of influence in which the leader behaves in ways that challenge followers to be innovative and creative by questioning assumptions and reframing old situation in new ways

Individualized consideration- influence in which the leader behaves in ways that help followers achieve their potential through coaching, development and mentoring

Chapter 13:

Organizational Structure- Formally dictates how jobs and tasks are divided and coordinated between individuals and groups within the company

Organizational Chart- A drawing that represents every job in the organization and the formal reporting relationships between those jobs

Work Specialization- the degree to which tasks in an organization are divided into separate jobs (Henry Ford had high work specialization in his “assembly line”, were very easy to replace)

Chain of Command- Answer to the question of who reports to whom, and signifies formal authority relationships “Who reports to whom?”

Span of Control- Represents how many employees each manager in the organization has responsibility for. Organizations try hard to find a balance between being “tall” and “flat”

Centralization- Aspect of structure that dictates where decisions are formally made in organizations. If only top managers have that power then it’s highly centralized. Decentralized is if decision making authority is pushed down to lower level employees (necessary when organization becomes too big)

Formalization- the degree to which rules and procedures are used to standardize behaviours and decision in an organization. Getting a formalized standard product across the board ie. Mcdonald’s French fries

Elements in Combination

Mechanistic Organizations- Efficient, rigid, predictable, and standardized organizations that thrive in stable environments. High levels of formalization, rigid and hierarchical chain of command, high degrees of work specialization, centralized and narrows spans of control

Organic Organizations- Flexible, adaptive, outward focused organization that thrive in dynamic environments Low levels of formalization, weak or multiple chain of command, low levels of work specialization, decentralized and wide spans of control

Organizational Design- the process of creating, selecting, or changing the structure of an organization

Business environment- The outside environment including customers, competitors, suppliers and distributors, which all have an impact on organizational design

Stable vs Dynamic- Stable don’t change very frequently allow organization to focus on efficiently and require little change over time. Dynamic change on a frequent basis and require organization to have structures that are more adaptive

Company Strategy- An organization’s objectives and goals and how it tries to capitalize on its assets to make money

Low Cost producer- Mechanical Organization Differentiator- Organic Organization

Technology- the method by which an organization transforms inputs to outputs

The more routine a technology is, the more mechanical the company is.

Company Size- The number of employees in a company

Simple Structure- An organizational form that features one person as the central decision making figure (eg. Small accounting firms, family owned grocery stores, landscaping services)

Bureaucratic Structures- An organizational form that exhibits many of the facets of a mechanist organization. Designed for efficiency and rely on high levels of specialization, formalization, centralization of authority, rigid chains of commands and relatively narrows spans of controls

Geographic Structure- An organizational form in which employees are grouped around the different locations where the company does business

Client Based Structure- An organizational form in which employees are organized around serving customers (I.e banks dividing into personal banking, small business banking, personal lending and commercial lending)

Matrix Structure- A complex form of organizational structure that combines a functional and multidivisional grouping

Chapter 14

Organizational Culture- shared social knowledge within and organization regarding the rules, norms and values that shape the attitudes and behaviours of employees

Basic underlying assumptions-

Taken for granted beliefs and philosophies

-so ingrained that employees simply act on them rather than questioning

Espoused Values: The beliefs, philosophies, and norms that a company explicitly states

Eg. Published documents, verbal statements made, to employees by managers, information on the website

Espoused values vs Enacacted values…”walk the talk”

Observable artifacts- Manifestations of an organization’s culture that employees can easily see or talk about

Symbols- eg corporate logos, web-site, uniforms, etc.

Physical structures- eg. Office layout and design.

Language- slogans, acronyms

Stories- Founders, anecdotes, myths

Rituals- routines

Ceremonies- formal events

General Culture Types-

Fragmented Culture- culture in which employees are distant and disconnected from one another

Mercenary Culture- Organizational culture type in which employees thing alike but are not friendly to one another

Networked Cultured- Culture in which employees are friendly to one another, but everyone thinks differently and does his or her own thing

Communal Culture- Culture type in which employees are friendly to one another and all think all alike

Specific Culture Types

Customer Service Culture

Safety Culture

Diversity Culture

Creativity Culture

Culture Strength-

A Strong Culture- employees agree about the way things are supposed to be (high consensus) and their behaviours are consistent with those expectations (high intensity)

The hardware and software divisions have different beliefs, values and assumption. This illustrates subcultures

Building & Maintaining and Organizational Culture

ASA Framework- A theory that stats that employees will be drawn to organizations with cultures that match personality, organizations will select employees that match, and employees will leave or be forces out when they are not a good fit

Socialization- process by which employees learn the social knowledge that enables them to understand and adapt to the organization’s culture

Anticipatory stage- prior to an employee starting work

Encounter stage- begins the day employees starts. Compare information they learnt as an outsider to now

Reality Shhock - A mismatch of information that occurs when an employee finds that aspects of working at a company are not what they employee expected it to be

Understanding and adaptation- start to internalize the organizational norms

Managing Socialization-

How can organizations minimize reality shock and promote socialization?

Realistic job preview- need to determine the person organization fit

-Newcomer orientation sessions

-Mentoring programs

Culture Change

When a culture change is needed what can be done?

The change process involves three sequential steps:

Unfreezing- status quo is unacceptable

The Change initiative

Refreezing

ISSUES: Eg. Culture clash, improper diagnosis, RESISTANCE