optimum speed for high speed lines

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Research on

Optimum Speed for High Speed Lines

Volume II


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Research on “OPTIMUM SPEED FOR HIGH SPEED LINES”

Research on

OPTIMUM SPEED

for HIGH SPEED LINES

• FCH Authors: • UIC Directors of the research:

! Eduardo Romo

! Michel Leboeuf

! Jorge Nasarre ! Ignacio Barrón

! Antonio Lozano ! Naoto Yanase

! Santiago González

! Fernando Montes

! José Julián Mendoza• In cooperation with the UIC Intercity

and High Speed Commitee ! Julián Sastre

! Ignacio Fajardo

! Manuel Cuadrado

! Adolfo Rincón

! Fernando Lázaro-Carrasco

October 2012


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6. LIMITING FACTORS TO THE RAIL SPEED INCREASE ............................................. 63

6.1. Infrastructure and alignment constraints for very high speed ................................ 64

6.2. Aerodynamics constraints that may limit the rail systemic maximum speed ......... 73

6.3. Noise ..................................................................................................................... 87

6.4. Electrification ......................................................................................................... 96

6.5. Rolling stock ........................................................................................................ 104

6.6. Signalling ............................................................................................................. 124

7. OPTIMUM SPEED AS A SYSTEM ............................................................................. 130

7.1. Constraint analysis .............................................................................................. 130

7.2. Subsystems limits review .................................................................................... 130

7.3. Combined effects ................................................................................................. 131

7.4. Findings and contrast .......................................................................................... 132

7.5. Technical standards requirements to be updated ............................................... 134

8. OPERATIONAL OPTIMUM SPEED............................................................................ 138

8.1. Key parameters ................................................................................................... 138

8.2. Methodology ........................................................................................................ 140

8.3. Direct services optimum operating speed ........................................................... 141

8.4. Stopping services optimum operating speed ....................................................... 143

9. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE NEEDS .................................................................... 146

APPENDIX 1. QUESTIONNAIRES

APPENDIX 2. BIBLIOGRAPHY

VOLUME II

APPENDIX 3. RAILWAY SPEED HISTORICAL EVOLUTION

APPENDIX 4. AUTOMOTION SPEED HISTORICAL EVOLUTION

APPENDIX 5. AVIATION SPEED HISTORICAL EVOLUTION


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APPENDIX 3. RAILWAY SPEED HISTORICAL

EVOLUTION


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Appendix 3. Railway speed historical evolution 1

RAILWAY SPEED HISTORICAL EVOLUTION

1. INTRODUCTION

Since the invention of the steam locomotive and up to the recently broken rail-speed

record at the hands of the V150 test-train on the Paris to Strasbourg line, the railways

have undergone, just as other means of transport have, a series of technological

innovations which have allowed them to achieve progressively greater speeds and

provide more and more power for their engines.

As we shall see in this text, the railways have been based throughout their history on

three different types of traction: steam, the oldest of them and perhaps the form which

has experienced the most technological improvement during its period of utilisation;

diesel technology, more powerful than steam traction in general and equally improved

on over its operational life, and, finally, electrical traction, which has allowed us to

reach unthinkable speed and which is currently the most common form of traction for

modern trains.

Technological improvements have permitted the accomplishment of growing rail-speed

records whilst at the same time allowing commercial speeds to be raised, as, due to

the fact that we are dealing with a guided means of transport, the railways have been

able to adapt through the adoption of improvements to infrastructure, track design at

speeds which technological advancements have made available to the railways. This

effect has been clearly observed in track designs from the early days of the Twentieth

Century compared to those currently under construction, where it can be clearly noted

that the evolution of rolling stock has always been accompanied by improvements in

the concept of track design.

However, and in contrast with other means of transport, maximum commercial speeds

which have been established over time by different railway operators, have not

followed a convergent route towards a determined value, as is the case of the

automobile or the aeroplane, rather that we can clearly see, how commercial speeds

increase in line with the same pace as the technological possibilities on hand, without

reaching a specific speed which may be considered optimum.

In this section, we shall analyse the rail-speed records achieved by railway vehicles

without taking into account those experimental prototypes which although these wereguided vehicles, do not fit the profile of the concept of railway vehicle as we know it.


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Also, we shall see how commercial speeds have continued to grow over time and how

in recent years these values still grow even though there is no magic number serving

as a guide to optimum speed.

2. RAIL-SPEED RECORDS PER TRACTION TYPE

As we have mentioned in the introduction, the railways have been served by three

different types of traction throughout the length of their history.

The first railway vehicle in a purist sense was a steam locomotive. With her steam

traction was born.

This first ever locomotive used steam at high-pressure to power a cylinder which at the

same time worked in unison with the wheels of the locomotive, propelling this and

turning the wheels, thus making it move.

This apparently overly simple principle, has undergone major improvements throughout

history with regards to its essential aspects, namely:

!

Increases in the capacity to generate steam and so to generate more power.

! Improvements to the steam admission cylinder.

! Improvements of the connecting rods for elements which join the cylinder to the

wheels.

! Evolution of the techniques used to heat water.

! Improvements of the aerodynamic aspects of the locomotive.

Thanks to these improvements, steam locomotives were capable of increasing power,

speed and the quality of the service offered in general.

In the following table, rail-speed records achieved by steam locomotives are listed:


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Steam traction rail-speed records

Date Country Stretch / TrackSpeed

(km/h)Locomotive / Train

1804 GB Tramway of Pen-y-darren 8 Trevithick's Locomotive

1825 GB Stockton and Darlington Railway 24Stephenson's Locomotion

No. 1

1830 GB Manchester-Liverpool 48 Stephenson's Rocket

1848 USA Boston – Lawrence (Mass) 96.5 Boston & Maine "Antelope"

02/07/1907 D Munich - Augsburg 154.5 Bayerischen S 2/6 #3201

30/11/1934 GBGrantham - Peterborough

(LNER) 161 A1 #4472 "Flying

Scotsman"

05/03/1935 GBGrantham - Peterborough

(LNER)173.8 A3 #2750 "Papyrus"

08/05/1935 USA Milwaukee - New Lisbon (MRR) 181Class A Nr.2 "Atlantic"

(Hiawatha)

27/09/1935 GB London - Newcastle (LNER) 181 A4 #2509 "Silver Link"

11/05/1936 DFriesack - Vietznitz (Hamburg -

Berlin)200.4 Borsig 05 002

03/07/1938 GB Grantham - Peterborough 202.8 A4 #4468 "Mallard"

However, steam locomotives also had their downsides. In this sense, they required

large amounts of coal, water, and any increase in power obliged the construction of

large-scale and heavy locomotives. Many of their components needed meticulous and

constant maintenance, and also were often uncomfortable and unpleasant for

passengers, both as a result of the smoke produced by the burning of coke and due to

darkened hue the wagons and railway infrastructures adopted as a consequence of the

smoke.

With the invention of the internal combustion engines, the possibility of providing power

in a confined space arose.

The internal combustion engine took very little time to become commonplace in railway

vehicles. The first of these were fitted with gasoline engines which offered little power

and high levels of consumption. And so, the general acceptance of the internal

combustion engine for railway vehicles took place with the introduction of the diesel

engine. Indeed, the little maintenance that it required, the low levels of fuel

consumption with respect to its predecessor, and the cleaning that this type of traction

permitted, made the gradual disappearance of steam inevitable,


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The diesel engine provided torque for the axles via sets of cogs and serrated wheels

and the use of hydraulic and hydromechanical transmissions, allowing for the reaching

of high speeds greater performance. Soon diesel technology provided excellent resultsin all aspects.

In the table below we can see the records achieved with diesel locomotives:

Diesel traction rail-speed records

Date Country Stretch / TrackSpeed(km/h)

Locomotive / Train

26/05/1934 USA Denver - Lincoln 181 Budd "Pioneer Zephyr"

17/02/1936 D Ludwigslust - Wittenberge 205 Linke-Hofmann SVT 137 153Bauart Leipzig

23/06/1939 D Hamburg - Berlin 215Linke-Hofmann SVT 137 155

(Kruckenberg)

20/05/1972 E Azuqueca - Guadalajara 222 Talgo III 353 005

12/06/1973 GB Northallerton - Thirsk 230.5 HST Class 41 Prototype

13/11/1987 GB Darlington - York 238.9 HST InterCity 125 - Class 43

1997 RUS Moscow - St. Petersburg 271 Locomotive TEP 80-002

12/06/2002 E Lerida - Zaragoza 256.4 Talgo XXI

A notable improvement that we shall touch on later was electric-diesel traction. In the

table, the 1997 record was achieved by an electric-diesel engine, and however, the

2002 record refers to a diesel locomotive with hydraulic transmission.

In reality, electric-diesel locomotives enjoyed the power provided by a diesel engine but

with the torque transmitted on the axles performed by electrical engines. However,

these have been traditionally considered more diesel vehicles than electrical, as their

versatility allows them to travel on non-electrified lines.

Before the appearance of diesel locomotives, the introduction of electrical engines took

place on the railways.

Without entering into too much detail, electrical traction as it affects the railways is

composed of three types:


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! Traction with alternate tri-phase current

! Traction with continuous current

! Traction with alternating mono-phase current

Evolutionarily, the first type of traction used on the railways was alternate tri-phase

current. Engines which had these first locomotives were tri-phase engines and power

supply demanded that the locomotive had three different power points, and therefore,

three different contact lines.

With the introduction of continuous current the problem of energy intake was reduced

to the minimum. Indeed, only a single contact lines and a pantograph were necessary.

Also, speed regulation was simpler and other hindrances caused by alternate current

were eliminated.

The evolution of electronics in general, and of electronics relating to power supplies

especially allowed for the rebirth of tri-phase engines, this time relying on a single

contact line which meant also reduced maintenance. Had it not been for this step

forward, rail-speeds would not have achieved the impressive records that we have

seen in recent times.

Below we have a list of records achieved using electrical traction:


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As can be noted in the graph, rail-speed records have alternated over time, firstly,

steam as the originating form of traction with which the first records were achieved,

moving on to electrical traction and then diesel traction for values close to records.

In the following image we can appreciate these records alongside the evolution of

absolute rail speed records.


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3. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ABSOLUTE RAIL-SPEED RECORDS

From the official tables of records per type of traction which we have just witnessed,

the following official absolute rail-speed records have been extracted, and are as

follows:

Year Speed (km/h) Traction Locomotive / Train

1804 8 Steam Trevithick's Locomotive

1825 24 Steam Stephenson's Locomotion No. 1

1830 48 Steam Stephenson's Rocket

1848 96.5 Steam Boston & Maine "Antelope"

1901 162 Electric Siemens & Halske Railcar

1903 206.7 Electric Siemens & Halske Railcar

1903 210.2 Electric AEG Railcar

1938 202.8 Steam A4#4468 “Mallard”

1955 326 Electric Alstom Electric loc. CC7107

1955 331 Electric Alstom Electric loc. BB9004

1981 371 Electric TGV-PSE 16

1981 380.4 Electric TGV-PSE 16

1988 387 Electric ICE-V BR-410-001

1988 406.9 Electric ICE-V BR-410-001

1988 408.4 Electric TGV-PSE 88

1990 515.3 Electric TGV-A (Atlantique) 325

2007 574.8 Electric TGV V150 (LGV Est) 4402

Next we shall look more closely at each one of these records:

1804: Trevithick's Locomotive:

Richard Trevithick built a high-pressure machine in 1802 for an iron and steel plant in

Merthyr Tydfil, Wales, It was fixed to a metal frame and to this the locomotive was

added. He sold the patent in 1803 to Samuel Homfray, the owner of a blacksmiths’ who

was so impressed that he made a bet with another industrialist that a locomotive couldpull ten tonnes of steel along the tracks as far as Abercynon, at a distance of 15.7 km.


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The bet was undertaken on the 21st of February 1804. The Trevithick Locomotive

towed five wagons carrying ten tonnes and 70 men, needing four hours and five

minutes to cover the distance, which gives an average speed of 3.8km/h. It wouldseem that the machine alone could reach 25km/h though the record registered stands

at 8km/h.

Although it worked well, this locomotive was not successful as it was too heavy for rails

made from smelted iron, designed for carts pulled by horses. Five months later it

stopped working and was soon to resume its duties as static steam machine.

The picture below shows Trevithick's Locomotive:

1825: Stephenson's Locomotion No. 1

George Stephenson began his initial ventures into the field of locomotive design

limiting his work to the construction of machines to transport loads from coal mines. In

1821 he built a steam locomotive for the Darlington to Stockton rail line, which was the

sole usable and reliable train in operation for a long time. However, and as we have

seen in the previous paragraph, the first ever locomotive was built by Richard

Trevithick in 1804, which failed due to its running on smelted iron rails which could not

withstand its weight.

In 1813 William Hedley had constructed a locomotive named "Puffing Billy", for the

Wylam mine. Therefore George Stephenson cannot be considered the inventor of the

locomotive, rather as the most successful railway pioneer at the start of the Nineteenth

Century.


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Under Stephenson’s guidance the first railway line opened to the general public was

inaugurated on the 27th of September 1825 between Stockton and Darlington. His

“Locomotion” was placed at the head of 38 wagons loaded mainly with coal and wheat,although the majority were filled with benches for the more than 600 people who turned

up to take part in the festivities.

His Locomotion No. 1 achieved a top-speed of around 24 km/h, a major achievement

for the time.

In the picture below the Stephenson Locomotion No. 1:

1830: Stephenson's Rocket

Stephenson’s Rocket was the fastest locomotive of its age and a symbol which marked

the spectacular advancement of the railways during the period.

Created in 1829 and presented for a tender, it was capable of reaching 48 km/h, a

speed that no other locomotive of the age could match. Since the beginning of the

Nineteenth Century, George Stephenson had worked on the perfection of steam

locomotives.

His great opportunity arose with the announcement of a public tender which sought to

find a machine that could run the line between Manchester and Liverpool. The tender

brought with it a prize of 500 pounds sterling for the most innovative machine, and in

1829 the British engineer put himself forward with his new steam locomotive named the

Rocket.


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The machine used a multi-tube boiler, in this way there was greater capacity to heat

larger amounts of water and in this way produce more steam to move the pistons. The

result was that during the Rainhill Trials in Liverpool the Rocket pulled a train with 20tonnes’ load at a maximum speed of 48 km/h and thus relegating the other four

machines bidding for the prize to the background as they could only achieve around

half of that speed. Thanks to this victory George Stephenson would become the head

engineer for a multitude of rail lines formed during this period.

In the image below, the Rocket:

1848: Boston & Maine "Antelope":

The first ever train to achieve a speed of a mile a minute, which is 96.6 km/h, was the

Antelope, used on the Boston & Maine Railroad. There are very few references to this

record, however it is officially recognised.

This locomotive was very similar in appearance to previous steam machines and

reflects also the vigour of the American railroad companies not to be left behind in the

race for rail advancement.

The record was achieved on the Boston to Lawrence line and news reports said that

passengers suffered dizziness and became rather unwell after travelling at such great

speeds.

Below is a period etching of the Antelope.


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1901: Siemens & Halske Railcar

Scientific engineering research into very high speed railways began with investigations

in Germany by Siemens & Halske. and AEG between 1899 and 1903. In the next

record the complete history of this group of test will be included.

These trials demonstrated the potential of electric traction in sustained running at

speeds no steam locomotive could match. The trials had State backing and took place

on a military railway between Marienfelde and Zossen, near Berlin.

Three vehicles were tried, one locomotive not intended for high speed working, and two

motorized carriages which were to set long-standing records. The vehicles were fitted

with three-phase motors, with 10kV supply picked up by a triple collector from three

overhead contact wires.

Speed was controlled by varying the speed of the steam engine driving the alternator

according to signals telegraphed from the cars to the power house, which varied

frequency: either 25Hz or 50Hz.

Speeds of the order of 160.9 km/h were reached by both cars in 1901.

In the picture below, one of the railcars tested:


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1903: Siemens & Halske Railcar, and AEG railcar:

In 1901, the more immediate limitations of DC were recognized and alternating current

(AC) was already in use, but even single phase AC has limitations. Thus, in 1899, the

two German electrical firms of Siemens & Halske and Allgemeine Elektriziteits

Gesellschaft (AEG) formed, with the support of the Prussian government and variousbanks, a consortium called Studiengesellschaft für Elektrische Schnellbahnen (St.E.S.)

[Study Group for High Speed Electric Railways].

To demonstrate what could be done with electric propulsion, the St.E.S. set out the

following requirements:

! Approximately 50 seats.

! Suitable for mainline service.

!

Maximum speed between 124 and 155 mph (200 and 250 km/h). ! 16-ton maximum axle load.

! Two 3-axle trucks with middle axle carrying weight only and both outer axles

motorized.

! Four motors producing between 250 and 750 hp (186 and 560 kW).

! Necessary train and auxiliary braking systems.

! Current collection from a catenary erected at one side of the track.

! Power between 10 and 12 kV to be reduced on board the railcar to a suitable

voltage.


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The contract to build two railcars was awarded to the Cologne railroad equipment

manufacturer of van der Zypen & Charlier with AEG and Siemens & Halske providing

the electrical systems. The AEG car was designated as vehicle "A" and the Siemens &Halske one was vehicle "S". The finished railcars were also to be capable of pulling

three additional coaches.

The group obtained the right to use the Zossen to Marienfelde 23 km stretch of the

Prussian military railroad connecting Schöneberg Military Station in Berlin with the

Jöterbog Military Station southwest of Berlin.

They erected a triple high voltage catenary (3-phase) system by the side of the track.

The first wire was at a height of 5.5 m and the third one was 7.5 m with the second onein the middle. Voltage varied from 6 to 14 kV at frequencies between 25 and 50 Hz,

depending on what speed the test vehicles were to run at.


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Both test vehicles were constructed along the same lines. A wood-clad steel framework

similar to that of early aircraft was used. At each end there were large driver

compartment offering excellent visibility. Each railcar featured two large sections toaccommodate 25 passengers each in 1st and 2nd class comfort. Passengers had an

unobstructed view of the driver’s cabin. The windows were sealed with fresh air

entering through the small windows in the clerestory roof structure. The coach body sat

rigidly on the truck with its pivot, but the springing was carried out between the bogie

frame and axles by leaf and coil springs. There were also two large air ducts in the roof

to guide air to the air-cooled high voltage transformers. With the good cooling provided

by this system, it was possible to use somewhat lighter transformers. Each transformer

weighed 6,150 kg and the two motors weighed 8,150 kg.

The AEG vehicle had a 20,800 mm -long body and a truck centre-to-centre length of

13,300 mm; whereby the truck wheelbase was 3,800 mm and the wheel diameter was

1,250 mm, a measurement that has more or less become standard now.

Operational safety was considered an essential part of the design, since experience

with such high voltages and speeds was completely lacking. All high-voltage

components were so laid out that neither crew nor passengers could get into contact

with any part under power. Such parts were positioned under the vehicle or in the

hollow roof space. All switch-gear was pneumatically-operated to avoid bringing high-

tension cables to the driver's cab.

The pantographs were certainly the most distinguishing feature of the experimental rail

cars. AEG and Siemens & Halske chose considerably different approaches to

mounting the six pantographs. In each case, there were two sets of three each. The

centreline, i.e., the point of contact with the first (lowest) catenary wire was, was 5.5 m

above the top of the rails. The second one contacted the catenary 6,500 mm above rail

level and the third one was 7,500 mm above rail level. A system of springs ensured

good contact with the catenary wires. So much for commonality. On the "A" vehicle the

individual pantographs were mounted in line, i.e., sequentially. On the "S" vehicle three

pantographs were mounted on a heavy duty vertical pole. Both systems had to be

modified during the trial runs to better accommodate wind forces and reduce spark

formation.

The entire electrical system was divided into two parts so that failure of any one part of

the equipment could not prevent the other half from continuing to function. The two

transformers, with turn ratios of 12.000: 435, were protected by fuses and connected tothe catenary wires by means of an oil-switch. One transformer supplied power to two


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three-phase motors. The motors operated on 1,150 to 1,850-volts. Variation in current

was achieved through star-delta connection as well as through resistors.

The resistors were rather unique. They consisted of large copper plates immersed in a

continuously circulating soda (sodium carbonate) solution. Raising or lowering the

copper plates changed the resistance of the circuit. The engine driver had a means of

doing this. The intent was also to use these novel resistors for rheostat braking but this

application did not prove satisfactory.

The electric motors were axle-mounted without gear transmission and had a maximum

speed of 900 rpm. The 28 resistors were positioned at the side and operated by a rack-

wheel. The driver's cab contained the necessary speedometer, voltmeter, ammeter andother controls.

The AEG railcar and had flat front faces. The main differences from the Siemens and

Halske design were as follows. The motors were not positioned on the axles but were

placed on hollow shafts surrounding the axles and were vertically sprung. Power

transmission was carried out by leaf springs from the hollow shafts to the wheels. This

design allowed for smaller but more complex motors. The starter was of the liquid type

with a soda solution as coolant and a copper tube cooler. This liquid starter permitted

an even insertion and cutting-out of resistors. Control of the vehicle was carried out

from the driver's cab by mechanical devices that operated the contactor gear mounted

under the floor.

Weights were as follows: electrical systems, 42.5 tons; mechanical part, 48 tons; and

load, 4 tons, giving a total weight of 94.5 tons.

Progress was rapid with both test vehicles being virtually the same. The first tests took

place in September 1901. Voltage was in the 6 to 8 kV range and frequencies ranging

from 25 to 30 Hz. Speeds ranged between 100 and 135 km/h. Power output was

between 1,340 and 1,475 hp (1,000 and 1,100 kW). An early goal was to determine air

resistance, braking distances, finding the right braking pressure and the effect of high

speeds on the roadbed.

The existing track consisted of 32.5 kg/m rail in 8 m sections mounted on steel

sleepers resting in sand and gravel ballast. This proved very inadequate. The swaying

and pitching was actually quite alarming and soon a derailment occurred at 160 km/h.

This temporarily stopped the trials. This led to increasing the wheelbase of the vehicle’s

trucks from 3,800 mm to 5,000 mm to improve stability. By 1903, military personnel


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working day and night rebuilt the track with heavier rail, better sleepers and ballast.

Rails 12 m long and weighing 41 kg/m and with sleepers spaced 66 cm centre-to-

centre. Deeper ballasting was also used. The minimum curve was eased to 2000 m.

Trials were resumed in September 1903. Braking test showed that from 180 km/h a

distance of 1,400 m was needed and this required 55 seconds. Further, the operating

voltage was set at 14 kV and a frequency of 50 Hz.

On October 23 test vehicle "S" recorded 206.7 km/h. Five days later, vehicle "A"

achieved the following shortly after 9 AM. This was then timetable:

! 9:05 depart Marienfelde

! 9:09 passed through Mahlow station at 180 km/h.

! 9:10 reached 200 km/h using 2,800 hp (2,100 kW)

! 9:11 + 15 sec reached 210.2 km/h

! 9:16 arrived in Zossen.

The St.E.S. continued the tests until November 1903. Even though test vehicles "A"

and "S" broke the 200 km/h barrier, this was not the primary objective of these tests

and evaluations. Coupled with a Prussian (KPEV) six-axle sleeping car, which

unfortunately derailed at 174 km/h, the intent was to evaluate some elementary

attempts at streamlining the experimental railcars. Addition of the streamlining resulted

in an 8% reduction in the power needed to achieve 180 km/h. Another thing that was

learned was that the addition of "trailers" to the railcars did not really affect air

resistance of the railcar. All in all, the performance differences between the "A" and "S"

vehicles was very minimal.

By the end of November 1903, the St.E.S. ended the tests and issued their reports.

Writing some 30 years later, Dr. Walter Reichel, the chief engineer on the project,

commented, "It is probable that 230 km/h could have been reached had not caution

weighed a thirst for knowledge."

The St.E.S. was very satisfied with what was learned from these tests and undoubtedly

laid the foundations for future high speed electric lines throughout much of Germany.

The experiments showed clearly that electric traction was capable of achieving

200km/h safely; obviously, the experiments were far ahead of their time and it took 50

to 60 years until the lessons learned from these tests were put to practical use.


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Practical application of 3-phase technology, however, did not become reality until the

advent of the BR 120 multi-purpose locomotive.

This was the “A” vehicle:

1938: A4#4468 “Mallard”:

The Mallard holds the official rail.-speed record for a steam locomotive at 202.58 km/h.

The record was obtained on the 3 rd of July 1938 on a stretch of the East Coast Main

Line over a slightly downward slope.

The locomotive was the perfect vehicle for the event; it was designed to work at

sustained speeds of around 160km/h, thanks to, a double chimney system to improve

the exit of gasses at high speeds, three cylinder design to increase stability and tractor

wheels of 2.032m diameter to obtain the maximum speed possible at the time. Besides

this Mallard had been in use for five months and so its mechanical parts were worn in

but not worn out.

The record was achieved on a stretch of track with a downward slope on Stoke Bank,

the train was formed by the locomotive, six wagons and a dynamometer car with

instruments to measure different parameters. For this case in question the instruments

registered a momentary maximum speed of 203 km/h.

The Mallard was put into service on the 3 rd of March 1938, it was the first A4 class to

be fitted with the Kylchap double chimney and extraction system, one of the reasons

for which it was chosen to try to break the rail-speed record in July 1938.


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The locomotive was painted with different colours, originally blue with the LNER 4468

numbering, during the war it was painted black, after the war blue again, though with

the number 22, and when it fell into the hands of British Rail it was renumbered 60022and painted green, the colour it conserved until it was withdrawn from service in 1963.

When it was restored it was repainted the original blue again.

Like all class A4 vehicles, these were constructed with wheel-guards and aerodynamic

mouldings, however, these were removed in wartime to aid maintenance, although

were replaced again in peacetime.

During its working life it was assigned to three depots: Doncaster, Grantham and King’s

Cross, and is pictured below:

1955: Alstom Electric loc. CC7107 and BB9004

During the 1950’s, SNCF investigations into high speed rail saw some CC 7100 class

locomotives specially modified for operation at speeds far higher than their regular

service speed. These experiments provided valuable test data for the SNCF to develop

increasingly more rapid regular services, including the 200 km/h Mistral of 1967, and

ultimately the TGV.

Preparations for further high speed tests proceeded, and in March 1955 CC 7107

attained 326 km/h, and Bo-Bo locomotive BB 9004 both attained 331 km/h on separate

high speed runs between Bordeaux and Dax, Landes. CC 7107 hauled a three car train

with streamlining modifications to reduce aerodynamic drag.


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Both locomotives in next images:


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And of the moment when the record was achieved:

1981: The TGV-PSE 16:

The rail-speed record established by SNCF is intimately linked to the commencement

of the High-Speed Rail service between Paris – Lyons (or Paris-South-East).

On 28 July 1978, two pre-production TGV trainsets left the Alsthom factory in Belfort.

These would later become TGV Sud-Est trainsets 01 and 02, but for testing purposesthey had been nicknamed "Patrick" and "Sophie", after their radio callsigns. In the

following months of testing, over 15,000 modifications were made to these trainsets,

which were far from trouble-free. High speed vibration was a particularly difficult

problem to root out: the new trains were not at all comfortable at cruising speed.

The solution was slow in coming, and slightly delayed the schedule. Eventually it was

found that inserting rubber blocks under the primary suspension springs took care of

the problem. Other difficulties with high speed stability of the trucks were overcome by

1980, when the first segment of the new line from Paris to Lyon was originally

supposed to open. The first production trainset, number 03, was delivered on 25 April

1980.

Delivery of an order for 87 TGV trainsets was well underway in 1981, when trainset 16

was used for a very publicized world record run, code-named operation TGV 100 (for a

target speed of 100 meters per second, or 360 km/h). The target was exceeded on 26

February 1981, when trainset 16 reached a speed of 380 km/h (236 mph) in perfect

safety.


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The TGV Sud-Est fleet was built between 1978 and 1988 and operated the first TGV

service from Paris to Lyon in 1981, after the record moment. Currently there are 107

passenger sets operating, of which nine are tri-current (25 kV 50-60 Hz AC - Frenchlignes à grande vitesse, 1500 V DC - French lignes classiques, 15 kV 16! Hz AC -

Switzerland) and the rest bi-current (25 kV 50–60 Hz AC, 1500 V DC). There are also

seven bi-current half-sets.

Each set is made up of two power cars and eight carriages (capacity 345 seats),

including a powered bogie in each of the carriages adjacent to the power cars. They

are 200 m (656 ft) long and 2.904 m (9 ft 6.3 in) wide. They weigh 385 tonnes (379

long tons; 424 short tons) with a power output of 6,450 kW (8,650 hp) under 25 kV.

The TGV-PSE number 16 train record is shown in the next image:

1988: The ICE-V BR-410-001:

The ICE-V is a government-funded research project. Its costs were shared by the

BMFT (federal ministry of research and technology), the DB (Deutsche Bundesbahn)

and the West German railway industry.

The idea for German high-speed trains goes back to about 1970. Class 403/404, a

four-car train for 200 km/h with all axles powered and (originally) an active tilting

mechanism, of which only three trainsets were built (later in service as Lufthansa

Airport Express, now retired), could be seen as an early forerunner of the ICE .


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However, there were only very few lines where trains could actually reach 200 km/h.

The new lines Hannover - Würzburg and Mannheim - Stuttgart were originally planned

for mixed traffic with up to 200 km/h. The idea to use them for higher speeds didn'tcome up until the French TGV demonstrated from 1981 on how successful high speed

trains can be.

Projects from the seventies for a `RS-VD' (Rad/Schiene-Versuchs- und

Demonstrationsfahrzeug = Wheel/Rail Experimental and Demonstration Vehicle),

which would have been a short train of three power units, and a high speed test line

Rheine - Spelle - Freren were formulated, but not realized. Around 1980 came the

decision to build new high speed trains for the new lines under construction. In 1980,

Henschel (now part of Adtranz) rebuilt the experimental diesel-electric locomotive 202

003-0 with new Ùm-An' bogies for (theoretically) 350 km/h and a streamlined front.

The bogies of the ICE-V were derived from this concept.

In 1982, the DB decided to order an experimental train, to test which components

would be successful in a high speed train that could run on the new high-speed lines,

but also to give the public an impression of future high speed traffic. As the

construction of the high-speed lines was delayed for various reasons, there would be

enough time to test this train before opening regular service. So the train, now called

Ìntercity Experimental' (ICE ), was ordered in 1982 and built in a hurry in numerous

railway factories because it should be finished in 1985 for the 150th anniversary of the

first German steam railway Nürnberg - Fürth. During this time, ICE should only be the

name of the experimental train, there was no decision yet about the name of the series

trains (one idea was `HGZ ', Hochgeschwindigkeitszug = High Speed Train, similar to

the French `TGV '). The name ÌCE-V ' came up when it was necessary to distinguish it

from the series trains ÌCE1'.

The locomotives were built by Krupp (410 001-2) and Thyssen-Henschel (410 002-0).

Two of the middle cars (810 001-8 and 810 003-4) were built by Messerschmitt-

Bölkow-Blohm, the third (810 002-6) by Duewag and Linke-Hofmann-Busch.

In 1985, first the locomotives and then the middle cars were delivered. A speed of 324

km/h was reached in November. The train did a demonstration tour through the DB

territory and was the star at the 150th anniversary of German railways on 7th

December 1985. In 1986, there were some `surprise' demonstrations as additional train

in front of regular InterCity trains. But most time, the ICE-V was experimenting, first on

the upgraded line Gütersloh-Neubeckum, then (from 1988 on) on the brand-new high-speed line Fulda-Würzburg.


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On the 1st May 1988, the ICE-V established a new world record of 406.9 km/h on this

line near Gemünden. The trainset was shortened to two intermediate cars, and the

overhead wire was replaced by a new, specially tested wire of higher mechanicaltension. Since the 5th December 1989, when a modified TGV Atlantique reached 515.3

km/h, the SNCF has the record back

When the regular service was started in 1991, the demonstration tours of the ICE-V

stopped, but it was still being used for experiments, now a bit more in the background.

In 1994, the locomotives were rebuilt with new noses, with automatic couplers behind

front doors, to test the coupler of the ICE2 . There were some test runs during the

winter in the Alps, to test how this coupler works in snowy environment.

The ICE-V continued to be used for its original purpose, the testing of new

components. For example, it was used as `super-locomotive' (with one middle car) for

pulling a modified Talgo-Pendular train at a speed of 345 km/h on the high-speed line

Hannover-Göttingen. It was one of the few trains of the world ready for speeds of 350

km/h and more without modifications, so there were enough uses for it whenever

something (such as a bogie or a pantograph) needed to be tested at that speed.

Another purpose was regular checks of the track on the high speed lines.

On 1st May 1998 the ICE-V was taken out of service as it was due for overhaul. It is

currently stored in the research and technology centre of München-Freimann, no

decision about its future has been taken yet.

The next image shows the ICE-V speed record:


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1988: TGV-PSE 88:

After the 1981 record, and during the following years, until 1986, the pneumatic

suspension and the new Y 231 carrying bogies designed for TGV-ATL train sets were

developed, with numerous test runnings in the speed range from 300 to 350 km/h, in

order to obtain certitudes as regards the stability of the bogies and the appropriate

choice of anti-hunting devices for commercial speeds of 270 km/h (LGV-PSE) or 300

km/h (LGV-ATL).

These tests allowed the definition of the TGV equipment design principles, which are

applied today as regards the critical speed of the bogies.

Between 1985 and 1988, the development of the prototype train set equipped with self-

controlled synchronous motors (March 1988) led once more to numerous runnings at

high speed, in December 1988 with the so-called “operation TGV 88”. During this

operation, the speed range from 350 to 400 km/h was investigated (maximal speed

408,4 km/h on December 12th 1988).

So the German record could be during only some months.

Apart from the capability of the synchronous traction equipment to develop the required

power and the performance consisting in the realization of such tests on a line kept in

operation (LGV-PSE), the teachings gathered together during this test campaign were

decisive for the pursuit of the operation.

On this occasion, we discovered that:

• With the single-phase GPU pantograph mounted on this train set, we could get

the current collection under control without difficulties inside the studied speed

range

• The bogies presented a stability margin distinctly higher than that which had

been estimated, according to the results of former experiences.

The TGV which achieved this record was this:


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1990: TVG-A (Atlantique) 325:

Operations TGV 117 and TGV 140, referring to target speeds in meters per second,

were carried out by SNCF from November 1989 to May 1990. The culmination of these

test programs was a new world speed record of 515.3 km/h set on 18 May 1990.

The record runs took place in two separate campaigns, separated by a period of

modifications to trainset 325. For each day of testing, the 325 was towed to the test site

by TGV Atlantique trainset 308 because its 1500 V DC systems had been removed,preventing operations near Paris. Trainset 308 also performed a sweep of the test track

at 350 km/h before each high speed run.

The test runs took place on a section of the Atlantique branch of the TGV network, a

few months before the line was opened to TGV revenue service. Strictly speaking,

there were no significant alterations of the track or catenary for testing purposes.

However, some sections of the line's profile had been planned since 1982 (shortly after

the TGV Sud-Est world speed record of February 1981) to allow very high speed

running.

Construction of the dedicated tracks of the LGV Atlantique was officially decided on 25

May 1984. Ground was broken on 15 February 1985. The new line was to stretch from

slightly outside the Gare Montparnasse in Paris to Le Mans, with a second branch

towards Tours. The Le Mans branch was opened for 300 km/h revenue service on 20

September 1989, and the Tours branch opened a year later. The two branches

separate at Courtalain, 130 km west of Paris, where movable frog points good for 220

km/h in the diverging route direct trains towards either Le Mans or Tours.


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In the early stages when operation TGV 117 was still being defined, several criteria

were settled upon to focus the preparation of a test train. These were aerodynamics,

traction and electrical systems, rail and catenary contact, braking, and comfort.

The basic purpose of the test program was to push the envelope of the TGV system,

and to characterize its behaviour at very high speeds. With this in mind, it only made

sense to start with a stock TGV trainset and to modify it as little as possible. Brand new

TGV Atlantique trainset number 325 (25th of 105 in the Atlantique series) was

arbitrarily chosen to be the starting point of the modifications. There was nothing

special about this trainset, and it was returned to its intended state after the test

program to enter revenue service. Today, the only distinguishing feature on 325, as

compared to other Atlantique trainsets, is a blue ribbon painted across the nose, and

bronze plaques bolted to the sides of the two power cars to commemorate the event.

The test section itself begins on the common branch, at kilometre 114, at the Dangeau

siding. It runs past Courtalain and onto the Tours branch of the line. Between kilometre

135 and kilometre 170, the line was designed with progressively wider curves, reaching

a minimum radius of 15 km after kilometre 150. These curves were built with larger

superelevation than strictly necessary for revenue running at 300 km/h. At kilometre

160, the line passes through the Vendôme TGV station. At kilometre 166, there is a

long 2.5% downhill stretch into the Loir valley (the Loir is a tributary of the better-known

Loire river) and the line crosses the Loir on a 175 m bridge. This is the area where the

highest speeds were expected, and most of the activity was concentrated there.

The Tours branch of the line was tested by special computerised Maintenance of Way

equipment, from the Track Research department of SNCF. Just as on all TGV lines,

the rails were aligned to 1 mm tolerances, and the ballast was cleaned to remove

small, loose gravel. In subsequent testing with trainsets 308 and 325, the track was not

significantly affected and required only minimal realignment. This was in contrast to the

1955 world speed record of 331 km/h, also set in France, where the track was seriously

damaged after the high-speed runs. Large sections of the track were warped and

misshapen, as well as the trains pantograph was melted. Strain gauges were placed in

several locations, especially at the expansion joint at the end of the Loir bridge.

The catenary was standard TGV style, without any modifications. The only changes

were in the tuning. TGV catenary is strung in 1200 m sections, mechanically tensioned

by a system of pulleys and counterweights. Support masts are spaced at 54 m

intervals. The catenary (supporting) wire is made of bronze, with a circular cross-section of 65 mm2. The contact wire is made of copper, and has a cross-section of


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150 mm2. The cross-section of the contact wire is circular with a flat section on the

contact side.

In general, when a pantograph runs underneath the catenary, it sets up a wave-like

disturbance which travels down the wire with a speed determined by the tension in the

wire and its mass per unit length. When a train approaches this critical speed, the

pantograph catches up with the disturbance, resulting in dangerously large vertical

displacements of the wire as well as contact interruptions. The top speed of the train is

then limited by the critical speed of the catenary. This problem was very central to the

test runs, since it was desired to test set 325 at speeds well above the critical speed of

standard TGV catenary. There were two solutions: increase the tension in the wire or

reduce its mass per unit length.

Replacing the copper contact wire by a lighter cadmium alloy wire was considered, but

dismissed on the grounds of time and cost. The critical speed of the test track catenary

was then to be increased solely by increasing the tension in the wire. For the test runs,

the usual tension of 2000 daN was increased to 2800 daN and exceptionally 3200 daN.

For some of the faster runs over 500 km/h, the voltage in the catenary was increased

from the usual 25 kV 50 Hz to 29.5 kV.

At kilometre 166, catenary masts were equipped with sensors to measure the

displacement of the wire. During the 18 May 1990 record at 515.3 km/h, vertical

displacements of almost 30 cm were recorded, within 1 or 2 cm of the predictions made

by computer simulations. The critical speed of the catenary for that particular run was

532 km/h.

In preparation for the first round of testing, modifications began by shortening the train

from its usual 10 trailers to only 4 trailers, resulting in a significant increase to its

power-to-weight ratio. The resulting train consisted of: power car TGV24049, Trailer R1

TGVR241325, Trailer R4 TGVR244325, Trailer R6 TGVR246325, Trailer R10

TGVR240325 and power car TGV24050. Train length was down to 125 m from 237 m

and weight was down to 300 metric tons from 490 metric tons.

The aerodynamics of a TGV Atlantique are already quite good, and improvements

were few. It was decided that 325 would have a "front" and "rear" for the high speed

runs, to simplify the modifications. Usually a TGV trainset is symmetric and reversible,

but 325's two power cars, 24049 and 24050, were defined as leading and trailing units,

respectively. On the roof of lead unit 24049, the pantographs were removed and the

roof fairing extended over the opening; the same was done to the 1500 V DC


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pantograph on trailing unit 24050. Only one pantograph was to be used at high speed:

the stock Faiveley GPU unit remaining on unit 24050. As in normal TGV running, the

lead unit was to be fed power from the trailing unit through the roof line running thelength of the train. Further improvements, such as rubber membranes covering the

gaps between the trailers, and a rear spoiler on unit 24050 were considered, but

abandoned.

The synchronous AC traction motors on 24049 and 24050 could not be allowed to

rotate too fast, because of limitations in the switching frequency of the supply

electronics. Technicians had decided upon 4000 rpm at 420 km/h to be the optimal

ratio, after testing trainset 325 at high speeds with stock traction equipment. The new

traction ratio was achieved by changing the transmission gearing and increasing the

wheel diameter. Just as with the 1981 test campaign on TGV PSE number 16, 1050

mm wheels replaced the stock 920 mm wheels under 24049 and 24050.

To prevent electrical problems, semiconductor components (especially thyristors) were

selected with special regard to quality. The main transformers in both power cars were

replaced by larger models, each able to handle 6400 kW (8500 hp), or double the usual

load, on a fairly continuous basis. Extensive tests were conducted on the electrical

systems, to establish how far they could be pushed. The resulting ratings ensured that

acceptable heat levels would never be exceeded in testing.

Next, the wheel-rail interface was attended to. Axle bearings were unmodified items,

broken in for 10,000 km in revenue service on the LGV Sud-Est. Yaw dampers were

stiffened, and doubled up on each side for a total of four yaw dampers on each truck,

for redundancy in case of a high speed failure. As a result of earlier testing and

computer simulations, transverse dampers were stiffened on the power trucks.

The 1981 test campaign provided valuable data and computer models for interaction of

the pantograph with the catenary contact wire, and shed light on the very sensitive

dynamics. Very large vertical wiremovement (over 30 cm) had been observed in the

1981 tests, and were blamed on the pantograph catching up with the travelling wave it

set up in the contact wire. For this reason, it was not only necessary to modify the

catenary to increase the travelling wave speed, but also to fine-tune the pantograph

itself.

The pantograph used on 325 was the stock Faiveley GPU. The wiper assembly on this

pantograph weighs under 8 kg and is mounted on a vertical shock absorber with 150

mm travel. The main structure of the pantograph is constructed of cylindrical tubing,


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which (Faiveley claims) reduces the pantograph's sensitivity to random variations in

environmental factors. The only modifications to the GPU pantograph were an increase

in the stiffness of the pneumatic dampers, and a reduced total aerodynamic lift of thestructure.

The suspension on the trailers was jacked up by 20 mm by overinflating the secondary

suspension air bladders and inserting shims, to provide additional suspension travel

and to make up for the larger wheels on the power cars.

The brakes on the trailers were tuned to allow a heat dissipation of 24 MJ per disk

instead of the usual 18 MJ, with a total of 20 discs.

Many of the modifications listed above, including the synchronous traction motors,

were tested at speeds over 400 km/h on TGV Sud-Est trainset 88. In one high-speed

test, technicians attempted to provoke a truck into unstable oscillation by drastically

reducing the yaw damping, but failed to achieve this.

Finally, most of the seating in trailer R1 was removed and the space was transformed

into a laboratory, to process and record test data on vehicle dynamics, overhead

contact and dynamics, tractive effort, aerodynamics, interior comfort and noise, and a

host of other parameters.

On 30 November 1989, trainset 325 emerged from the Châtillon shops and set out for

the test tracks for its first test run. Technicians at Châtillon put 4500 hours of work into

the modifications, which was impressive when one considers that their first priority was

the routine maintenance of the TGV Atlantique trainsets in revenue service.

The first campaign, also known as operation TGV 117, took place between 30

November 1989 and 1 February 1990. After several runs, problems with pantograph

contact required manual adjustments to be made by first grounding the catenary and

then sending technicians onto the roof. After a series of increasingly fast runs, the first

official speed record of 482.4 km/h was set at kilometre point 166 on 5 December

1989, with engineer Michel Boiteau at the controls. At the end of this run, trainset 325

had accumulated 337 km at speeds exceeding 400 km/h. More high speed runs were

made after this record, investigating effects such as the crossing of two trains with a

closing velocity of 777.7 km/h. With favourable results indicating that higher speeds

were safe, the decision was made to further modify trainset 325 for speeds near 500

km/h .


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On 1 February 1990 at 15:30, 325 returned to the Châtillon shops for the long term. At

this time, 325 had set a world record at 482.4 km/h. Technicians had a 1 March

deadline to perform further modifications designed to make possible further datacollection and a 500 km/h publicity stunt. This second round of modifications was

intended to take direct advantage of the experience gained in the first round.

The axles on 24049 and 24050 were removed and on 2 February, shipped to the

Bischheim shops in eastern France for fitting with even larger 1090 mm wheels. The

lead axle on 24049 was fitted with strain gauges, and returned to Châtillon 8 days after

the other axles on 22 February. Initially, the second axle on 24049 had also been

scheduled to be fitted with strain gauges, but the 1 March deadline did not allow

enough time. To accommodate the bigger wheels, special brake pads had to be

manufactured for the brake shoes on 24049 and 24050. With 15 mm of thickness, only

two emergency stops were guaranteed.

On 6 February, the trailers were jacked up and trailer R6 was removed. This brought

325 to the minimum possible consist, since the bar trailer R4 functions as the

"keystone" of the articulated design of the TGV. 325 now weighed in at 250 metric tons

and measured 106 m nose to tail. From 7 to 14 February, the three remaining trailers

underwent further modifications. The 25 kV roof supply line to feed the lead unit was

replaced by a single cable; this allowed the removal of the insulators supporting the line

over the space between trailers, which protruded in the air stream. Rubber membranes

were installed to cover the gaps between the trailers, and the Y237B trucks were

jacked by 40 mm.

In the gap between power cars and trailers, large airdams were installed. These "snow

shields", mounted beneath the couplers, were designed to prevent the formation of a

low pressure area between the vehicles, which had induced significant drag in the

earlier testing. On the power cars, sheet metal shields were added over the trucks, and

the front airdam was extended downwards by 10 cm to compensate for the larger

wheels. Finally, a removable spoiler was installed on the nose of trailing unit 24050.

The aerodynamic improvements were supposed to yield a 10% reduction in drag. In

the previous round of testing, the atmospheric drag force had reached 9 metric tons of

force at a speed of 460 km/h. On the new version of 325, this magnitude of drag was

not expected before 500 km/h.

On 27 February 1990, after the trainset was coupled together, 325 rolled out from the

Châtillon shops for the second time, 2 days ahead of schedule. This time, 2000 hours


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of shop labour were required to accomplish the changes. The second campaign of

testing, culminating in the standing world speed record of 515.3 km/h is summed up in

the chronology of the record runs.

The second campaign, also known as operation TGV 140, took place between 5 March

1990 and 18 May 1990, after the train modifications were complete. On the first high

speed run, an electrical malfunction destroyed the main transformer of the rear power

car and damaged many low voltage circuits. The damage was found to require nearly a

month of repairs, primarily because a new transformer able to sustain the high power

loads had to be prepared. The 325 returned to testing on 4 May 1990 and exceeded

the 5 December record on its first run of the day. The 500 km/h mark was unofficially

broken on 9 May 1990, with runs at 506.5 km/h and 510.6 km/h. The switches in the

Vendôme station were passed at 502 km/h. Instability of the contact dynamics between

the pantograph and catenary caused trouble during the next several days, although

intermittent runs achieved speeds above 500 km/h. Following the resolution of this

problem, the final record attempt took place on 18 May 1990, with dignitaries and

journalists joining the usual complement of technicians on board the train. The 325

started its run at 9:51 from Dangeau and accelerated for 15 minutes, achieving a top

speed of 515.3 km/h at the bottom of the hill at kilometre post 166.8. At the conclusion

of the test campaign, the train had reached top speeds in excess of 500 km/h on nine

separate occasions, including the world speed record.

The next image shows the train obtaining the maximum speed record:


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And this image, the train starting the record run:

2007: TGV V150 4402

The V150 was a specially configured high-speed train notable for breaking the world

land speed record for conventional railed trains on 3 April 2007. The train was built in

France and reached a speed of 574.8 km/h on an unopened section of the LGV Est

between Strasbourg and Paris, in France topping the previous record of 515.3 km/h set

in 1990.

Operation V150, where 150 refers to a target speed in metres per second, was a series

of high speed trials carried out on the LGV Est prior to its June 2007 opening. The trials

were conducted jointly by SNCF, TGV builder Alstom, and LGV Est owner Réseau

Ferré de France between 15 January 2007 and 15 April 2007. Following a series ofincreasingly high speed runs, the official speed record attempt took place on 3 April

2007. The top speed of 574.8 km/h was reached at kilometre point 191 near the village

of Le Chemin, between the Meuse and Champagne-Ardenne TGV stations, where the

most favourable profile exists.

The 515.3 km/h speed record of 1990 was unofficially broken multiple times during the

test campaign that preceded and followed the certified record attempt, the first time on

13 February 2007 with a speed of 554.3 km/h, and the last time on 15 April 2007 with a

speed of 542.9 km/h.


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The train used for the speed record was code named V150, and comprised three

modified Duplex cars, fitted with two powered bogies similar to the AGV prototype,

marshalled between a pair of TGV power cars from trainset 4402. The train had fourmore powered axles than trainset 325 used in the 1990 speed record, and had a

maximum power output of 19.6 MW (26,300 hp) instead of the 9.3 MW (12,500 hp) on

a standard TGV POS. This unusual composition was used to obtain high speed test

data on disparate technical elements including the new asynchronous traction motors

on the POS power cars, the lightweight synchronous permanent magnet traction

motors on the AGV bogies, the actively controlled pantograph, and the Duplex bi-level

configuration which had never been used in very high speed trials.

Aerodynamic improvements, similar to the 1990 record train, were refined in a wind

tunnel and provided a 15% reduction in drag from the standard configuration. These

improvements included a front air dam, roof fairings over the pantograph openings,

membranes to cover the space between the cars, and a flush-mounted windshield.

Over 600 sensors were fitted on various parts of both the engines and the cars. The

train set ran with larger wheels with a diameter of 1092 mm instead of 920 mm, to limit

the rotational speed of the powertrain.

The record runs took place on a 140 km section of track 1 on the LGV Est, usually

heading west, between kilometre posts 264 (town of Prény) and 120 (near the

Champagne-Ardenne TGV station). This section of the LGV was chosen for its vertical

profile and gentle curves, with favourable downhill segments leading to the highest

speeds between kilometre posts 195 and 191, near the border between the Meuse and

Marne departments.

Several measurement stations were installed along the test tracks to monitor stresses

in the track and ballast, noise, aerodynamic effects, and catenary dynamics. Between

kilometre posts 223 and 167, where speeds exceeded 500 km/h, the track was under

close surveillance.


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This is the V150 TGV in record run:

4. EVOLUTION OF MAXIMUM COMMERCIAL SPEEDS COMPARED WITH

RECORD RAIL-SPEEDS.

The following table compiles the maximum speeds attained by diverse railway

operators.

Likewise, data has been added on average readings on these stretches and the dates

in which limits were imposed and the date of the removal of the aforementioned limit,

should the lines have imposed such a limitation.


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In order to contrast between rail-speed records and maximum speed, the following

graph is attached in which we can see the still rising trends for railway speeds, unlike

the case of the trends affecting the automobile and the aircraft.


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APPENDIX 4. AUTOMOTION SPEED

HISTORICAL EVOLUTION


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Appendix 4. Automotion speed historical evolution 1

AUTOMOTION SPEED HISTORICAL EVOLUTION

1. INTRODUCTION. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE AUTOMOBILE

Introduction

Automobile sector represents a highly practical example of how to approach the search

for an optimum speed.

Indeed, automobile sector has meant from its beginning a constant search for an

increase in travelling speeds at the same time as the augmentation of the capacity and

transport of persons and goods. Likewise, land-speed records have been constantly

broken and the pedestal set higher and higher for future generations in a relatively

short period of time. This rapid evolution has also been possible to the swift and

efficient development of the technology which is responsible for this progress. As will

be seen later on, land-speed records have grown extraordinarily from the days of a few

dozen kilometres per hour, until reaching figures of several hundred kilometres per

hour in little more than 50 years, and this begins to give us an idea of the pace of

progress in this field.

However, the growing progress of speed also brings with it the progressive appearance

of new hindrances aside from the merely technological ones; indeed, the very nature of

an unguided transport system involves the appearance of problems regarding

passenger safety in so much as the increase of risks these were exposed to in

response to any action which affected the concentration and ability of the driver. Aside

from this, the refinement of the technology which allows greater speeds to be reached

demanded more precise, and, consequently more expensive, components which

obliged the introduction of financial variables. Finally, and with the massive proliferation

of this form of transport, environmental issues appeared, specifically with the emission

of harmful gasses which polluted the atmosphere, and the generation of noise from

these vehicles. All of these factors have affected the maximum speed vehicles can

attain geared towards a series of efficient, safe and economic functioning conditions

that were less aggressive on the environment.

The aim of this section is to present an analysis of the evolution of the these speed

levels attained in the field of automobile sector, from an historical and evolutionary

viewpoint, as well as from the perspective of factors which influence the establishment


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of a standard maximum speed or a speed which the driver considers adequate based

on the conditions under which the driving will be performed.

Given that the concept “automobile” is wide-ranging, the study will focus on vehicles

which can be encompassed under the term of “private car” and which are in general

mass-produced automobiles with internal combustion engines and which do not require

specialist technology for their usage. With this type of vehicles it is possible to

undertake a comparative analysis between technology types and maximum speeds

possible, and those speeds which for certain reasons are considered appropriate or

optimum. For the remaining applications of technology in the field of automobile sector

such as competition or jet engines the findings of this study would not be applicable.

Nonetheless, and to provide additional information, in some sections we have included

data for maximum speeds of collective means of transport (buses, coaches), heavy

goods vehicles (trucks) and motorbikes, although the fulcrum of the study will be

centred on vehicles classified as “private cars”.

A brief history of the automobile

The automobile as we known began to evolve as a result of the self-propelled steam

vehicles produced from the Eighteenth Century onwards. Later, in 1885, the very first

automobile vehicle powered by a petrol internal combustion engine was produced. Themain technological milestones which have marked the general progress and

advancement of the automobile have been the following:

1769: The first steam propelled vehicle was created by Nicholas-Joseph Cugnot. The

vehicle was in reality a tricycle with wooden wheels, steel hubcaps and weighed 4.5

tons. Its maximum speed could not exceed that of a human being on foot.

1840: Steam carriage with capacity for 18 passengers.

1860: The Belgian Etienne Lenoir patented the first internal combustion engine. Yet,

this was still only the start. Another couple of years would elapse before the German

Gottlieb Daimler managed to build the first automobile powered by an internal

combustion engine. This was based on a cylinder placed horizontally which activated

the motive wheels powered by a large crankshaft. The speed at which this could travel

did not exceed 10 km per hour. This action though, did mark the beginning of a new

industry and a new market.


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1877: Nikolaus August Otto patented his four stroke engine in 1877. The patent

established the first thermo-dynamic analysis of engines, continuing thus the thermo-

analysis cycle initiated by Camot.

1881: Jeantaud’s electrical vehicle. The current necessary for its functioning was

provided by twenty one batteries.

1883: Primer motor de gasolina de elevada velocidad de giro. Maybach diseño y

construyo el motor.

3.4.1885: The German engine and automobile constructor Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler

registered the patent (DRP 34926) for a "motorised machine running on either

petroleum or gas". This patent was applied to the first engine designed exclusively to

be assembled in a vehicle.

10.11.1885: Paul Daimier, the son of the constructor, Gottlieb W. Daimler, performed

the first public journey in Stuttgart in the so-called "mounted vehicle", which due to its

design is considered the predecessor of the later motorcycle.

16.1.1886: The Supreme Court of the German Empire annulled the essential elements

of the patent granted to Nikolaus August Otto in 1877 for his four stroke engine. This

decision meant free market access for scores of engine manufacturers.

29.1.1886: The German entrepreneur Karl Benz, born in Mannheim, obtained a patent

for a “gas motor vehicle”. On the 4th of June the first news item on this type of vehicle

was published in the German newspaper Neue badische Landeszeitung.

1886: The French Company DionBouton & Trépardeux de Puteaux put on offer steam

propelled vehicles, for the first time placing an automobile within the financial reach of

any buyer. The automobile market was born.

1887: The Danish constructor Albert F. Hammel built a four-wheeled vehicle powered

by an internal combustion engine.

August 1888: Berta Benz, the wife of the German entrepreneur and automobile

constructor Karl Benz, undertook the first long journey in an automobile in history.

Travelling from Mannheim to Pforzheim in a Benz three-wheeled vehicle, she showed

the world that vehicles of this nature could be used for daily usage. The aim of this

spectacular action, as an advertising campaign for the vehicles produced by her

husband, certainly had the desired effect.


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September 1888: At the Munich Motor Fair and Exhibition, Karl Benz unveiled an

automobile, the first produced by a German manufacturer.

1888: The Scottish vet and surgeon John Boyd Dunlop reinvented the pneumatic tyre

with an air chamber. Previously, in 1845, the British inventor William Thompson

patented the pneumatic tyre.

15.3.1889: At the Universal Exposition in Paris, the automobile was unveiled for the

first time before the general public.

9.6.1889: Gottlieb W. Daimler registered the patent for the V-slanted two cylinder

vehicle.

1889: The German engineer Emil Capitaine developed a high-compression two-stroke

combustion engine, thus creating the forefather of the modern diesel engine

(10.9.1923).

1890: Panhard & Levassor began to manufacture two-cylinder engines in Paris under

the Daimler licence, the latter providing engines for vehicles produced by the former.

1891: Henry Ford incorporated the Edison Illuminating Company. Afterwards, in 1903,

he founded the Ford Motor Company and became the most successful American

automobile manufacturer in 1908.

1891: A non-competitive Peugeot vehicle took part in the cycle race from Paris-Brest-

Paris. The vehicle reached and average speed of 15 km/h (22.7.1894).

1891: The Company Societé Nationale de Construction de Moteurs H. Tenting, in

Boulogne-sur-Seine, which from 1884 onwards manufactured gas engines, built its first

automobile using friction wheels, predecessor of the modern clutch.

1891: Panhard & Levassor develops the Panhard Sytem, through which the engine

was placed in the front part of the vehicle, powering the back wheels. This construction

principle began to impose itself slowly upon the majority of the manufacturers.

1892: Wilhelm Maybach develops the spray-nozzle carburettor to obtain better

adaptation of the fuel mixture and provide more power to the engine.

23.2.1893: The German engineer Rudolf Diesel obtained the patent for an internal

combustion engine which worked using spark ignition. His development provided the

base frame for the engine which would later bear his name. (10.9.1923).


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22.7.1894: The French newspaper Le Petit Journal organised the first ever car-race.

The vehicles covered the route from Paris-Rouen (126 km).

1894: In Detroit, Charles B. King made a public presentation of a four-cylinder engine

vehicle. This vehicle, which at the time did not proceed further than the prototype

stage, would later be manufactured at the heart of the American motor industry.

1895: The companies Continental Caoutchuk and Guttapercha Companie AG, based in

Hannover, began to produce tyres with air-chambers for vehicles. The same year, the

French engineer Léon Bollée presented his first stock vehicle with air-filled tyres, the

Voiturette.

1.5.1897: The Benz, Company in Mannheim, reached the manufacturing figure of

1,000 and thus became the world’s oldest and largest manufacturer.

1897: In Hartford, Connecticut, USA, the Pope Manufacturing Company was founded

to manufacture Columbia electrical cars. Pope invited the press and offered journalists

their first chance to test-drive a vehicle.

1897: The Swiss company SULZER built the first ever diesel engine.

1897: The company De Dion-Bouton-Voiturette unveiled its four-seater family car.

1900: Nikolaus Dürkopp began manufacture of competitive cars which incorporated an

important innovation: transmission was performed using chains instead of belts. This

principle would be commonplace in very little time.

25.3.1901: During the Nice Motor Fair, the first-ever four-cylinder Mercedes was

unveiled, manufactured by Daimler Motoren-Gesellschaft. This automobile would set

the trend and be copied the world over.

1901: The Benz Company assembled the engine in the bonnet of a truck. This principle

would become accepted and applied to the production of saloon cars as well. In these

vehicles, traction was also performed on the back wheels.

1901: Prussia ratified the first set of police regulations for traffic in Germany, which

would serve as a basis for traffic regulations in other federal nations.

1901: The Berliner entrepreneur Franz Sauerbier developed and built a fender radiator.


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1901: Near to the American city of Beaumont (Texas) major petroleum fields were

discovered. The price per barrel fell to less than five cents. This event contributes

considerably to the popularity of the petrol engine, given that neither steam norelectricity are available so cheaply and competitively.

1902: The German company Dürkopp built the first six-cylinder engine, designed for

saloon cars.

1903: Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company in Detroit, USA, where he

commenced the mass production of the Model A.

1903: In the Third Berlin Motor Show an vehicle with electromagnetic ignition and

straight cylinders was unveiled.

1903: Spyker built the first six-cylinder engine and the first four-wheel traction vehicle in

the Netherlands.

1904: The American Charles, Y. Knight registered the patent for the double sleeve

principle, which operated using an internal sleeve and another external one connected

by rods on slats which opened and closed the admission and exhaust valves cylinder

casing.

1904: The first Hispano-Suiza vehicle was manufactured in Barcelona. The vehicle,

with a four-cylinder engine and 20 horsepower, was designed by the Swiss engineer

Marc Birkigt. This first model was in production until 1907 and was hugely successful.

19.11.1905: In Berlin the first scheduled bus service using gasoline engines was put

into service. The supplier was the Berliner factory Daimler MotorenGesellschaft.

27.1.1906: Fred Marriott achieved, with a Stanley steam-powered vehicle speciallymade for the run, a speed of 195.652 km/h in a section of beach at playa de Ormond

Beach (Florida) and at 206.448 km/h over a mile. In this way he beat the previous

world-record for a steam-powered vehicle.

1907: In Brooklands, to the south of London, the first closed racing circuit was opened.

As well as being used for sports events, the circuit was made available for the motor

industry to use for testing.

24.3.1908: Prince Henry of Prussia registered the patent for the windscreen-wiper.


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1908: Fritz Hofmann from the Bayer chemical factory registered a patent for the

process of manufacturing synthetic rubber. Vehicles’ speed and power at the time

required more resistant materials than natural rubber.

1909: The French company De Dion-Bouton manufactured for the first time a line of

eight-cylinder V-slant engines.

1910: The companies Argyll, Crossley, Arrol-Johnson and Isotta-Fraschini used brakes

on all four wheels for the first time.

1911: The Italian company Fiat produced the largest four-cylinder engine produced to

date, with a cubic capacity of 28,353 and was proposed for assembly in one of the S 76

competition vehicles. However, the company’s mana

optimum speed for high speed lines

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