ocr examinations a level physical education a 7875 module 2565 : option b2 part 1

Module 2565 B2.1.1

OCR A2 Level Physical Education A 7875

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OCR ExaminationsA Level Physical Education

A 7875

Module 2565 : Option B2part 1

Psychology of Sport Performance

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INDEX27 - MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS28 - INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION29 - EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES30 - MAJOR MOTIVES31 - THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION DISADVANTAGES / EXPLANATIONS /

APPLICATION32 - DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION33 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - NACH / NAF34 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY

COMPONENTS35 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL

FACTORS36 - AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY

RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM37 - INVERTED U THEORY - OPTIMUM AROUSAL38 - CATASTROPHE THEORY39 - GROUPS40 - STEINER’S MODEL41 - SOCIAL LOAFING, INTERACTION AND COHESION42 - COHESION - CARRON’s CONCEPTUAL MODEL43 - LEADERSHIP - NATURE / NURTURE44 - FACTORS AFFECTING LEADER EFFECTIVENESS45 - LEADERSHIP STYLE - FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY

THEORY CHELLADURAI CONTINUUM46 - SITUATIONAL FACTORS - TASK / PERSON CENTRED47 - MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS48 - CHELLADURAI’S MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL49 - CHELLADURAI’S FIVE TYPES OF LEADER BEHAVIOUR50 - MENTAL PREPARATION FOR SPORT PERFORMANCE51 - GOAL SETTING - GOAL STRUCTURE52 - SMARTER GOALS (NCF)

Index

3 - PERSONALITY4 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAIT - CATTELL - EYSENCK 5 - EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS6 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING

BANDURA / VICARIOUS CONDITIONING7 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST - LEWIN8 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - TYPE A / TYPE B9 - STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY - MARTENS10 - PERSONALITY STRUCTURE - HOLLANDER

PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE / TYPICAL RESPONSES11 - EYSENCK AND CATTELL’S HIERARCHICAL MODEL12 - SHELDON’S SOMATOPERSONALITY TYPOLOGY

SOMATOTYPE / PERSONALITY TYPE13 - MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY

INTERVIEWS / QUESTIONNAIRES / OBSERVATION14 - THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE15 - PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) MOODS / ICEBERG PROFILE16 - THE SELF-CONCEPT - SELF-ESTEEM17 - STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT18 - FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SELF-CONCEPT

OBJECTIVE SOURCES / SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS19 - THE SELF-CONCEPT WHEEL20 - ATTITUDES IN SPORT21 - FORMATION OF ATTITUDES22 - COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL

COGNITIVE / AFFECTIVE / BEHAVIOURAL23 - PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES 24 - POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT25 - ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE

DISSONANCE - PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION26 - MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES

OBSERVATION / PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS / QUESTIONNAIRES

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PERSONALITY

Personality

PERSONALITY• unique characteristics of an individual• knowledge about personality is important to

ensure optimum sporting performance

PER SONALI TYSOCI AL LEARN I N Gbehaviours learnt by

observation andcopying

TR AI Tinnate andenduring

I N TER ACTI ON I STm ixture of trait

and social learning

extroversionintroversion

neuroticstable

type Atype B

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAITTRAIT THEORIES• general (covering all situations)• underlying (inside of and part of the person)• enduring (long lasting)• predisposition (an inclination or motive formed earlier)

CATTELL - EYSENCK’s hierarchical organisation of personality

Personality

PER SONALI TY

EXTR OVER SI ON(deals w ith others

easily andcom fortably)

PR I MAR YTR AI T

I N TR OVER SI ON(prefers to rem ain

independent /iso lated from others)

STABI LI TY(behaviour

rem ains the sam eover tim e)

N EUR OTI C I SM(behaviours

changeunpredictably)

SECON D ARYTRAI T

im pulsivenesssociability activityliveliness excitability

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EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONS A - B - C - D?

Personality

A• stable extrovert• talkative, outgoing, easy going,

carefree, showing leader qualities

B• neurotic extrovert• restless, aggressive, excitable,

changeable

C• neurotic introvert• anxious, sober, rigid, pessimistic

D• stable introvert• careful, thoughtful, controlled,

reliable, even tempered

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• explains behaviour in terms of the

reaction to specific situations• we learn to deal with situations by

observing others• or by observing the results of our

own behaviour on others• and by modelling our own behaviour

on what we have seen– athletes learn behaviour by

watching others

BANDURA• behaviour is determined by the

situation– social comparison– behaving the same way as the

peer group• social approval or disapproval

determines our responses– behaviour is reinforced or

penalised

VICARIOUS CONDITIONING• the learning of emotional

responses through observational learning

• example : – learning to become angry after

a valid referee decision has gone against him / her by watching other players do the same

Personality

SOCIALISATION• sport has a socialising effect• participation in sport establishes

norms and values of our society

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST

INTERACTIONIST THEORIES• traits determine behaviour• but can be modified by situations

– traits– situations– behaviour

LEWIN• behaviour is a function of both the

person (personality P) and the environment (E)

• B = f(P,E)

Personality

TH E SI TUATI ON

THE PER SON(PER SONALI TY)

BEH AVI OUR

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

TYPE A• characterised by :• impatience• works at a rapid pace• higher levels of stress• easily aroused• strong desire to succeed• anxiety in stressful situations• lacking in tolerance• has a need to be in control• makes decisions quickly without

much preparation or thought

TYPE B• characterised by :• relaxed and patient• allow time for tasks to be

completed• tolerance of others’ mistakes• delegates easily• low personal stress• calm and unflappable in most

situations• less competitive• prepared to wait and assess all

options when decisions need to be made

Personality

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STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY - MARTENS

Personality

ROLERELATED

BEHAVI OURexam ple :

good captain

TYPI CAL RESPONSESexam ple : 'w in at all costs'- instrum ental aggression

PSYCHOLOGI CAL CORE :attitudes, values, beliefs, m otivesexam ple : achievem ent m otivation

EXTERNAL DYNAMI C

I NTERNAL CONSI STENT

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PERSONALITY STRUCTURE - HOLLANDER

PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE• beliefs and values that remain more

or less permanent• example : a sportsman’s belief that

fair play underlies his attitude on the field of play

TYPICAL RESPONSES• the way in which an individual

responds in certain situations• example : stopping fighting at the bell

Personality

ROLE RELATED BEHAVIOUR• in other situations we may behave

differently• example : striking after the bell

when annoyed or frustratedSOCIAL ENVIRONMENT• how the behaviour and expectations

of others affect our role• example : a player argues with the

referee because others have done so and got away with it before

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EYSENCK AND CATTELL’S HIERARCHICAL MODEL

Personality

exam plesEYSEN CK'SCATEGOR I ES

CATTELL'SCATEGOR I ES

PR I MAR YTR AI T

I N TR OVER SI ON(prefers to rem ain

independent /iso lated from others)

SUR FACETR AI TS

(secondaryfactors)

SECON D ARYTRAI T persistence shynessrigidity

etc

SO UR C E T R A I TS(prim ary facto rs)

avoidsgroups

inability to speakto strangers

no eyecontact

H ABI TUALRESPON SES

etc

BEHAVI OU RS

hates teamgam es

enjoys fellrunning

likes beingon his ow n

SPECI FI CRESPONSES

SPECI FI CRESPONSES

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SHELDON’S SOMATOPERSONALITY TYPOLOGY

SOMATOTYPE

• ectomorphy• linearity

• endomorphy• plumpness

• mesomorphy• muscularity

PERSONALITY TYPE

• cerebrotonia• tenseness• introversion

• viscerotonia• sociability• affection• comfort-loving

• somatotonia• risk taking• adventure seeking• extroversion

Personality

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MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY

INTERVIEWS• before or after the

event• not directly related to

performance• open ended and

flexible• transient feelings or

attitudes may be expressed

• difficult to quantify accurately

• may be influenced by the interviewer

Personality

QUESTIONNAIRES• before or after the

event• not directly related to

performance• rigidly and

systematically set out• transient feelings or

attitudes may be expressed

• able to quantify accurately

• would not be influenced by another

• can be used to assess specific traits

OBSERVATION• made during an actual

event• directly related to

performance• varies according to the

competitive nature of the event

• difficult to quantify accurately

• may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes

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THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIREPersonality

suspecting - accepting

lax - controlled

relaxed - tense

adventurous - shy

m ature - im m ature

tim id - confident

sociable - aloof

aggressive - m ild

enthusiastic - prudent

self-suffi cient - grouporiented

sensitive - tough

im aginative - practical

sophisticated -unpretentious

conscientious - casual

m entally bright -m entally dull

radical - conservative

high anxietylow anxiety

extroversionintroversion

tough m indedtender m inded

independencesubduedness

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PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS)

MOODS• are an important aspect of

personality which may influence sports performance

• tension• depression• anger• vigour• fatigue• confusion

• unsuccessful sportspeople show high– tension– depression– fatigue– confusion

• low– vigour

Personality

• elite sportspeople show low– tension– depression– confusion

• high– vigour

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THE SELF-CONCEPT

The SELF-CONCEPT • is the descriptive picture we

have of ourselves

• including :– physical attributes– attitudes– abilities– roles– emotions

• representing how we see ourselves

• which may not reflect reality or the way others see us

SELF-ESTEEM• the extent to which we value

ourselves

• this may or may not match up to the expectations of others

• example :– player may take pride in an

ability to tackle hard– the referee may see this as

unnecessary aggression

Personality

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STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT

Personality

social physicalacadem ic

etc

attitudes

physicalappearance

sportscom petence

physiquetennis ability

slim hipsserving ability

‘I look goodtoday’

‘I can get thisserve in’

GLOBALSELF-CON CEPTlevel 1

level 2

level 3

level 4

level 5

level 6

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FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SELF-CONCEPT

OBJECTIVE SOURCES• photos• records• results• mirrors

SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS

• reaction of others• comparison with others• identification with

models

Personality

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPERIENCES AND SELF-

CONCEPT

positiveexperience of

sport or PE

existingpositive

self-concept

existingnegative

self-concept

negativeexperience of

sport or PE

self-conceptenhanced

self-conceptm ay becom e

negative

self-conceptm ay becom e

positive

self-conceptreinforced

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THE SELF-CONCEPT WHEEL

Personality

successfulexperience

positive feedbackfrom significant

others

developm entof positive self

esteem

continuedparticipation

high m otivationeffectivelearning

enhancedperform ance

continuedpositive

feedback

developm entof high self

esteem

anticipation offuture success

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ATTITUDES IN SPORT

ATTITUDES• a combination of beliefs and feelings about :

– objects– people– situations– (called attitude objects)

• this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them

• learned or organised through experience

• evaluative• they lead us to think and behave positively or negatively• about an attitude object

• tend to be deep seated• and enduring• but can change or be changed

Attitudes

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FORMATION OF ATTITUDES

Attitudes

FOR M ATI ON OFATTI TUD ES

friendsm edia

prejudice

pastexperiences

teacherscoaches

peers

fam ily

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COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL

Attitudes

ATTI TUD Eto regular exercise

COGNI TI VEknow ledge and beliefs

exam ple : fitness trainingkeeps m e fit

BEHAVI OURALintended behaviour

exam ple : I attend trainingsessions regularly

AFFECTI VEfeelings and em otions

exam ple : I enjoy training

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PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES

NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES • women in strength, endurance

and contact sports

• participation of the disabled in physical activity

• older age groups interest and ability at sport

• participation of particular ethnic groups in specific sports or positions within teams

• examples : – the black quarterback in

American Football– the black sprinter– the white skier / swimmer

Attitudes

PREJUDICE• a prejudgement of a person,

group, or situation• usually based on inadequate

information• or inaccurate or biased

information• which reinforces stereotypes

• example : – women are often excluded

from male dominated sports clubs or events

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POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT

POSITIVE ATTITUDES• has a positive physical self-

concept• satisfaction from participation

in sport• believe sport promotes health• success at sport• willing to try new activities• encouraged by significant

others• participates regularly• opportunity to participate

Attitudes

NEGATIVE ATTITUDES• had negative experiences at

sport• have lifestyle which makes

regular sport difficult• find sport frustrating• lack encouragement• unlikely to participate in sport• have a negative self concept• find sport boring

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ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION• the person must

– pay attention– understand– accept– retain– the message being given

• the coach must– be expert– be trustworthy

• the message must– be clear– be unambiguous– be balanced between

emotion and logic– be balanced between pros

and cons

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE• the person must

– be consistent between• cognitive• affective• behavioural

components

• the person must be consistent between different elements

• cognitive dissonance occurs hence attitudes must change– if two factual elements of

attitude conflict– example : the smoker who

knows that smoking is bad for health

Attitudes

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MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES

BY OBSERVATION• related to actual events as

they are happening• difficult to quantify or

measure• open to interpretation by

observer

USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS• indicators such as

– blood pressure– skin conductivity– brain activity (ECG)

• can be interpreted to indicate telling the truth – about an attitude object

• measurable• independent of observer• but takes a long time to set up

requiring special apparatus

QUESTIONNAIRES• only as good as the questions

asked• measurable using

– Thurstone scale– Likert scale– Osgood’s Semantic

Differential Scale

Attitudes

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MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS

MOTIVATORS• the reasons why sportspeople

think and behave as they do

THEORIES

Motivation

MOTI VATI ON

perform ance

continuity

drive tostrive

persistence

intensity

direction

socialperception

goalorientation

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INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Motivation

MOTI VATI ONthe drive to

strive

EXTR I N SI CMOTI VATI ON

positive andnegative

reinforcem entcriticism

trophies

m oney badges

praise

fam e

I N TR I N SI CMOTI VATI ON

com petence m astery feeling goodINTRINSIC MOTIVATION

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EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES

EXTRINSIC REWARDS

INTRINSIC SOURCES

Motivation

I N TR I N SI CSOUR CES

satisfaction achievem ent feeling good

EXTR I N SI CR EW AR DS

certificates

trophies

m oney

badges

m edals

positivepraisefam e

w inning

negativecriticism

defeat

TAN GI BLE

I N TAN GI BLE

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MAJOR MOTIVES

FOR YOUTH SPORT PARTICIPATION

• fun• being with friends• thrills• excitement• success• developing fitness• improving skills• being good at it

FOR ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION

• health factors• weight loss• fitness• self-challenge• feeling better

Motivation

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

DISADVANTAGES• adding extrinsic reward to a situation which

already provided intrinsic motivation• decreases the intrinsic motivation• eventually replacing it• so when rewards are no longer available• interest in the situation (sports activity)

reduces

EXPLANATIONS• the reward acts as a distraction• to the sports person’s intrinsic desire to

work at his / her own pace• rewards may turn play into work• relationships with the person giving

rewards might change• the nature of the activity changes• people like to determine their own

behaviour• rewards may make them feel that

someone else is in charge

APPLICATION OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

• to attract youngsters to an activity

• to revive flagging motivation• to help a sportsperson over a

bad period in training• to provide information about

levels of achievement and competence

Motivation

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DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION

MOTIVATION IS A COMBINATION OF• personal characteristics• situational aspects

MOTIVATION IS HIGHEST WHEN• the performer is keen to

participate• the performer is keen to learn• the performer is keen to perform• the performer is keen to perform

effectively• when the motivational climate is

right• when the training programme is

interesting and varied

MOTIVATION IS REDUCED BY• routine• competition between motives

PEOPLE• have multiple motives• share motives• have unique motivational profiles• need variation in training and

competition• need variation in intensity and

competitiveness• need structured coaching and

teaching environments

MOTIVES CHANGE OVER TIME

TEACHERS AND COACHES ARE IMPORTANT MOTIVATORS

Motivation

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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION• the drive to achieve success for its

own sake• related to

– competitiveness– persistence– striving for perfection

• influenced by– personality factors

• need to achieve• need to avoid failure

– situational factors• probability of success• incentive value of success

NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH)Tendency to approach success

(Ts)• this personality type likes a

challenge• likes feedback• is not afraid of failure• has high task persistence

NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)Tendency to avoid failure (Taf)• this personality type avoids

challenges• does not take risks• often gives up• does not want feedback

Motivation

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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS

A =• someone with a high need to

achieve• will probably have a low need to

avoid failure• will choose difficult or

demanding tasks which are more risky

• the hard route up a rock face

Motivation

B =• someone with a high need to

avoid failure• will probably have a low need

to achieve• will choose tasks which are less

risky and more easily achieved• the easy route up the rock face

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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS

A =• probability of success low• (competing against the world

champion)• therefore strive very hard to win• (incentive high)• (will be highly chuffed if win)

Motivation

B =• probability of success high• (competing in local club match)• therefore don’t need to try as

hard to win• (incentive low)• (and expect to win easily)• (not so pleasing)

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AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY

AROUSAL• this is the level of inner drives• which forces the sportsperson to

strive to achieve• it needs to be under control• and at the right level

depending on the task

RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM• RAS is a system within the brain

which causes arousal• extroverts have lower levels

of intrinsic arousal than introverts

• hence extroverts seek situations of high arousal

• introverts seek low arousal situations

DRIVE THEORY• the higher the arousal level• the higher the achievement /

performance level• the more likely that a well learned skill

(a dominant response) will be produced

Motivation

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INVERTED U THEORY

INVERTED U THEORY• there is an optimum arousal level• if aroused more than this• performance will decline

OPTIMUM AROUSAL DEPENDS ONtype of activity• gross skills (weight lifting) require

high arousal• fine skills (snooker) require low

arousal

skill level of the performer• the more skilful the performer • the higher the optimum arousal

could be

personality of the performer• the more extrovert the performer• the higher the arousal likely for

optimum performance• whereas introverts would

optimise performance at lower arousal levels

Motivation

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CATASTROPHE THEORY

CATASTROPHE THEORY• here performance increases as

arousal increases• but if arousal gets too high• a complete loss of performance

occurs (the catastrophe)

Motivation

• example : the golfer who tries too hard and completely misses the fairway from his drive at the 18th hole when in a winning position

• example : the gymnast who completely messes up her previously well executed routine in a national final

• anxiety affects arousal

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GROUPS

A GROUP IS• two or more people• interacting with one another• so that each person influences and is

influenced by the others• has a collective identity• and a sense of shared purpose

• a social aggregate• involving mutual awareness• and potential interaction with

structured patterns of communication

• examples :– crowd at a soccer match– soccer team– parents watching their children

swim

Groups and Teams

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STEINER’S MODEL

• team success = potential for success - coordination and motivation problems• actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes

POTENTIAL FOR SUCCESS• usually skilful individuals make the best team• usually individual success (of team members) correlates with overall team

successCOORDINATION PROBLEMS (for players)• occur if there is a high level of interaction between them• if one player is being selfish or aggressive• if a defence is not working together• hence overall team performance suffersMOTIVATION PROBLEMS• people seem to work less hard in a group than they do on their own• example : in rowing, times of winning double sculls are often only slightly faster

than single sculls• this is social loafing ‘the Ringlemann Effect’MOTIVATIONAL LOSSES• individuals may not share the same motives, this leads to loss of group cohesion• example : some players may play a game for social reasons, others in order to win

Groups and Teams

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SOCIAL LOAFING, INTERACTION AND COHESION

SOCIAL LOAFING• individuals reduce their effort when in a group• and can hide their lack of effort amongst the effort of other group members• can be eliminated if the contribution of an individual can be identified• as with player statistics (American Football, Rugby League, Cricket, Basketball)• the need for interaction between players varies between sports• cooperation between players can be significantCOHESION• selection of less skilled but more cooperative players• the extent to which members of a group exhibit a desire to achieve common

goals and group identity• friendship groups can have negative effects• cohesion has both task and social elementsTASK COHESION• people who are willing to work together whether or not they get on personally• have the potential to be successfulSOCIAL COHESION• teams with high social cohesion but low task cohesion are less successful

Groups and Teams

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COHESIONCARRON’s CONCEPTUAL MODEL• four factors affect the development of cohesion

Groups and Teams

COH ESI ON

environm entalfactors

personalfactors

leadershipfactors

teamfactors

ENVIRONMENTAL• factors binding members to a team

– contracts, location, age, eligibility• avoid star system, provide opportunities for socialising

PERSONAL• factors which members believe are important

– motives for taking part• give opportunities for motives to be realised• develop ownership feelings and social

groupings within the teamLEADERSHIP• the behaviour of leaders and coaches

– coaches should use all leadership behaviours to influence different individuals

TEAM• factors relating to the group

– team identity, targets, member ability and role• creation of team short and long-term goals• rewarding of individual and team efforts

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LEADERSHIP

A LEADER• can influence the behaviour of

others towards required goals • will influence effective team

cohesion• will help fulfil expectations of a

team• develops an environment in which

a group is motivated rewarded and helped towards its common goals

• emergent leaders come from within a group– because of their skill and abilities– or through nomination / election

• prescribed leaders– are appointed by a governing

body– or agency outside the group

LEADERSHIP• the ‘great man’ theory• NATURE• leaders are born not made• leaders have relevant innate

personality qualities

• social learning theory• NURTURE• leaders learn their skills through

watching and imitating models• leaders are formed throughout life

– by social or environmental influences

– observation of a model– high status of a model– imitation or copying of behaviour

Leadership

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FACTORS AFFECTING LEADER EFFECTIVENESS

LEADER CHARACTERISTICS

THE SITUATION

MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS

LEADERSHIP QUALITIES• communication• respect for group

members• enthusiasm• high ability• deep knowledge• charisma

Leadership

LEADEREFFECTI VENESS

LEADERCHARACTER I STI CS

qualitiesstyles - autocratic,

dem ocratic, laissez- faire

MEMBER 'sCHARACTER I STI CS

expectationspreferred leadership style

THE SI TUATI ONindividuality

traditiontim e

size of group

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LEADERSHIP STYLE

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

• there is a continuum between :

task-centred leadership• best for most favourable or• least favourable situations

person (or relationship) centred leadership

• best for moderately favourable situations

favourableness depends on• whether relationships are warm• if the task has a clear structure• if the leader is powerful• pressure of time

CHELLADURAI CONTINUUM• between :

autocratic authoritarian • leader who makes all the decisions

democratic • leader who shares the decisions• (with members of group or team)• seeks advice• is prepared to change his / her mind

based on advice

laissez faire • leader who lets others make

decisions

• each type can be effective depending on the situation

Leadership

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SITUATIONAL FACTORS

SITUATIONAL FAVOURABLENESS

• if things are going well for the team

• or things are going badly• (poor facilities, no support)• then a leader needs to be

TASK-ORIENTED

• if things are going moderately well

• then a leader needs to be PERSON-CENTRED

TEAM SPORTS• leader should be directive• and organises and structures group

tasks

INDIVIDUAL SPORTS• look for a person oriented leader

SIZE OF GROUP• affects leadership style• the more members in a group• the less likely individual needs will be

taken into account

DECISION NEEDS TO BE MADE QUICKLY• autocratic style of leader

TRADITION• members resent change

Leadership

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MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS

A GOOD LEADER will adapt to– expectations– knowledge– experience– of group members

• if group is hostile• leader adopts autocratic style

• if group is friendly• leader adopts more democratic• person-centred style

• problems arise if strategies for preparation used by leader do not match group expectations

Leadership

Module 2565 B2.1.48


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CHELLADURAI’S MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL

Leadership

SI TUATI ONCHARACTER I STI CS

MEMBER 'sCHARACTER I STI CS

LEADERCHARACTER I STI CS

REQUI REDBEHAVI OUR

w hat is expected by teamm anagem ent of the coach

ACTUAL LEADERBEHAVI OUR

the w ay in w hich the coachnorm ally goes about his job

PR EFER R ED LEADERBEHAVI OUR

the w ay in w hich m em bers prefertheir coach to relate to them

perform ance /satisfaction

Module 2565 B2.1.49


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CHELLADURAI’S FIVE TYPES OF LEADER BEHAVIOUR

TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION• behaviour aimed at improving performance• strong on technical and tactical aspects

DEMOCRATIC APPROACH• allows decisions to be made collectively

AUTOCRATIC APPROACH• personal authority• least preferred if coach does not show he /

she is aware of athlete’s needs and preferences

SOCIAL SUPPORT• concern shown for well-being of others• preferred by youngsters

REWARDS• leader uses positive reinforcement

Leadership

Module 2565 B2.1.50


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MENTAL PREPARATION FOR SPORT PERFORMANCE

Mental Preparation for Sport Performance

COMMI TMENT

SELF-CONFI DENCE

CONCENTRATI ON

EMOTI ONALCONTROL

Module 2565 B2.1.51


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GOAL SETTING

GOAL STRUCTURE• easily attained initially• progressively more difficult• training goals should be planned

around overall goals• short-term / medium-term / long-

term• goal setting as a means of

managing anxiety / stress• goal setting to increase motivation

GOALS ARE EITHER• outcome oriented

– towards the end result of the sporting activity

– example : to win a race• performance oriented

– judged against other performances

– example : to beat best time• process oriented

– improvement in techniques

GOALS SHOULD BE• stated positively• specific to the situation and the

performer• time phased• challenging• achievable• measurable• negotiated between sportsperson

and coach• progressive, from short-term to

long-term• performance oriented rather

than outcome oriented• written down• reviewed regularly (with

downward adjustment if necessary - in the case of injury)

Commitment

Module 2565 B2.1.52


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SMARTER GOALS (NCF)SPECIFIC• directly related to sporting situation

MEASURABLE• progress can be assessed

ACCEPTED• by both performer and coach

REALISTIC• challenging but within capability of

performer

TIME PHASED• a date is set for completion

EXCITING• inspiring and rewarding to the performer

RECORDED• written down

Commitment

ocr examinations a level physical education a 7875 module 2565 : option b2 part 1

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