ocr examinations as / a level physical education as 3875 a 7875 module 2562 : section b part 1

Module 2562 B.1.1

OCR AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875

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OCR ExaminationsAS / A Level Physical Education

AS 3875A 7875

Module 2562 : Section Bpart 1

Acquiring, Performing and Teaching Movement Skills

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INDEX27 - PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION28 - MEMORY SYSTEMS29 - BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS30 - BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS31 - IMPROVING RETENTION32 - IMPROVING INFORMATION RETENTION33 - REACTION TIME - MOVEMENT / RESPONSE TIME34 - REACTION TIME - SIMPLE / CHOICE REACTION TIME35 - PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD36 - FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME37 - THE ROLE OF ANTICIPATION38 - IMPROVING RESPONSE TIMES CUES / DECISION MAKING / ATTENTIONAL FOCUS39 - FEEDBACK - IMPORTANCE40 - FEEDBACK - INTRINSIC41 - FEEDBACK EXTRINSIC / KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE /

RESULTS42 - FUNCTIONS OF EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK FEEDBACK DEPENDENCY43 - FEEDBACK CONCURRENT / TERMINAL / POSITIVE / NEGATIVE44 - INFORMATION PROCESSING AND YOUR PPP45 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES -

SUBROUTINES46 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - DISCUS

THROW47 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - TENNIS

SERVE48 - MOTOR CONTROL - OPEN LOOP CONTROL49 - MOTOR CONTROL - CLOSED LOOP CONTROL50 - SCHEMA (SCHMIDT’s THEORY)51 - SCHEMA - RECALL SCHEMA52 - SCHEMA - RECOGNITION SCHEMA

Index

3 - CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL4 - DEFINITIONS OF SKILL - CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL5 - DEFINITIONS OF SKILL

THE GUTHRIE KNAPP DEFINITION OF SKILL6 - SKILL KEYWORDS8 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL

GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM9 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL IFLUENCE)

CONTINUUM10 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - DISCRETE - SERIAL -

CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM11 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL

EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM12 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM13 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM14 - CHARACTERISTICS OF ABILITY PSYCHOMOTOR / PERCEPTUAL15 - ABILITY - GROSS MOTOR / GENERAL / SPECIFIC / GROUPS16 - SKILL DEVELOPMENT COGNITIVE / ASSOCIATIVE / AUTONOMOUS17 - SKILL, ABILITY AND YOUR PPP18 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - BASIC MODEL19 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - SCHMIDT’s MODEL20 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL21 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL22 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING’S MODEL23 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING`S MODEL24 - ATTENTION25 - LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES SINGLE CHANNEL THEORY26 - LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES MULTIPLE CHANNEL THEORY

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CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL

The Characteristics of Skilful Performance

CH AR ACTER I STI CSOF SKI LL

effi cient

coordinated controlled

goodtechn ique

aesthetic

learnedconsistent

predeterm ined

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DEFINITIONS OF SKILL

USES OF THE WORD SKILL• technique• example : feint or dodge• sport• example : classifications• quality• example : skilful performance


CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL• efficient

– no waste of energy– the movement seems effortless

• coordinated– flowing and fluid movement

• controlled– the performer has control over

the movement• good technique

– the movement follows an accepted correct technical model

CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL• consistent

– can be repeated correctly• learned

– skill has been practised until retained in long term memory

• predetermined– the performer has a goal

• aesthetic– the movement is pleasing and

looks good

SKILLED PERFORMERS• can vary the outcome• can vary the timing and scope

of action• can focus attention

appropriately• can anticipate

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DEFINITIONS OF SKILL

THE GUTHRIE KNAPP DEFINITION OF SKILL• the learned ability to bring about predetermined results

with maximum certainty often with the minimum outlay of time or energy or both


• skill is learned

• learning is a relatively permanent change in performance

• performance is a temporary action

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SKILL KEYWORDSBALANCE• a psychomotor ability - maintenance of the body’s centre of mass

within the base of support to allow pause, change of direction, stillness

CLASSIFICATION OF SKILL• the means by which skills which have common characteristics are

grouped togetherCLOSED SKILL• a skill performed in a fixed environment, example : a discus throwCONTINUOUS SKILLS• skills with no obvious beginnings and endingsCONTINUUM OF SKILLS• a range of skill characteristics COORDINATION• a psychomotor ability which allows efficient transmission of

information through the nervous system to create required movements

DISCRETE SKILLS• skills with clear beginnings and endings, example : discus throwEXTERNALLY-PACED SKILLS• skills where the timing and form are determined by what is

happening in the environment, example : receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game


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SKILL KEYWORDS

FINE SKILL• skills involving small movements of specific body parts,

example : potting a ball at snookerGROSS SKILL• involve large muscle groups and movements of the whole

body, example : discus throw

LEARNING• a relatively permanent change of performance resulting from

practice or experienceOPEN SKILLS• skills in which the form of the action is determined by the

environment and therefore is constantly changing, example : receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game

SELF-PACED SKILLS• the performer has control over the rate at which the action

takes place and also the timing of the start of the action, example : discus throw

SERIAL SKILLS• where several distinct elements are joined together to form

an integrated movement, example : triple jump


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CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL

GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM

Classification of Movement Skills

GROSS FINEweight javelin netball cricket golf ten pin darts/lifting throw pass stroke shot bowling snooker

GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM• gross skills use large muscle movements• associated with :

– strength– endurance– power

• fine skills use small delicate muscle movements• associated with :

– speed– accuracy– efficiency

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OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM

OPEN CLOSEDsoccer soccer tennis tennis soccer shotgoal save pass stroke serve penalty putt

OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM• open skills

– require perceptual monitoring (the performer perceives the information which stimulates the skill response)

– occur in an unpredictable environment– the form of action is constantly being varied according to what is

happening around the performer– have no clear beginning or end and are usually externally paced

• closed skills– are prelearned and habitual – usually occur in the autonomous phase of learning– have no external requirements– have a clear beginning and end– occur in a predictable environment– the technical requirements of the skill conform to a specific model

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DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM

DISCRETE SERIAL CONTINUOUSweight javelin high basketball runninglifting throw jump dribble

DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM• discrete skills

– have a clear beginning and end– can be performed by themselves without linkage to other skills– the skill can be repeated but the performer starts again

• serial skills– have a number of discrete skills– which are linked together into a performance consisting of

several phases• continuous skills

– cannot be split up into subroutines or easily distinguishable parts

– but last a relatively long time– as long as the performer wishes

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EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM


EXTERNALLY-PACED SELF-PACEDyachting tennis soccer diving tennis weight

receiving serve game serve lifting

EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM• externally-paced skills

– the speed and precision with which the skill is executed– are controlled by the environment / surroundings of the

performer– opposing teams or individuals in a game– or the weather or wind conditions

• self-paced skills– the rate of action is controlled by the performer

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SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM

SIMPLE COMPLEXsprinting throwing snooker gymnastic gymnastic

tumble floor exercise

SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM• simple skills

– are straightforward skills– with few subroutines – requiring little concentration and cognitive activity on the

part of the performer• complex skills

– are complicated skills– requiring a lot of attention / practice– the complexity of which can be perceived differently by

different individuals– require a large number of (interlinked) subroutines, some of

which may be habitual and learned– which affects the ease with which the performer performs

the skill

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LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM

LOW ORGANISATION HIGH ORGANISATIONswimming cycling gymnastic movestroke pole vault

LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM• skills with low organisation

– are uncomplicated and have little organisational structure– subroutines tend to be discrete – and may be practised separately

• skills with high organisation– have a complex organisational structure– subroutines are closely linked– and cannot be practised separately (the skill must be

practised as a whole)– require far more attention and concentration to be

performed successfully

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CHARACTERISTICS OF ABILITY

Definitions and Characteristics of Abilities

ABILITY IS :THE FOUNDATION• of the learning process• to be successful, a performer must have certain abilitiesGENETICALLY DETERMINED• we are born with our abilities• abilities are innate• some people can pick up skills easily, others have difficultyENDURING• people usually continue to display their ability for a long time

PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY• enables a performer to process information about how and

when he / she moves

PERCEPTUAL ABILITY• this is the ability to sense and interpret sensory inputs• examples from :

– coordination, reaction time, agility, depth perception, arm / hand steadiness, speed, balance, manual dexterity, aiming

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ABILITY

Definitions and Characteristics of Abilities

GROSS MOTOR ABILITY• to be able to move in a coordinated muscle movements• examples from :

– extent / dynamic flexibility– explosive, static, trunk strength– gross body equilibrium / coordination– stamina– limb speed

GENERAL ABILITY• does not exist ?

SPECIFIC ABILITY• skills require different abilities specific to each skill

GROUPS OF ABILITIES• a good sportsperson may have many different groups of

abilities

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SKILL DEVELOPMENTMotor Skill Development

M OTORABI LI TI ES

(sim ple traits ofyoungsters)

FUND AM ENTALM OTOR SKI LLS

(sim ple skills learnedby practice)

SPOR T SPECI FI CSKI LLS

(com plex skillsspecific to sport)

STAGES OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT / LEARNINGCOGNITIVE• skill learning goals are set and learning is begun• improvement is rapid, but movements are jerky and uncoordinated• demands high attention and concentrationASSOCIATIVE• specific motor programmes and subroutines are developed relevant to sport• consistency and coordination improve rapidly, timing and anticipation

improve• gross error detection and correction is practised, detailed feedback is utilised• improvement is less rapidAUTONOMOUS• performance almost automatic, performed easily without stress• high proficiency with habitual performance and attention demands reduced• emphasis on tactics / strategy• errors detected and corrected without help

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SKILL, ABILITY AND YOUR PPP

Motor Skill Development

WITHIN YOUR PPP YOU SHOULD :• analyse your sport as to its skill content• place skills in relevant continua

– muscular involvement– environmental influence– continuity– pacing– difficulty– organisation

• identify gross motor and psychomotor abilities which may be important within the skills within your chosen activity

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INFORMATION PROCESSING - BASIC MODEL

Basic Models of Information Processing

I NPUT

D ECI SI ONM AKI NG

OUTPUT

FEED BACK

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INFORMATION PROCESSING - SCHMIDT’s

MODEL


STI M ULUS(input)

STI M ULUSI D ENTI FI CATI ON

R ESPONSESELECTI ON

R ESPONSEPR OGR AM M I NG

R EACTI ONTI M E

M OVEM ENT(output)

STIMULUS• this is the input from the

environment / surroundingsSTIMULUS IDENTIFICATION• refers to the reception and

interpretation of sensory information

RESPONSE SELECTION• is responsible for decision makingRESPONSE PROGRAMMING• concerned with the sending of

movement information via the nerves to the muscles

OUTPUT• is movement resulting from the

process

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INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL


STI M ULI

D I SPLAY

PER CEPTUAL M ECH AN I SM

D ECI SI ON M ECH AN I SM

EFFECTOR M ECH AN I SM

M OVEM ENT(output)

M USCULAR SYSTEM

R ESPONSE

I N TR I N SI C FEED BACKEXTR I NSI C FEED BACK

SENSOR Y I NFOR M ATI ON

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INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL


DISPLAY• refers to the range of actions and things that are

happening in the surrounding environment of the performer

PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM• the part of the brain which perceives the

surroundingsDECISION MECHANISM• the part of the brain which makes decisionsEFFECTOR MECHANISM• the part of the brain which carries out the decisions

and sends messages to the limbs and parts of the body which act out the relevant skill

INTRINSIC FEEDBACK• feedback as to what actually happens to the body

via the proprioceptors which inform the brain about balance, muscle tensions, limb positions and angles

EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK• feedback via the result (response) of the actions

made• the results of which feed back as part of the display

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INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING’S MODEL


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INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING`S MODEL


RECEPTOR SYSTEMS• refers to the sense organs which receive

informationPERCEPTUAL MECHANISM• the part of the brain which perceives the

surroundings and gives them meaning TRANSLATORY MECHANISM• the part of the brain which makes decisions and

sorts out and processes the few relevant bits of information

• from the many inputs from the surroundingsEFFECTOR MECHANISM• the part of the brain which carries out the

decisions and sends messages to the limbs and parts of the body via the nervous system

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ATTENTION

Memory

ATTENTION• relates to the amount of information we can cope with• since the amount of information we can attend to is limited• we have limited attentional capacity• the performer must therefore attend to only relevant information• and disregard irrelevant information• this is called selective attention

• when some parts of a performance become automatic• the information relevant to those parts does not require attention• this gives the performer spare attentional capacity• which allows the performer to attend to new elements of a skill• such as tactics or anticipating the moves of an opponent

• the coach will need to help the performer to make best use of spare attentional capacity

• the coach will also need to direct the attention of the performer to enable him / her to concentrate and reduce the chance of attentional switching to irrelevant information or distractions

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LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIESMemory

SINGLE CHANNEL THEORY• this theory says that a performer can only attend to

one thing at a time• so information is processed sequentially

• attentional switching would occur by transferring attention from one situation to another

• so although attention would be shared between situations, only one would be attended to at a time (one then two then one then two …..)

• therefore this can only be done if each situation requires small attentional capacity

SENSOR Y I NPUT D ECI SI ON M AKI NG OUTPUT

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LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIESMemory

MULTIPLE CHANNEL THEORY• this theory says that so long as incoming information arrives along

different channels • then the performer can attend to more than one task at a time• an advanced performer will need to attend to many different bits of

information at a time• but as long as each item does not require much effort (which takes up

attentional capacity) then this is possible• also most advanced players will process some information

automatically which allows attentional capacity for other inputs

SENSOR Y I NPUT

D ECI SI ON M AKI NG





OUTPUT

OUTPUT

OUTPUT

OUTPUT

OUTPUT

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PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTIONMemory

PERCEPTION• perception is stimulus identification• as information is received from the environment, the

performer needs to make sense of it• to interpret it and identify the elements which are

relevant and important• consists of three elements :

– detection– comparison– recognition

SELECTIVE ATTENTION• the process of sorting out relevant bits of information from

the many which are received• attention passes the information to the short-term

memory which gives time for conscious analysis• a good performer can focus totally on an important

aspect of his / her skill• which can exclude other elements which may also be

desirable• sometimes a performer may desire to concentrate on

several different things at once

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MEMORY SYSTEMSMemory

SHOR T-TER M SENSOR YSTOR E

SHOR T-TER M M EM OR Y

SELECTI VEATTENTI ON

LONG-TER M M EM OR Y


R ECEPTOR SYSTEM/ SENSOR Y I NPUT

M OTOR OUTPUT

FEED BACK

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BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS

Memory

SENSORY INPUT• refers to the information received from the surroundingsSHORT-TERM SENSORY STORAGE• the area of the brain which receives information and holds it for a

short time (less than 1 second) prior to processing• information deemed unimportant is lost and forgotten and replaced by

new informationSELECTIVE ATTENTION• the process of sorting out relevant bits of information from the

many which are receivedSHORT-TERM MEMORY• the part of the brain which keeps information for a short period (20 -

30 seconds) after it has been deemed worthy of attention• the STM can carry between 5 and 9 separate items of information• can be improved by chunking• the information can be used for problem solving• or passed on to the long term memory for permanent storage

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BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS

Memory

LONG-TERM MEMORY• the part of the brain which retains information for long periods of

time - up to the lifetime of the performer• very well learned information is stored• LTM is limitless and not forgotten• but may require a code for the information to be recalledPROCEDURAL MEMORY• this is memory of how to do something, which serves as a blueprint to

enable you to repeat a movementSEMANTIC MEMORY• knowledge memory of facts and conceptsEPISODIC MEMORY• memory of important occasions in your past lifeDECISION MAKING• the process by which desired outcomes are chosenFEEDBACK• the process of sending information back to the performer via the

results of a movement or the position of the performer’s body

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IMPROVING RETENTION

Memory

I MPROVI NGRETENTI ON

how brevity

clarity

chunking

organ isationassociation

practice

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IMPROVING INFORMATION RETENTION

Memory

KNOWING HOW• educate the performer about the details of a skill• explain what to do and how to do itBREVITY• be brief• do not overload the short-term memory which can only hold small amounts of

dataCLARITY• keep advice / instruction simple and clear (KISS - keep it simple stupid)• carefully separate similar skills to enable the performer to distinguish between

themCHUNKING• more information can be held in STM if information is lumped together /

chunkedORGANISATION• organise the process of learning to ensure the information is meaningfulASSOCIATION• link new information with old already learnt informationPRACTICE• practice makes perfect• repetition of any information or skill will enable it to be remembered

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REACTION TIME

Reaction Time

REACTION TIME (RT)• time between the onset of a stimulus and the start of the

response• this is an inherent ability or trait• the stimulus could be :

– kinaesthesia– hearing– touch– vision– pain– smell

• from this list, the fastest reaction times occur to stimuli at the top of the list, the slowest to those at the bottom of the list

MOVEMENT TIME• time it takes to complete the onset of a movementRESPONSE TIME• time it takes to process information and then to make a

response

RESPONSE TIME = REACTION TIME + MOVEMENT TIME

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REACTION TIME

Reaction Time

SIMPLE REACTION TIME• is relevant to a single stimulus and a single possible

responseCHOICE REACTION TIME• several stimuli are given but only one must be selected for

response• the more choices a person has, the more information needs

processing, and the longer it takes to process the information• the slower the reaction time• this is Hick’s Law - see graph below

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PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD

Reaction Time

PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD (PRP)• presentation of a second stimulus• will slow down the processing of information• causing a time lag (this is the PRP) between the relevant

stimulus and an appropriate response• example : selling a dummy in

Rugby

EXAMPLE• S1 (1st stimulus) would be the dummy• S2 (2nd stimulus) would be the definite move• if the dummy (S1) had been the only stimulus then the

reaction would have been at time R1• in the meantime, S2 has happened, but the performer cannot begin his /

her response to this until the full reaction R1 has been processed by the brain

• so there is therefore a period of time (the PRP) after S2 but before the time break to R2 can begin

• a person who can do a multiple dummy / shimmy (Mat Dawson / Jason Robinson) can leave opposition with no time to react and hence miss a tackle

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FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME

Reaction Time

FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME• age

– the older we get, the slower our reaction times• gender

– males have quicker reaction times than females– but reaction times reduce less with age for

females• increase in stimulus intensity will improve

reaction time– a louder bang will initiate the go more quickly than a less loud bang

• tall people will have slower reactions than short people because of the greater distance the information has to travel from the performer’s brain to the active muscles– short sprinters tend to win 60m races

• arousal levels affect reaction times which are best when the performer is alert but not over aroused

• the performer must attend to the most important cues (which act as a stimulus)

• factors like body language / position might give a cue which enables the performer to anticipate a stimulus

• anticipation of an opponents play by identifying favourite strokes or positions, particularly if the play involves an attempted dummy or fake

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THE ROLE OF ANTICIPATION

Reaction Time

ANTICIPATION• the ability to predict future events from early signals or past

events

• reaction time can be speeded up if the performer learns to anticipate certain actions

• good performers start running motor programmes before the stimulus is fully recognised

• they anticipate the strength, speed and direction of a stimulus

• this would enable a performer to partially eliminate the PRP (psychological refractory period)

• however, opponents will also be trying to anticipate

• opponents reaction times can be increased by increasing the number of choices of stimulus they have

• increasing the number of fakes or dummies (Dawson / Robinson)

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IMPROVING RESPONSE TIMES

Reaction Time

DETECTING THE CUE• sort out the stimulus (starter’s gun) from the background

(spectator noise)DETECTING RELEVANT CUES• pick out relevant stimulus from other possible ones - choice

reaction time reduced by eliminating alternative choicesDECISION MAKING• work on set pieces in open skill situations so that an ‘automatic’

complex response can be made to a simple open stimulusCHANGE IN ATTENTIONAL FOCUS• practice switch of concentration quickly from one situation

(opponents in defence) to another (field of play in attack)CONTROLLING ANXIETY• anxiety would increase response times - reduce by calming

strategiesCREATING OPTIMUM MOTIVATION• psyching upWARM-UP• ensure that sense organs and nervous system are in optimum

state to transmit information and muscles to act on it

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FEEDBACK

Feedback

FEEDBACK• information which is used during and after an action or movement

THE IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK• visual feedback for the beginner helps the performer to gain insight

into a performance and its quality

• demonstration of faults and corrections as feedback should be correct, since the performer will attempt to imitate the demonstration

• verbal feedback should be restricted during the early stages of learning since too much information can confuse the performer

• during the later stages of learning, the performer should have extra attentional capacity which should enable greater detail to be communicated

• asking questions about the feelings involved in a performance is a form of feedback

• the importance of feedback is high to the coach (or teacher) teaching a performer skills since knowledge of performance is a way of improving skill levels

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FEEDBACK

Feedback

TYPES OF FEEDBACK

INTRINSIC FEEDBACK• this is sensory information

– from the performer’s own sensory system• which normally occurs when individuals produce movement

• intrinsic feedback received from outside the body is known as exteroceptive feedback– sight - the view of other competitors in a game– hearing - the sounds of crowd– smell - of other competitors!

• intrinsic feedback from within the body is known as proprioceptive feedback– proprioception - the position and angles of limbs and tension

in muscles

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FEEDBACK

Feedback

TYPES OF FEEDBACK

EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK• KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE• information about a performance (its quality / rhythm /

aesthetics)– from a coach– from video– from the press / TV

• KNOWLEGDE OF RESULTS• information about the outcome of a performance

– success or failure– distance / height / time

• this information can be from a number of sources– coach– video– press / TV

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FUNCTIONS OF EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK

Feedback

MOTIVATIONAL• success is motivational• failure can act as a spur to motivationREINFORCING• behaviour that is rewarded tends to be repeated• so praise for a correct performance will act as positive reinforcement• which will influence the performer to desire to repeat the correct

performanceINFORMATIONAL• feedback provides information about errors hence the performer will be

able to correct errors

FEEDBACK DEPENDENCY• some performers can become dependent on feedback

– example : from a coach or significant other about the quality of performance or technical competence

• if this feedback is withdrawn or cannot be given then performance can deteriorate– as in a field event athlete in a major games who cannot function without

feedback from a coach about his / her technique– and who therefore will fail

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FEEDBACKFeedback

TYPES OF FEEDBACK

CONCURRENT FEEDBACK• occurs during a performance• has the aim of improving skills or techniques while a performer is in

action

TERMINAL FEEDBACK• occurs after a performance has finished• is important because it strengthens the schema in learning

POSITIVE FEEDBACK• is feedback which gives information aimed at a constructive

development of performance• positive reinforcement, praise and encouragement about good

performances• the knowledge from poor performances which gives insight about

errors and their possible correction

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK• is information which could depress performance• negative reinforcement, negative criticism about poor performances

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INFORMATION PROCESSING AND YOUR PPP

Information Processing

WITHIN YOUR PPP YOU SHOULD :• apply one information processing model to

your chosen activity

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MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES

Motor and Executive Programmes

MOTOR PROGRAMME• defined as a set of movements stored as a whole in the long-

term memory• contains all the information required to make a movement :

– which muscles to use– the order in which muscles are used– the phasing and degree of contraction of muscles

EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME• enables a skill to be performed• can be made up of a large number of subroutines• must be adaptable so that it can be altered when the environment

/ surroundings changeSUBROUTINES• component parts of an executive programme• structured in layers

– some subroutines can be in turn broken down into further subroutines which form smaller parts of a skill

• each subroutine is a short fixed sequence• which when fully learned can be performed automatically• without conscious control

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STRUCTURE OF EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME FOR A DISCUS THROW

D I SCUS THR OWEXECUTI VEPR OGR AM M E

prelim inarysw ings

initialstance

transitioninto turn

turnpow er

positionthrow ing

actionrecovery SUBR OUTI NES

feet / legaction

trunkaction

armaction

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STRUCTURE OF EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME FOR A TENNIS SERVE

TENNI S SER VEEXECUTI VEPR OGR AM M E

stancegrip throw sw ingw eighttransfer

strike SUBR OUTI NES

feet / legaction

trunkaction

armaction

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MOTOR CONTROL

Motor Control

OPEN LOOP CONTROL• this applies to executive programmes whose subroutines are

simple and well-learned• and are automatic (no conscious thought is necessary)• they are then completed rapidly without time for feedback• and apply to closed and self-paced skills• examples :

– tennis serve– discus throw

M OTOR CONTR OLM ECHANI SM

M OTOR COM M AND S

M OVEM ENT

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MOTOR CONTROL

Motor Control

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL• this applies to ongoing movements• in which only part of the information necessary to complete a

movement is sent to effector organs (neuromuscular system)• the remaining information is sent following feedback via

kinaesthesis• information about balance and body position can be used to change

these factors during a movement• examples :

– riding a bike– performing a gymnastic move– performing a complex dive

M OTOR CONTR OLM ECH AN I SM

M OTOR COM M AND S

M OVEM ENT

KI NAESTHETI CFEED BACK

Module 2562 B.1.50


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SCHEMA (SCHMIDT’s THEORY)Motor Control

SCHEMA THEORY• explains how sports performers can undertake so many

actions with very little conscious control• the long-term memory isn’t big enough to store all the motor

programmes required under the open and closed loop theories

• schema theory says that generalised motor programmes exist which can be modified by taking in information as a skill is performed

• the LTM therefore has to store far fewer motor programmes• since any new movement can be performed by running a

schema which closely matches the needs of the new movement

• the bigger the schema the more efficient the movement• large amounts of varied practice are needed to improve a

schema

• feedback is very important to correct and update a schema

Module 2562 B.1.51


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SCHEMAMotor Control

SCHEMA• a schema is the information about :

– where the performer is (knowledge of the environment)– what the performer has to do to perform successfully (response

specifications)– what a movement feels like (sensory consequences)– what happens when the performer responds (response outcomes)

• which is stored and used to update a motor programme when used next

RECALL SCHEMA• this is all the information needed to start a relevant movement• the knowledge of the environment (initial conditions)

– playing conditions (pitch, playing surface, weather)– positions of team mates and opposition– condition of equipment (kit, bike, car)

• the response specifications (the correct technical model)– speed and force required– size and shape of movement required– techniques and styles used

• used for quick ballistic movements when there isn’t enough time to process feedback

Module 2562 B.1.52


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SCHEMAMotor Control

RECOGNITION SCHEMA• information needed to correct errors and remember correct

performance• information about evaluating the response

• the sensory consequences (knowledge of performance)– the feeling and look of the performance

• the response outcomes (movement outcomes)– the results of performance– knowledge of results (how far / fast / many)

• used when there is enough time to process feedback• or for evaluating performance

ocr examinations as / a level physical education as 3875 a 7875 module 2562 : section b part 1

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