ocr a level physical education a 7875 next previous module 2566.2.1 ocr examinations a level...

Module 2566.2.1

OCR A Level Physical Education A 7875

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OCR ExaminationsA Level Physical Education

A 7875

Module 2566part 2

Exercise and Sport Physiologyand the integration of knowledge of principles and concepts across different areas of Physical Education

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INDEX32 - FOOD FUEL UTILISATION DURING STRENGTH TRAINING33 - ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING34 - ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING35 - ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING

MUSCLE CELL36 - LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS TO HIGH INTENSITY

TRAINING - ATP / PC STORES37 - ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING38 - ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING 39 - FLEXIBILITY40 - FACTORS AFFECTING FLEXIBILITY41 - EVALUATING FLEXIBILITY - FLEXIBILITY TESTS42 - EVALUATING FLEXIBILITY - GONIOMETER43 - MOBILITY TRAINING44 - PHYS. ADAPTATIONS CAUSED BY MOBILITY TRAINING45 - FLEXIBILITY AND YOUR PPP46 - OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS47 - OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS - MOTOR

COMPONENTS48 - OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS49 - OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS - BODY

COMPOSITION50 - PHYSICAL ACTIVITY READINESS QUESTIONNAIRE -

PARQ51 - COMPONENTS OF FITNESS AND YOUR PPP52 - ERGOGENIC AIDS53 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - CARBOLOADING54 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - EXAMPLE OF CARBOLOADING55 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - CARBOLOADING56 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - PRE / DURING / POST COMPETITION57 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - DIETARY MANIPULATION58 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - CREATINE / GLUTAMINE / CAFFEINE 59 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - BLOOD DOPING / rEPO60 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - ALTITUDE TRAINING61 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - MECHANICAL62 - ERGOGENIC AIDS - ILLEGAL PHARMACEUTICAL

Index

3 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - OXYGEN UPTAKE - VO2 / VO2maxmax

4 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - FACTORS AFFECTING VO2max

5 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - FACTORS AFFECTING VO2max

6 - AEROBIC CAPACITY ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING7 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - AEROBIC FITNESS TESTS8 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - IMPORTANCE9 - TYPES OF TRAINING USED TO DEVELOP AEROBIC CAPACITY

CONTINUOUS / INTERVAL / FARTLEK TRAINING10 - MONITORING EXERCISE INTENSITY - TARGET HEART RATE11 - FOOD FUEL USAGE FOR AEROBIC ACTIVITY12 - FOOD FUEL USAGE FOR AEROBIC ACTIVITY - FUEL

SOURCES13 - FOOD FUEL UTILISATION DURING AEROBIC EXERCISE GLYSOGEN SPARING14 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - ADAPTATIONS15 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - VASCULAR / CARDIAC RESPONSES16 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - TRAINING / RESPIRATORY / RECOVERY17 - CELLULAR ADAPTATION PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING18 - AEROBIC CAPACITY - MUSCLE / NEURAL RESPONSES19 - STRENGTH20 - STRENGTH - MAXIMAL / ELASTIC / STATIC / DYNAMIC

EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH / STRENGTH ENDURANCE21 - STRENGTH OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION - FACTORS

AFFECTING22 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - MUSCLE FIBRE TYPE23 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - MUSCLE CSA / GENDER24 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - TYPE OF TRAINING25 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - TYPE OF CONTRACTION26 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - REGRESSION27 - FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH - AGEING28 - TRAINING METHODS - DEVELOPING STRENGTH29 - TRAINING METHODS - INTERVAL TRAINING30 - EXAMPLES OF TRAINING METHODS - STRENGTH31 - EXAMPLES OF TRAINING METHODS - STRENGTH

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AEROBIC CAPACITY

Aerobic Capacity

OXYGEN UPTAKE - VO2

• amount of oxygen consumed per unit of time (usually 1 minute)

• expressed as VO2

• mean value at rest = 0.2 to 0.3 l min-1

• VO2 increases proportionally to work intensity

• up to a maximum value - called VO2max

VO2max

• mean values are :• males (20 yo) = 3.5 l min-1

• = 40 ml kg-1 min-1

• (for average male body mass 87.5 kg)• females (20 yo) = 2.3 l min-1

• = 35 ml kg-1 min-1

• (for mean female body mass 66 kg)• endurance athletes

= 4 to 6 l min-1

• = 75 ml kg-1 min-1

• (for mean body mass 66 kg)

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AEROBIC CAPACITYAerobic Capacity

AEROBIC CAPACITY• the ability to do physical work which

is dependant on the aerobic mechanism of energy supply

STEADY STATE• the demands of the body for

oxygen is balanced exactly by oxygen uptake

FACTORS AFFECTING VO2max

• availability of O2 in the tissue

– whether haemoglobin arriving at tissue is fully saturated with O2

– the limitations of the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems which varies from individual to individual

– whether myglobin in muscle cells is fully saturated with O2 (has sufficient recovery time elapsed?)

• reduction in VO2max will cause decline in aerobic performance

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AEROBIC CAPACITY

FACTORS AFFECTING VO2max

• VO2max reduces at about 10% per decade during ageing - for sedentary people

Aerobic Capacity

• women have greater reductions in VO2max from late teens onwards

• probably because of the tradition of less physical activity for women

• VO2max reduces less for active sportspeople as they age

• aerobic training can cause VO2max to be improved by 10 - 20%

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AEROBIC CAPACITY

Aerobic Capacity

ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING• cardiovascular system becomes more efficient• heart becomes bigger and stronger and pumps more blood per pulse• more haemoglobin is available in blood for oxygen transport• capillary system in muscle bed is utilised better and developed

• pulmonary systems become more efficient• musculature of torso becomes stronger and more efficient• lung volumes increase slightly, greater volumes of air can be

breathed per breath• efficiency of alveoli improves, and more alveoli are utilised

• more myoglobin and mitochondria are created in muscle cells

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AEROBIC CAPACITY

Aerobic Capacity

AEROBIC FITNESS TESTSPREDICTED VO2max

• PWC 170 test– predicts the power output of a subject at a HR of 170 bpm– by measuring HR at a 100W cycle ergometer rating and 150W rating– when the subject is at a steady state– then projecting the results for power to a HR of 170

• Cooper Run Test– measures the distance run in 12 minutes

– and correlates this (as direct proportionality) to the VO2max

• NCF multistage shuttle run test (bleep test)– the subject runs a progressively quicker shuttle run to exhaustion– each step in the progression is numbered

– the step reached by the subject is correlated to the VO2max

• the FITECH step test• Queen’s College step testACTUAL VO2max test

• a treadmill protocol which is a progressive test to exhaustion

– the VO2 is measured at each stage measuring exhaled air oxygen consumption

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IMPORTANCE OF AEROBIC CAPACITY TO ENDURANCE PERFORMERS• useful as an indicator showing athletes’ maximal physiological capacity

• repeated tests would show the effects of endurance training on VO2max

GENDER DIFFERENCES• sociocultural• females carry more body fat• females have lower Hb counts

therefore less O2 carrying capacity

• males produce more testosterone thereby increasing strength and efficiency of myocardial muscle

PREDOMINANT MUSCLE FIBRE TYPE• athletes with more slow twitch fibres

can utilise O2 more efficiently

EXAMPLE OF SPORTING ACTIVITIES• swimming (>200m)• running (>800m)• cross country skiing• games lasting longer than a few

minutes

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TYPES OF TRAINING USED TO DEVELOP AEROBIC CAPACITY

CONTINUOUS TRAINING• exercise regimes lasting longer

than 60 seconds• involving low forces• where breathing is comfortable

and the activity is aerobic• examples :

– jogging, swimming, step aerobics

Aerobic Capacity

INTERVAL TRAINING• characterised by sets, repetitions

and rest relief• example :

– swimming :• 2 sets of 10 at 50m at 70%

effort• with 30 seconds rest relief

between repetitions, and 3 minutes rest between sets

– circuit training, weight training

FARTLEK TRAINING• fartlek means ‘speed play’• pace is varied from sprinting to

jogging• this is a combined form of

continuous and interval training

• normally performed in the countryside

• over 45 minutes or longer• can include all round body

exercises between running bouts

• helps develop VO2max and the recovery process

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MONITORING EXERCISE INTENSITY

TARGET HEART RATE• a specific heart rate (HR) to be

achieved and maintained during exercise

• if aerobic adaptations are to occur, training must take place at a HR above the aerobic threshold

• this theory is based on the fact that VO2 is proportional to HR

Aerobic Capacity

AEROBIC TRAINING ZONE• this is shown on graph• which shows a range of HR values

at which aerobic training should occur

• this will enable adaptations to occur which improve VO2max

HR ESTIMATION• HR will depend on fitness of athlete

• maximum HR HRmax = 220 - age

• aerobic threshold (Karvonen) HR = HRrest + 0.6(HRmax - HRrest)

• example :

– age = 20, HRrest = 70 bpm

– HRmax = 220 - 20 = 200 bpm

– aerobic threshold HR = 70 + 0.6(200 - 70) = 70 + 0.6 x 130 = 70 + 78 = 148 bpm

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FOOD FUEL USAGE FOR AEROBIC ACTIVITY

FOOD FUEL USAGE• this depends on :

– EXERCISE INTENSITY– EXERCISE DURATION

AT REST• ATP utilisation is slow• a mixture of fats and carbohydrates

is used to resynthesise ATP

FOR LOW INTENSITY LONG DURATION AEROBIC ACTIVITY

• usage of a variety of fuels• but mainly the oxidation of a

mixture of CHO and fats• the longer the exercise the bigger

the proportion of ATP resynthesis provided by fats

Aerobic Capacity

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FOOD FUEL USAGE FOR AEROBIC ACTIVITY

SOURCES OF FUELS• main source of CHO for muscular energy during exercise is glucose• derived from stored muscle and liver glycogen• lack of CHO fuel is the limiting factor for aerobic endurance

performance

• main source of fat for muscular energy during exercise is free fatty acids (FFA)

• derived from triglycerides stored as adipose tissue under the skin and in muscle tissue

• triglycerides break down into FFA for

entry into the aerobic energy

system

• proteins become a significant source of

energy only in extreme conditions

• when CHO and fats are depleted

Aerobic Capacity

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FOOD FUEL UTILISATION DURING AEROBIC EXERCISEAerobic Capacity

GLYCOGEN SPARING AS A LONG-TERM ADAPTATION TO AEROBIC TRAINING

• for the person who has undertaken sustained aerobic training

• an adaptation is produced where fats are used earlier on in exercise

• thus conserving glycogen stores (respiratory exchange ratio (RER) indicates greater use of fats)

• the graph shows a higher proportion of fats utilised by the trained person

• thereby releasing CHO for higher intensity work

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AEROBIC CAPACITY

Aerobic Capacity

ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAININGCARDIAC RESPONSE• blood plasma volume increases with training• therefore increased blood plasma volume enters left ventricle• increasing the stretch of the ventricular walls by the Frank-Starling mechanism

• cardiac hypertrophy – heart becomes bigger and stronger (mainly left ventricle)• increased ventricular muscle mass and stronger elastic recoil of the

myocardium• causes a more forceful contraction during ventricular systole• therefore stroke volume increases and HR decreases (bradycardia)• and hence providing more oxygen per pulse• the net effect is up to 20% bigger stroke volume and greater oxygen

delivery to muscles

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ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING• cardiovascular system becomes more efficient

VASCULAR RESPONSE• more haemoglobin is created and is available in blood for oxygen transport• capillary system in muscle bed is utilised better and developed• there is increased capillarisation of trained muscle• and improved dilation of existing capillaries due to increased blood volume• increased elasticity and thickness of smooth muscle of arterial walls

makes walls tougher and therefore less likely to stretch under pressure• hence a more effective blood distribution• this maintains blood pressure forcing blood through capillary network• during ageing arteries lose muscle and hence stretch more under pressure• hence greater BP required to force blood through capillary system• heart has to work harder

BLOOD VESSELS IN THE HEART • blood flow to heart decreases because heart muscle is more

efficient• hence decrease in resting HR• and increase in diastolic HR during maximal workloads

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ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING• pulmonary systems become more efficientRESPIRATORY RESPONSE• musculature of torso becomes stronger and more efficient• lung volumes increase slightly, greater volumes of air can be

breathed per breath• increase in VC at the expense of RV• hence decrease in breathing rate (f) at submaximal workloads• and increase in breathing rate (f) at maximal workloads• hence large increase in volume of air breathed per minute (VE)

• increase in pulmonary blood flow and plasma volume• efficiency of alveoli improves, and more alveoli are utilised

• hence increased gaseous exchange and VO2max

RECOVERY• improved oxygen recovery• with better muscle capillarisation and efficient cool-down, lactic acid

removal is improved• hence reduction in DOMS

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CELLULAR ADAPTATION PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING

Aerobic Capacity

glycogenfats

oxygen uptake

glycogenfats

oxygen uptake

AFTER SEVERAL WEEKS OF AEROBIC TRAINING

= SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRE (type I)= FAST TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRE (type II) (do not increase in size)

BEFORE TRAINING

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ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY AEROBIC TRAINING

MUSCLE CELL RESPONSE• more myoglobin is created in muscle cells• more and bigger mitochondria in muscle cells• increased oxidative enzymes glycogen phosphorylase,

phosphofructokinase, lipoprotein lipase• hence increased activity of Kreb’s cycle and electron transport chain• and increase in stores and utilisation of fat• increase in stores of glycogen in muscle• which enables more fuel to be available for aerobic work

• conversion of type IIb to type IIa fibres

NEURAL RESPONSE• better recruitment of slow twitch fibre motor units making muscle

usage more efficient

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STRENGTH

Strength

STR ENGTH

strengthendurance

m axim umstrength

elasticstrength

explosivestrength

dynam icstrength

staticstrength

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STRENGTHStrength

EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH• the ability to apply as large a force as

possible at speed• measured using : standing long jump,

vertical jump

MAXIMAL STRENGTH• force exerted by a muscle group (or

combination) during a single maximal contraction (1 repetition maximum - 1RM)

• measured using : hand grip dynamometer

STRENGTH ENDURANCE• the ability to sustain powerful muscular

contractions over a short period of time• measured using : Wingate 30 second

cycle ergometer test

ELASTIC STRENGTH• the ability to apply as large a force as

possible using an eccentric contraction followed by a concentric contraction

• measured using : rebound jump from a 0.3m box

STATIC STRENGTH• the ability to apply as large a force as

possible without movement• measured using : back dynamometer

DYNAMIC STRENGTH• the ability to apply as large a force as

possible within a dynamic movement

• measured using : weight lifting movement (snatch)

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STRENGTH OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Strength

STR EN GTH O FMUSC LE

C O N TR A C T I O N

m etabo lic condition(fatigue)

recruitm ent o fm otor units

(num ber o f fibresactivated)

in itial length o fm uscle fibres

(length tensionrelationship)

am ount o f load(stretch reflex)

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FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTHStrength

MUSCLE FIBRE TYPE• people inherit a tendency to have a majority of fast

twitch or slow twitch fibres• therefore strength is affected by fibre type distribution• examples :

– sprinters tend to have a majority of fast twitch type II– endurance athletes tend to have a majority of slow

twitch type I

percentage of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres compared to sporting activity

% type I % type IImales females males females

distance runners 79 69 21 31cross country skiers 64 59 36 41cyclists 60 52 40 48800m runners 48 61 52 39javelin throwers 50 43 50 57shot putters 38 50 62 50sprinters 24 29 76 71untrained 45 55 55 45

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MUSCLE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA• gender is a significant factor because females in general have

muscles with smaller cross section than males• hence a smaller muscle mass on average for females by

about 20% compared with males• there is less total phosphagen available for maximal muscle

contractions• hence peak power on average 20% less for females

compared with males

• apart from gender, muscle mass differences between individuals is a large factor when accounting for strength

GENDER• females have lower levels of lactic acid in their blood following

maximal exercise compared with males• this suggests that female capacity for utilising glycolysis is lower

• females tend to have a higher proportion of body fat than males• hence females would have a lower strength to weight ratio

because of this factor

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TYPE OF RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMME USED • the following table shows a comparison of the effect of different

types of resistance training on the possible effects produced

criterion isokinetic isometric isotonicrate of strength gain excellent poor goodrate of endurance gain excellent poor goodstrength gain over range of motion excellent poor goodtime per training session good excellent poorexpense poor excellent goodease of performance good excellent poorease of progress assessment poor good

excellentadaptability to specific movement patterns excellent poor goodleast possibility of muscle soreness excellent good poorleast possibility of injury excellent good poorskill improvement excellent poor good

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TYPE OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION TAKING PLACE • the following graph show the relationship between force

produced during eccentric, static and concentric contraction against rate of muscle contraction

• eccentric work exceeds the isometric maximum by about

30%

• this is because the body is able to mobilise a greater number of

motor units and hence muscle force

• the extra force attempts to prevent full lengthening of the muscle

• which would reduce injury risk caused by stretching a muscle under full tension

• this large force acts to brake and control the movement

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REGRESSION OR DETRAINING • there is evidence that once training stops, there is a reduction in

strength adaptations (and other training adaptations)• the amount and rate of regression depends on the length of time

training has occurred• hence short term gains in strength are quickly lost after ceasing training

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FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH

Strength

AGEING • maximal anaerobic power for both males and

females decreases after 25 years

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TRAINING METHODSStrength

TRAINING METHODS FOR DEVELOPING STRENGTH

TR AI N I NGM ETHOD S

repetitions

sets

rest-relief

circuit / stagetraining

free w eightsm achine w eightsplyom etrics

periodisation

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TRAINING METHODSStrength

INTERVAL TRAINING

• this is a training method in which bouts of training are separated by periods of rest-relief

• during the bouts of training exercises are repeated (repetitions) and grouped into blocks (sets) with rest relief between sets

• the exercise type and loading, number of repetitions and sets, and length of rest relief governs the strength effect produced :– maximum strength– explosive strength– elastic strength– static strength– dynamic strength– strength endurance

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EXAMPLES OF TRAINING METHODSStrength

TRAINING FOR :

MAXIMUM STRENGTH• choose weight training strength exercises• 3 - 5 sets of low repetitions (<4) / high loading

(>85% of 1 RM)• up to 10 minutes rest relief between sets

EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH• choose exercises which utilise this feature (sprint

start, standing long jump, overhead shot throw)• single efforts at 100% effort (but operated at speed)• with full recovery rest relief (1 to 10 minutes)

ELASTIC STRENGTH• choose plyometric exercises (jumping , bounding,

medicine ball exercises) which utilise eccentric movements at 100% effort

• 3 - 5 sets of 3 - 10 repetitions• with medium recovery (1-3 minutes)

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EXAMPLES OF TRAINING METHODSStrength

TRAINING FOR :

STATIC STRENGTH• single repetition static exercises at maximum (100%)

intensity for efforts of 10 seconds• with 60 seconds rest relief between efforts

DYNAMIC STRENGTH• choose weight training movements made at full

speed - near sport demand (but at 40 - 80% of 1RM)• 3 - 5 sets of 4 - 10 repetitions with short recovery (1 - 2

minutes)

STRENGTH ENDURANCE• use any exercises which can be performed for many

repetitions• weight training / circuit training / stage training /

resistance training (running uphill or towing a tyre)• 15 - 60 repetitions at 30 - 60% of 1RM• single or multiple sets with short or zero rest-relief

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FOOD FUEL UTILISATION DURING STRENGTH TRAINING

Strength

ENERGY SYSTEMSHIGH INTENSITY MAXIMAL WORK FOR LESS THAN 8 seconds• the PC alactic energy system provides the majority of ATP resynthesis for

this period• food fuels used are direct use of PC stored in the muscle cell• then those involved in the oxygen recovery phase after exercise• which is an aerobic process, and inputs food fuel from mostly CHO and some

fats

HIGH INTENSITY WORK FOR UP TO 60 seconds (STRENGTH ENDURANCE)• the lactic acid energy system provides the bulk of ATP for this period• food fuels used directly are muscle glycogen via glycolysis• then those involved in the oxygen recovery phase after exercise

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ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAINING

Strength

anaerobic adaptiveresponses

m uscle

neural

sw eatingregression

bodycom position

connectivetissue

individualresponse

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Strength

ATPCP

glycogenglycolytic enzymes

lactic acid

ATPCP

glycogenglycolytic enzymes

lactic acid

AFTER SEVERAL WEEKS OF STRENGTH (ANAEROBIC) TRAINING

= SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRE (type I) (starts small gets smaller)= FAST TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRE (type II) (starts big gets bigger)

MUSCLE CELLBEFORE TRAINING


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ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAININGStrength

MUSCLE CELL RESPONSE (FAST TWITCH FIBRES)• muscle hypertrophy (of fast twitch fibres) increases cross sectional

area of existing fibres by increasing :– number of myofibrils within each muscle cell– sarcoplasmic volume– contractile proteins : actin and myosin– mass of fast twitch fibres– number of fast twitch fibres (hyperplasia)

• hence % of type II increases and % of type I decreases• increase in muscle cell stores such as ATP, PC, and glycogen• increase in anaerobic enzymes such as creatine kinase (CK), PFK, GPP,

and LDH• increase toleration of lactate in fast twitch fibres• improved ability to remove lactate from muscle cell into blood• therefore enhancement of alactic / lactate and lactate / aerobic

thresholds - delay in OBLA• hence improved capacities of alactic and lactic acid systems to

resynthesise ATP• and ability to maintain maximal power output for longer• decrease in DOMS, particularly following eccentric training

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LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS TO HIGH INTENSITY TRAINING

Strength

LONG-TERM ADAPTATIONS TO AN ANAEROBIC TRAINING PROGRAMME

• increases in stores of ATP and PC

• and amounts of anaerobic enzymes such as creatine kinase

• result in more energy to be available more rapidly

• and therefore increases in maximum possible peak power

• and a delay in the ATP/PC to lactic threshold

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ADAPTATIONS PRODUCED BY STRENGTH TRAININGStrength

NEURAL ADAPTIVE RESPONSE• increased rate of response of CNS (Central

Nervous System)• recruitment of additional fast twitch fibre motor

units• improved coordination of fast twitch fibre motor

units• toughening of proprioceptors so that more force

is required to stimulate inhibitory signals CONNECTIVE TISSUE RESPONSE• increase in thickness and strength of tendons• increased flexibility of ligaments• thickening and improved elasticity of cartilage• strengthening of bone tissue due to increased

depositing of calcium• therefore reduced risk of injury

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Strength

INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE• adaptive response depends on individual

– fitness– cultural differences– gender– psychological factors– maturation

SWEATING• improved ability to sweat• more efficient heat loss

REGRESSION• when training stops, adaptive responses cease• the longer the training the more stable the adaptation

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FLEXIBILITYFlexibility

FLEXI BI LI TY

STATI Cthe range of m otionabout a joint w hich

is held in a fixedposition

D YNAM I Cthe range of m otion

during a rapidm ovem ent

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FACTORS AFFECTING FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility

FACTORS AFFECTING FLEXIBILITY• bony features of a joint• length and position of tendons and ligaments

• elasticity of muscle tissue• elasticity of skin

• muscle temperature– warm-up improves flexibility

• gender differences– females are generally more flexible then males

• ageing– flexibility decreases with age

• body composition– the proportions of muscle and fat

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EVALUATING FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility

FLEXIBILITY TESTS• in the diagrams, the red arrow shows the distance

measured to assess flexibility

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EVALUATING FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility

THE GONIOMETER• a device containing a 180o protractor for

measuring the maximum angle turned through by the bones at a joint

• which is then a measure of the flexibility of the joint

• the centre of a goniometer is positioned at the axis of rotation of the joint

• the arms of the goniometer are aligned with the long axis of the two bones which articulate at the joint

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MOBILITY TRAINING

Flexibility

M OBI LI TYTR AI N I N G

ACTI VEslow stretching in

w hich the flex ibilityis achieved usingthe athlete's ow n

m uscles

PASSI VEslow stretching

w hich is assisted bya partner or

external agent topush the athlete to

the end point

BALLI STI C orKI NETI C

rapid stretchingm ovem ents in

w hich contractionsof an agonist forcethe antagonist to

lengthen

PNFstretching follow ed byisom etric contraction, follow ed by further

stretching - during thisprocess proprioceptors

are m ade less active - hence allow ingfurther stretching.

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PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS CAUSED BY MOBILITY TRAINING

Flexibility

ADAPTATIONS• limited stretching of soft tissues :

– ligaments– tendons

• increase in resting / residual length– skeletal muscle tissue

• inhibition of stretch reflex as muscle spindles lengthen– the stretch reflex limits flexibility– therefore this inhibition would improve

flexibility

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FLEXIBILITY AND YOUR PPP

Flexibility

YOU SHOULD INCLUDE IN YOUR PPP• evidence of mobility training

undertaken to improve flexibility• lists of exercises and their place in

your schedule– duration of exercise– numbers of repetitions

• plans for flexibility training as part of your overall training plan for your chosen activity

• analysis of your chosen needs for flexibility

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OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESS

Body Composition etc

OTHER COM PONENTSOF FI TNESS

bodycom position

speed

balance

agility

coordination

reaction tim e

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OTHER COMPONENTS OF FITNESSBody Composition etc

AGILITY• the ability to rapidly change

body position and direction in a precise manner

• measured using : Illinois agility run

• improved using : agility circuits

COORDINATION• ability to perform smooth

and accurate motor tasks• measured using : juggling• improved using :

– training practices in which new skills are presented and learnt

– new motor programmes are being developed

REACTION TIME• time interval between

presentation of a stimulus and the muscular response

• measured using :– stick drop test – computer timing

programme• improved using :

– new tests which will assist recruitment of motor-unit firing patterns

– particularly fast twitch units– reaction time computer

games– practice with electronic

timing of starts from blocks

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SPEED• the maximum rate at which a

person can move his / her body• measured using :

– 30m sprint• improved using :

– speed training using timing devices

– improvements in the technical sprinting model

– exercises whose aim is to move more rapidly as opposed to strong but slow

– this improves the recruitment of fast twitch motor-units to enable the learning of rapid movements

BALANCE• ability to retain the centre of

mass above the base of support

STATIC BALANCE• ability to hold a stationary

balance• measured using :

– length of time a beam balance can be held

• improved using :– wobble board drills in which the

aim is to vary balance postures under control of the performer

DYNAMIC BALANCE• balance under changing

conditions of body movement, shape and orientation

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BODY COMPOSITION• relative percentage of muscle,

fat and bone• measured using :

– skinfold measurements using the J-P nomogram

– body composition scales using bioelectrical impedance analysis

– underwater weighing• improved using :

– a balanced diet– consideration of energy

balance– a weight control

programme

A BALANCED DIET• has low fat, high carbohydrate intake• a balance of minerals, vitamins• sufficient protein for your activityENERGY BALANCE• when balanced :

energy input = energy output (from food) (using exercise)

• negative energy balance :energy output > energy input

• leads to weight loss, reduction in body fat• positive energy balance :

energy input > energy output• leads to weight gain, increase in body fatA WEIGHT CONTROL PROGRAMME• exercise of at least 30 min duration• low to moderate intensity• an aerobic HR = 70% of HRmax• promotes use of fat as a secondary food

fuel• long term

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY READINESS QUESTIONNAIRE - PARQ

YOUR PARQ• you should administer to yourself a questionnaire which establishes on

medical grounds whether you should undertake demanding fitness testsSAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE• answer the questions carefully and as accurately as you can

• have you recently experienced breathing difficulties?• have you experienced any chest pain recently?• has your doctor ever indicated to you that you may have heart trouble?• have you ever experienced back pain?• have you recently been absent from college / school with illness?• are you aware of any possible problems with high blood pressure?• have you any muscle injury condition which may require further rest

before exercising?• have you any bone or joint injury or problem which might be made

worse with exercise?• have you any other condition which might affect your performance in

your proposed tests?

• use common sense when deciding whether or not you should undertake a test

Components of Fitness

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COMPONENTS OF FITNESS AND YOUR PPPRECORDING YOUR FITNESS TESTS• you should make time to undertake a series of fitness tests • and record the results in your PPP• consult your PARQ beforehand, and take care with maximal tests• this should be done several times during your course• to enable you to assess the effectiveness of your personal

training• and any physiological adaptations induced by training

• elements which could be assessed (students are not expected to do tests unless they are relevant to their sporting activity) :– strength– flexibility– body composition– speed– endurance– agility– power– balance– reaction time– coordination

Components of Fitness

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ERGOGENIC AIDS

Performance Enhancement

ER GO GEN I C A I DStherapies

m echanical

psycho logical

nutrition

legal physio logical

illegal physio logical

illegal pharm aceutical

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ERGOGENIC AIDSPerformance Enhancement

NUTRITIONALDIETARY MANIPULATIONCARBOLOADING• aims to raise muscle glycogen stores above their normal resting levels• prior to endurance competitions with over 90 minutes continuous

activity• suitable for activities with low anaerobic and high aerobic components

• based on :• depletion - prolonged exercise to reduce levels of liver and muscle

glycogen stores - at least seven days before event• repletion - a high CHO diet in the period (three to four days) before

activity• combined with light exercise or rest

• also suitable for activities lasting 15 - 20 minutes• with a two day high CHO diet beforehand

ERGOGENIC AID• any substance or method

which enhances performance

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NUTRITIONALDIETARY MANIPULATION - AN EXAMPLE OF CARBOLOADING

Carbohydrate loading (new technique after Williams 1998)Endurance taper taper taper taper taper tapertraining training training training trainingtraining trainingday 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 day 6 day 7 race normal moderate---------------------- high ---------------------------------- diet

CHO diet CHO diet

• this technique omits the glycogen depletion phase associated with earlier methods

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ERGOGENIC AIDS - CARBOLOADINGPerformance Enhancement

CARBOLOADINGTHE IMPORTANCE OF HIGH GLYCOGEN CONTENT IN MUSCLE BEFORE A

MARATHON RACE

• the graph shows that a runner’s time would increase by more than 10 minutes in a 2 hour run

• if muscle glycogen is at 50% of its maximum possible

• the effect of reduced muscle glycogen begins to be felt at the 1 hour mark

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NUTRITIONALDIETARY MANIPULATIONPRECOMPETITION NUTRITION• fluids for hydration• light complex CHO such as pasta / wholemeal bread at least 3 hours before

activity• fruit (banana) contains complex CHO and small amounts of glucose• effect is to provide the slow release of blood glucose• and reduce hunger sensations

FOOD / FLUID INTAKE DURING OR IN BETWEEN EXERCISE• water loss of as little as 2% to 3% can reduce performance• hence an isotonic sports drink including very diluted sodium and glucose

content• prevents dehydration and supplements energy reserves• or just take water

POST COMPETITION / TRAINING NUTRITION• hypertonic sports drink immediately after exercise has finished• begins replenishment of blood glucose and glycogen store• a high CHO meal within 15 minutes of exercise ending continues glycogen

replenishment

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ERGOGENIC AIDS


NUTRITIONALDIETARY MANIPULATION• the following graph shows the influence of dietary carbohydrate on

muscle glycogen stores• repeated daily exercise of 2 hours is followed by a either a high CHO

or low CHO diet

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NUTRITIONALDIETARY MANIPULATIONCREATINE SUPPLEMENTATION• creatine is a substance found in skeletal muscle• stored as phosphocreatine (PC)• supplementation increases PC levels to enhance the ATP-PC system of

ATP resynthesis• thereby delaying the alactic / lactic thresholdGLUTAMINE• is an amino acid forming part of skeletal muscle and immune cells• supplementation after exercise therefore reinforces the immune system

and reduces the risk of infectionCAFFEINE• stimulates the CNS but acts as a diuretic - this can lead to dehydration• illegal in large quantitiesALCOHOL• a relaxant in quite small quantities• absorbed into the body as an alternative to water therefore causes

dehydration• quite small quantities of alcohol can cause a drastic loss of performance

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ILLEGAL PHYSIOLOGICALBLOOD DOPING• involves the removal of athlete’s own blood which is then stored• the athlete’s body then remanufactures blood to replace that

taken• then the stored blood is reinfused• this temporarily increases red blood cell count (polycythemia)• problem of mis-matching can lead to a transfusion reaction

• increases VO2max and hence energy delivery to enhance aerobic performances

rEPO• involves infusion of hormone recombinant erythropoietin 6

weeks prior to major event• stimulating erythrocytes (up to 10% more) - red blood cells

• increases VO2max and hence energy delivery to enhance aerobic performances

• but elevates red blood cell production that can reach toxic life-threatening levels

• other risks are blood clots, strokes / coronary thrombosis, very low resting heart rates

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LEGAL PHYSIOLOGICALALTITUDE TRAINING• a predominantly endurance-based exercise programme used by elite endurance

athletes from a range of sports• consisting of 2 visits of at least two weeks duration per visit, to altitude (normally

between 1800-3000 metres)• second visit just prior to major competition• training at altitude uses the fact that the body will create more haemoglobin • to compensate for the reduction in oxygen available• benefits : reversible physiological adaptations

– increased Hb concentration– increases in myoglobin mitochondria and oxidative enzymes

• hence on return to sea level we have an increased VO2max and tissue cell respiration leading to enhanced aerobic performance

• risks : hypoxia, altitude sickness

PSYCHOLOGICAL• imagery / hypnosis stimulate mental rehearsal of relevant skills • by activating neural pathways that reinforce skill

THERAPIES• physiotherapy / acupuncture / herbal medicines used in injury treatment• reduce muscle soreness and aid recovery of local damaged tissue

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MECHANICALNASAL STRIPS• use of sticky plaster placed over bridge of nose to enlarge

nasal cavity• enables easier breathing

SPECIALIST EQUIPMENT• carbon fibre bike frames are lighter and

aerodynamically more efficient• specialist training machines

– concept II ergo rower– swimming ergo– flumes for rowing / swimming / canoeing– treadmill

SPECIALIST CLOTHING• cycling helmets and lycra sports clothing reduces air

resistance• Denise Lewis one shoulder javelin suit, bench press and

squatting suits– provide extra force in required directions

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ERGOGENIC AIDS


ILLEGAL PHARMACEUTICALAMPHETAMINES• act as CNS stimulants to increase arousal levels

BETA BLOCKERS • reduce HR and BP thereby reducing tension, but can lead to

heart failure

HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE (HGH) • stimulates bone growth and increased lean body mass• give artificial increased strength / power outputs

ANABOLIC STEROIDS • increase lean body mass, but reduce natural secretions of

gonadotrophins • females acquire masculine features such as facial and body

hair and deep voices• give artificial increased strength / power outputs

ocr a level physical education a 7875 next previous module 2566.2.1 ocr examinations a level...

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