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Nursery Management of Horticultural Crops

Introduction

The humid tropical climatic conditions of Andaman &

Nicobar Islands facilitate cultivation of wide range of tropical

horticultural crops. Since many years these crops dominated

the agricultural sector are presently considered as key compo-

nents for crop diversification. But their importance has in-

creased in recent years due to increased demand of quality

foods and their economic potential and suitability to the re-

gion. The erratic rainfall pattern and excessive humidity cre-

ated problems for efficient utilization of immense potential of

horticultural crops in Islands. In era of commercial and high

value agriculture, horticultural crops are front runners for bet-

terment of small and marginal farmers in the Islands. There-

fore, utilization of new scientific innovation and intervention

in horticultural sector is become imperative for sustainable

agricultural development of these fragile Islands.

Nursery is a place where plants are cultivated and grown

to usable size. The nursery management gained a status of com-

mercial venture where retailer nurseries sell planting materi-

als to the general public, wholesale nurseries which sell only

to other nurseries and to commercial landscape gardeners, and

private nurseries which supply the needs of institutions or

private estates.

Since most of the horticultural crops are propagated by

the nurseries, the document covers all the related aspects to

nursery for production of quality planting materials.

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Tool and equipments:

Conventional nursery :

Spade, khurpi, watering cane, fork, hoe, garden line,

roller, basket, sirki, polythyne sheet, sprayer, alkathene sheet,

nose-cane, duster, sticks, tags etc.

Hi-tech nursery:

Plug trays, perforated plastic trays, strip peat pots, nurs-

ery stand, sprinklers, protected structures, water pumping

motor, media mixture, rakers, temperature control devices,

humidity control devices, exhausters, media pressure, seed

dibbler, etc.

Location and Layout of Nursery

For selecting an area for establishing nursery it is worth-

while to consider the following points:

Nursery should be raised in such place where no

water stagnation is experienced, and have good

drainage system.

Land for nursery should be well drained and lo-

cated at on a high level.

The soil for nursery should be sandy loam and nor-

mal in PH (around 6.5-7.0).

The plot for nursery should be selected near to a

water source.

Nursery plots should be chosen near the farm build-

ing, so that frequent supervision can be made easily.

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Nursery plots should be away from the shady

places.

Nursery plots should be selected at one side of the

field to isolate the other fields for doing cultural

practices easily.

Site should be safe from stray animals and exces-

sive diseases and pest attacks.

Suitable crops:

Raising nursery from seeds and other planting materi-als is easy and convenient way for ensuring better germina-tion and root development. The planting material of horticul-tural crops is multiplied under nursery conditions with propercare and management for raising healthy, vigorous and dis-ease free seedlings.

In general, vegetable crops are divided into three groupsbased on their relative ease for transplanting. Crops like Beetroot, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, tomatoand lettuce are efficient in water absorption and rapidly fromnew roots after transplanting.

Vegetable crops that are moderately easy for transplant-ing are brinjal, onion, sweet pepper, chilli and celery which donot absorb water as efficiently as crops that are easy to trans-plant but they form new roots relatively quickly. The vegetablecrops which are difficult to transplant are cucurbits, sweet cornwhich requires special care during nursery raising and trans-planting.

Most of fruits and tree spices are slow growing andmultiplied in nursery for better seed germination and plantsurvival. It becomes convenient to utilize various budding andgrafting tools under nursery conditions. Therefore, most of fruit

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crops are multiplied and propagated under nursery conditions.Besides, the shrubs and herbs of ornamental nature are multi-

plied under nursery conditions for their faster growth and

development.

Necessity of Nursery:

Seedlings not only reduces the crop span but also in-

creases the uniformity of the crop and thus, harvesting as com-

pared to direct sown crops. Transplanting of seedlings also

eliminates the need for thinning and provides good opportu-

nities for virus free vigorous and off-season nursery, if grown

under protected conditions.

It is easy and convenient to manage seedlings un-der small area.

Effective and timely plant protection measures arepossible with minimal efforts.

Nursery provide favourable climate to emergingplants for their better growth and development.

The effective utilization of unfavourable period bypreparing nursery under protected conditions.

Effective input utilization for crop production byreducing initial stage crop infestations and inter-ferences.

Seed cost of some crops like hybrid vegetables, or-namental plants, spices and some fruits can beeconomized through nursery.

Nursery production help in maintaining effectiveplant stand in shortest possible time through gapfillings.

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Requisitions of Nursery Management

Site for nursery should be selected at such places

where abundant sunshine and proper ventilation

is available.

Nursery site should be on higher location so that

water stagnation is avoidable.

In humid and rain prone areas nursery place should

be well protected from heavy rains through pro-

tected structures.

The site should be nearer to irrigation facilities and

easily accessible.

It should be protected from stray animals, snails,

rats etc.

Soil should be sandy loam or loamy with PH range

of 6 to 7 and rich in organic matter and free from

pathogenic inoculums.

After sowing the seed in nursery, cover the seeds

with mixture of well rotten compost + friable soil +

sand (2:1:1) and mulch with paddy straw /dried

leaves. Mulch is removed as and when seeds just

emerge above ground.

Soil Preparation

Nursery bed preparation is an important step in crop

management because it largely affects crop stand and its per-

formance at field level. Therefore, soil should be worked to a

fine tilth by repeated ploughing and spading. Dead plant parts

which are seem to be dwellers of pathogens and pests should

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be collected, removed and burnt. Well decomposed organic

manure @ 40-50 kg/10sqm, should be mixed thoroughly in

the soil.

Soil treatment

Soil treatment is an essential step in a successful nurs-

ery management because it the base for seedlings stand, source

of nutrition and pathogens. In humid Islands damping-off

caused by soil borne fungi like Pythium, Rhizoctonia,

Phytophthora etc, is a common disease in the nursery beds.

Besides, pests like snails, cutworms and termite and mites are

also damages young seedlings.

There are various measures for soil treatment like soil

solarization, chemical treatment, biocontrol treatment etc. Soil

solarization can be done with transparent polythene of 25-100

mm thickness during the hot and dry periods. For this soil

should be moist before mulching because it increases latent

heat and thermal sensitivity for resting of soil borne patho-

gens, harmful pests and weeds which can be reduced to a sus-

tainable level. Chemical treatment of nursery beds can be done

by Formalin solution (1:100:: Farmaline: water) @ 5 lt/sqm. The

treated area should be covered with polythene sheets for 7-8

days and after that it should be remained open for next 7-10

days for facilitation of formalin emission. Besides, the nursery

beds and seeds can be treated with some fungicides like

Ceresan or Bavistin @ 2g/litre before sowing. The insect-pests

can be controlled by treating soil with Chlorpyriphos or Sewin

dust powder (20-25g/sqm) before sowing and or at the time

of nursery preparation. Presently a large number of bioagents

like Trichoderma, Pseudomonas and Bacillus formulations are

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available for soil as well as seed treatment which performs asantagonist to harmful microorganisms. Some of botanicals likeNSK, Neem cake, Karanj cake etc. also can be used for nurserybed treatment.

Nursery bed preparation

Before sowing seeds the beds should be leveled andpressed gently to make it firm. Nearly 15-20 cm raised beds of45-50 cm width are always preferred for raising nursery. How-ever, its length should be made according to the requirementsor size of plots but should not exceed 5-6 m. In between beds,drains of about 30-45 cm width are prepared and connected tothe main drain for removal of excess water during heavy pour.

This space facilitates easy movement during interculturaloperations and acts as physical barrier for inoculums spread.The drains are flooded during dry period to modify microcli-mate of nursery beds in favour of seedlings.

In recent years various advancements have been madein nursery management for bed preparation to avoid possi-bilities of pathogen spread like use of soil less media, plug traytechnique, perforated poly trays etc.

Input management in nursery production

The rooting media and seed or planting materials areimportant inputs for nursery production. The rooting mediashould be having appropriate physical and chemical proper-ties for better germination and root development. The mediashould be with constant volume and free from living organ-isms and firm enough to hold planting material properly.Abundantly available rooting media are sand, coco peat, per-lite, vermiculite, leaf mold, sphagnum moss, pumic, sawdustand wood shavings etc.

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Seeds are one of the least expensive but most important

factors influencing yield potential. Crop seeds contain all the

genetic information to determine yield potential, adaptation

to environmental conditions, and resistance to insect pests and

disease. One of a farmer's most critical management decisions

is the selection of seed source and variety. The cost of seed

stocks usually is less than 5 to 10 percent of total production

costs. Yet seed stocks can affect the yield potential of a crop

more than any other input factor.

Water Management:

Water is an important resource not only to nursery grow-

ers but to off-farm neighbours. By reducing water use, the pos-

sibility of leaching and loss of nutrients through surface run-

off decreases. Micro, Overhead and pulse irrigation method

are very means of watering larger nursery area. Microirrigation

applies small amounts of water to the root zone area only. It

also promotes compact root development which is important

for subsequent tree survival in the landscape. In container pro-

duction, drip irrigation is often not used because of difficul-

ties of working around and moving containers when drip lines

are present. Drip or trickle system, which uses 60%-70% less

water than overhead systems. Overhead irrigation is designed

to cover a large area, and these systems are the least expensive

to install. However, this method produces uneven water dis-

tribution, which can slow plant growth, encourage disease, and

contribute to runoff.

Pulse irrigation saves water in container production. Tra-

ditional irrigation comes from a long, single application of

water from an overhead sprinkler. In pulse irrigation water is

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applied for about 15 minutes, four or more times and a pauseof 30- 60 minutes occurs between applications. It reduces wa-ter use by about 30% and also minimizes runoff from contain-ers. During the pause, water fills the pores and wets hard-to-wet components of the medium. The medium is saturated be-fore excess drains from the pots.

Nutrient Management:

Nursery growers should test soils/media each year (mid-summer to fall) to determine fertilizer/organic manure needsfor nursery beds for the following year. Usually in nursery bedsnormal fertilizers like urea, Muraite of Potash and DAP areapplied. Timing of fertilization should be given in two spilti.e. basal and top dressing (after 10 days) by broadcasting orfoliar spray @ 0.5-2%. Immediate before transplanting, fertili-zation should be avoided as it encourages diversion of plantenergy toward root development in nursery which has nega-tive impact on seedlings during exposure for transplanting.Common source of nutrients in nursery is FYM, compost,vermicompost, leaf mold, cakes etc. Besides, primary nutri-ents like nitrogen and phosphorus are essentially appliedthrough straight fertilizers as these play an important role inroot and shoot development.

Nutrient deficiency symptoms and their correctionsin plants

A. Older or lower leaves affected:

Nitrogen:

Plants light green light yellow, drying to light browncolour, stalks short and slender if element is deficient in laterstages of growth. Applying recommended doses of N fertiliz-ers. If the deficiency is observed during the growth phase, 1%of urea can be used.

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Phosphorus:

Plant dark green, often developing red and purple colour,

lower leaves sometime yellow; turning to greenish brown black

colour. Stunted shade plants but have stronger stems. Recom-

mended doses of P and foliar spray of 2% DAP or 1 % super

phosphate extract.

Magnesium:

Lower leaves mottled or chlorotic, without dead spots,

leaves may redden as with cotton, sometimes with dead spot

tips and margin turned or curved upwards, stalks slender. Soil

application of Domolite or Gypsum Salt MgSO4 or 7H2O de-

pending upon the deficiency and 0.5% of Gypsum salt as fo-

liar spray.

Potassium:

Spots of dead tissue small usually at tips and between

veins, more marked at margins of leaves, stalks slender. Stocky

appearance of stem with short internodes is also indicate po-

tassium deficiency. Its deficiency is usually not observed in

Indian soils but if occurs than foliar spray of K @1 % KCl or

1% K2SO4

Zinc:

Spots generalised, rapidly enlarging and generally in-

volving areas between veins eventually involving secondary

and even primary veins, leaves thick, stalks with shortened

inter nodes. Soil application of Zinc Sulphate at 12.5 - 25 kg/

ha and foliar spray @ 0.5% correct its deficiency.

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B. New or bud leaves affected (symptoms localised)

Calcium:

Young leaves of terminal bud at first typically hooked,finally dying back at tips and margins so that latter growth ischaracterised by a cut out appearance at these points, stalksfinally die at terminal bud. Lime application depending uponthe pH and foliar spray of 1 % calcium nitrate (Fruit crops)

Boron:

Young leaves of terminal bud becoming light green atbases, with final break down here; in later growth, leaves be-come twisted, stalk finally dies back at terminal bud.

Copper:

Young leaves permanently wilted or marked chlorosis;twig or stalk just below tip and seed head often unable to standerect in later stage when shortages are acute. Soil applicationof Copper Sulphate at 10kg/ha and foliar spray of 0.5% CuSO4Slender and weak stems with poor lignification spilling orcracking on the barks

Manganese:

Sports of dead tissue scattered over the leaves smallestveins tend to remain green producing a checkered or reticu-lated effect. Soil application of Manganese sulphate at 25 kg/ha and foliar spray of 0.2-0.4% MnS04

Sulphur:

Young leaves with veins and tissue between veins lightgreen in colour. It is applied with other fertilizers.

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Iron:

Young leaves chlorosis, principal veins green, stalks short

and slender, thin and erect stems. Soil application of Ferrous

sulphate at 50kg/ha and foliar spray of 0.5% Ferrous sulphate

(for calcerous soil, only foliar spray is recommended).

Weed management:

Weeds are plants unwanted at a place and time. There

presence in nursery increases competition with seedlings for

nutrient, water, light and CO2 results in lanky seedlings. Be-

sides, some weeds harbour pathogens and insects and also

produce allelopathic effect on crop plants. Therefore, weed

control is very essential requirement for successful nursery

production. It should be integrated, combining the use of me-

chanical, cultural and as necessary, chemical controls. The fol-

lowing methods control weeds in either a nursery field or con-

tainer crop:

Select a weed-free field or media for nursery prepa-ration.

Control weeds in perimeter areas (i.e. fence rowsand windbreaks).

To reduce weed seeds, properly store and compostmanure before applying to the soil.

Use stallbed technique to avoid initial weed infes-tation.

Mow buffer strips to reduce seeds blown into irri-gation ponds.

Minimize run-off from weedy fields to ponds.

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Pump irrigation water from deep in the pond toavoid seeds on the water surface.

Ensure weed-free material is planted.

Do not move weeds between fields on equipment.

Cultivate fields when seedlings are small.

Use shallow tillage (2.5-5.0 cm) if herbicide has beenapplied.

A mowed grass strip between nursery rows with a weed-

free strip at the base of the plants 0.5 to 1.0 metre wide can be

maintained by: hand hoeing, mechanical cultivation, mulch-

ing with various organic materials, or herbicide application.

Rodents often overwinter in mulch so, remove it from the base

of plants in the fall and consider appropriate traps. Weed con-

trol with container stock is more difficult than in the field be-

cause there are few effective registered herbicides. In container

stock, the following measures will help:

By hand or manual weeding.

Install a weed barrier of old polyethelene orgeotextile fabric under pots. This prevents weedgermination under the pots.

Keep media components weed-free by covering out-doors stored components.

If planning to use field soil, ensure that it comesfrom a source known to have few weeds and noherbicide residues.

Use weed discs in pots; these reusable barriers aremade of materials that allow water and air move-ment while reducing seed germination.

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Disease Management:

In nursery beds usually fungal diseases like damping

off and foliar diseases like anthracnose, blight, leaf spot and

mildews are serious problems. Their control is possible only

through adopting an integrated approach of cultural, mechani-

cal, biological and chemical measures right from management

of seed source to final uprooting seedlings. Though all mea-

sures are difficult to apply but some of them should be fol-

lowed like:

Steam Sterilization:

Rooting media sterilisation is essential if it has been ex-

posed or previously used as it may contain undesirable micro-

organisms, insects, and weeds. Steam sterilisation is relatively

expensive but ecofriendly compared to chemical sterilisation

Soil Solarization:

In solar sterilisation, the soil is ploughed thoroughly and

covered with polythene sheet for few days depending on tem-

perature conditions.

Hot Water Treatment:

Nursery beds should be treated with hot/boiling water

before sowing seeds. It will kill most of pathogens and insect

and pests.

Biological Control

(Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Streptomyces and fungi

such as Trichoderma reduces fungal plant pathogens)

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Chemical Control:

If above measures are unable to manage the diseases than

chemicals like copper fungicides 0.2% or Bavistin 0.15% should

be sprayed for fungal diseases and Antibiotics like

Streptocycline should be sprayed for their management.

Pest management:

Because of the variety of plants in the nursery, insect

and disease control poses many challenges. Integrated pest

management (IPM) combines chemical, cultural and biologi-

cal control techniques to address pest problems. Good sanita-

tion and plant health reduce pest and disease problems. The

following procedures make up an effective IPM programme:

Mapping the nursery by identifying plants which

are most susceptible to insects and disease prob-

lems. Note which species and cultivars are affected

first.

Monitoring nursery at least once a week. Pay par-

ticular attention to sensitive species.

Identifying pests and beneficial insects, noting life

cycle stages and population levels.

Making a decision on appropriate control from col-

lected information.

Some selective insect traps are available but yellow sticky

traps can be used to identify pests. Insects should be controlled

at vulnerable stages of their life cycle. When a control is neces-

sary, spot spray permitted chemicals or botanicals only those

plants or species which are infested. Few biological controls

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are available for use in the nursery but Bacillus thuringiensis

var. kurstaki has been effective against moths. Conserve and

promote beneficial insects by promoting their captive rearing

and releasing in protected area.

It is necessary to maintain vigorous, healthy plants by

using proper culture and management practices to provide

natural resistance to plants. Heavily insect infested or injured

plants should be destroyed as earliest possible. In nurseries

IPM should be plasticized to realize that all culture and man-

agement factors can affect pest population. New concepts like

planting scout plants for pests in border area and use soaps,

oils and botanicals whenever possible are appearing effective

tools for nursery production.

Temperature and humidity regulation:

In humid tropical climatic regions erratic rains create

excess moisture and relative humidity in nursery beds which

is congenial for various diseases and pests. Controlling rain-

fall in not in man's job but it can be managed with protected

structures. But conventional protected structures are not suit-

able for nursery production in humid tropical climatic condi-

tions because inside temperature is much higher than desired

level. The temperature can be controlled with three different

methods i.e. ventilation, shading and intermittent misting or

sprinkling.

Therefore, special structures are required for protection

of young and tender plants from heavy rainfall. So, the struc-

tures with proper ventilation from all side should be con-

structed for natural regulation of excess temperature and hu-

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Fig.1: Components of nursery management

midity. It can be constructed with covering top with polythene

(200mm) and sides with shadenet material (30-50 percent) or

insect proof nets (45-55 mesh) materials. The inside tempera-

ture can be maintained with intermittent misting or sprinkling.

The timer and misting volume should be adjusted according

to prerecorded inside temperature, humidity, and air move-

ment. But, usually proper ventilation and partial shading are

commonly suggested approaches for temperature regulating

under humid Island conditions.

Modern Nursery Management

Nursery development has great scope for the enhanc-ing production and profitability of horticultural crops in BayIslands because of erratic rainfall pattern, low availability ofquality seed material and high cost of seed material. The mod-ern era of horticultural sector is known for effective utiliza-tion of hi-twech interventions for different aspects. Hi-techinterventions in nursery sector are technological advancementswhich are capital intensive, minimally environment depen-dent and having capacity to increase seed performance. Itsmanagement is a technical and skill oriented jobs which re-quire proper attention at different stages of growth and de-velopment.

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Components of Modern nursery:

a. Technological information:

Right information about nursery management at right

time to right person is basic requirement for its success. This

can be done with adopting on-farm and/or off-farm exten-

sion activities related to nursery production.

b. Training:

Nursery management is highly skilled and technical job

which requires proper attention and expertise of nurseryman.

Therefore, conducting trainings in form of technology pack-

age is better than split trainings. Besides, technologies and

knowledge related to nursery management can be dissemi-

nated through education/communication modules, print/

broadcast media. It can also be done by establishing techno-

demo projects for horticultural crops.

c. Programme Management:

Nursery production is a programme which requires

proper planning and monitoring for obtaining healthy seed-

ling and better crop stand. This can be performed by inter-

agency coordination and linkages with concerned stakehold-

ers.

d. Credit facility:

Nursery production for horticultural crops is capital in-

tensive intervention. Therefore, nursery growers should be

provided with sufficient amount of credit at right time for its

success. It can be provided from Government sponsored

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schemes like National Horticultural Board, High Value Agri-

culture, National Horticulture Mission or institutions like Na-

tionalized Banks or Cooperatives.

e. Transplanting operations:

Seedlings are uprooted just before transplanting by irri-

gating beds to loose soil for better uprooting. Transplanted

should be in shady part of day probably in evening hours for

their better establishment and root development. Pre-trans-

planting treatments of seedling with urea or insecticide/fun-

gicide by dipping roots in solution is suggested for establish-

ment.

g. Hi-tech interventions:

Hi-tech interventions like protected cultivation,

micropropagation, microirrigation, fertigation, use of growth

regulators, canopy management, organic farming, and auto-

matic climatic controls measures etc. These interventions are

used for efficient utilization of inputs and increasing produc-

tion efficiency.

h. Marketing facility:

The commercialization of nursery production is possible

with efficient and organized marketing structure. This can be

promoted by encouraging participation in Agri-trade fairs, con-

ducting / assisting market linkage activities etc.

i. Seeds and planting material:

Seed/planting material should be of true-to-type with

crop/variety specific standards. The seed/planting material

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should be collected from well recognized nurseries or institu-tions like NSC, SSC and institute nurseries. If planting mate-rial is imported in Islands than it should be with confirmationof quarantine regulations.

Model Nursery Layout:

Nursery is the place where all kinds of plants like trees,shrubs, climbers etc. are grown and kept for transporting orfor using them as stock plants for budding, grafting and othermethod of propagation or for sale.

The modern nurseries also serve as an area where gardentools, fertilizers are also offered for sale along with plant mate-rial. The area for nursery d Models for nursery production areprepared for effective utilization of inputs and to do things inproper manner. Various location specific models are designedby institutions for nursery establishment as per their require-ments (Fig.2). But their some important components whichshould be taken into care and provision should be made forthese during planning and layout preparation for nurseries:

1. Fence:

Prior to the establishment of a nursery, a good fence withbarbed wire must be erected all around the nursery to preventtress pass of animals and theft. The fence could be furtherstrengthened by planting a live hedge with thorny fruit plants(like Koranda). This also adds beauty in bearing and also pro-vides additional income through sale of fruits and seedlingsobtained from the seed.

2. Roads and paths:

A proper planning for roads and paths inside the nurs-ery will not only add beauty, but also make the nursery opera-tions easy and economical. This could be achieved by divid-

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ing the nursery into different blocks and various sections. But

at the same time, the land should not be wasted by unneces-

sarily laying out of paths and roads. Each road/ path should

lead the customer to a point of interest in the nursery area.

3. Progeny block/Mother plant block:

The nursery should have a well-maintained progeny

block or mother plant block/scion bank planted with those

varieties in good demand. The grafts/layers/ rooted cuttings/

seedlings should be obtained preferably from the original

breeder /research institute from where it is released or from a

reputed nursery. One should remember that, the success of

any nursery largely depends upon the initial selection of prog-

eny plants or mother plants for further multiplication. Any

mistake made in this aspect will result in loss of the reputation

of the nursery. A well managed progeny block or mother plants

block will not only create confidence among the customers but

also reduces the cost of production and increases the success

rate of grafting/ budding/layering because of availability of

fresh scion material throughout the season within the nursery

itself and there will not be any lag period between separations

of scion and graftage.

4. Irrigation system:

Horticultural nursery plants require abundant supply

of water for irrigation, since they are grown In polybags or

pots with limited quantity of potting mixture. Hence sufficient

number of wells to yield sufficient quantity of irrigation water

is a must in nurseries. In areas with low water yields and fre-

quent power failures, a sump to hold sufficient quantity of

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water to irrigate the nursery plants is also very much essential

along with appropriate pump for lifting the irrigation water.

In areas where electricity failure is a problem which ismore common, an alternate power supply (generator) is veryessential for smooth running of pumpset. Since water scarcityis a limiting factor in most of the areas in the country a welllaid out PYC pipeline system will solve the problem to a greaterextent. An experienced agricultural engineer may be consultedin this regard for layout of pipeline. This facilitates efficientand economic distribution of irrigation water to various com-ponents in the nursery.

5. Office cum stores:

An office-cum-stores is needed for effective managementof the nursery. The office building may be constructed in aplace which offers better supervision and also to receive cus-tomers. The office building may be decorated with attractivephotographs of fruit ornamental varieties propagated in thenursery with details of it. A store room of suitable size is neededfor storing polybags, tools and implements, packaging mate-rial, labels, pesticides, fertilizers etc.

6. Seed beds:

In a nursery, this component is essential to raise the seed-lings and rootstocks. These are to be laid out near the watersource, since they require frequent watering and irrigation.Beds of 1-meter width of any convenient length are to be made.A working area of 60cm between the beds is necessary. Thisfacilitates ease in sowing of seeds, weeding, watering, spray-ing and lifting of seedlings. Irrigation channels are to be laidout conveniently.

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Alternatively, sprinkler irrigation system may be pro-vided for watering the beds, which offers uniform germina-tion and seedling growth.

7. Nursery beds:

Rising of seedlings / rootstocks in polybags requiresmore space compared to nursery beds but mortality is greatlyreduced along with uniformity. Nursery beds area should alsohave a provision to keep the grafted plants either in trenchesof 30cm deep and 1 m wide so as to accommodate 500 grafts /layers in each bed. Alternatively, the grafts/ layers can be ar-ranged on the ground in beds of 1 m wide with 60cm workingplace in between the beds. Such beds can be irrigated eitherwith a rose fitted to a flexible hosepipe or by overhead microsprinklers.

8. Potting mixture and potting yard:

For better success of nursery plants, a good potting mix-ture is necessary. The potting mixtures for different purposescan be prepared by mixing fertile red soil, well rotten FYM,leaf mold, oil cakes etc. in different proportions. The pottingmixture may be prepared well in advance by adding sufficientquantity of superphosphate for better decomposition and solu-bilization. The potting mixture may be kept near the pottingyard, where potting/pocketing is done. Construction of a pot-ting yard of suitable size facilitates potting of seedlings or graft-ing/ budding operations even on a rainy day.

9. Structures for nursery

i Shade houses:

Shade houses in nurseries in tropical and sub-tropical regionsoffer many advantages like raising of seedlings in bags directly,protecting the grafts from hot summer months, effective irri-gation through upside down overhead microsprinklers. Theshade houses made with shade nets (50% or 75%) for regula-

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tion of shade are particularly very useful in arid regions wherethe humidity is very low during summer months. The detailsof shadenets use is given in the chapter of polyhouses.

ii. Green houses/Polyhouses :

Grafting or budding of several fruit species under polyhousesor low cost green houses with natural ventilation will enhancethe percentage of graft/bud take besides faster growth of graftsdue to favourable micro climatic conditions of polyhouse. Ingreen house construction, a wood or metal frame work is builtto which wood or metal sash bars are fixed to support panesof glass embedded in putty. In all polyhouses/ green housesmeans of providing air movement and air exchange is neces-sary to aid in controlling temperature and humidity. It is best,if possible to have in the green house heating and self openingventilators and evaporative cooling systems.

Plastic covered green houses tend to be much lighter than glasscovered ones with a build up of excessive high humidity.

a) Polythene film:

This is the most inexpensive covering material but it is the shortlasting one. However, UV ray resisting polyethylene film ofvarious thickness is usually recommended which lasts longer.

b) PVC film:

This material is pliable and comes in various thickness andwidths upto 6 ft. It is longer lasting than polythene and is moreexpensive PVC surface of film tends to collect dust and lowerthe light intensity in due course of time.

c) Polyester film:

This is a strong material with excellent weathering propertieslasting for 3-5 years and is unaffected by extremes of heat orcold though it is costly than polythene film/PVC film.

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d) Fiberglass:

Rigid panels, corrugated or flat fiber glass sheets embedded inplastic are widely used for green house construction. Fibre glassis strong, long lasting, light weight and easily applied which iscoming in a variety of widths, lengths and thickness. It is cost-lier than poly thin film/pvc film.

iii. Hotbeds:

The hot bed is often used for the same purpose as a green housebut in a smaller scale. Amateur operations and seedlings canbe started and leafy cuttings root early in the season in suchstructures. Heat is provided artificially below the propagatingmedium by electric heating cables, pot water, steam pipes orhot air blows. As in the green house, in the hot beds attentionmust be paid for shading and ventilation as well as tempera-ture and humidity control.

iv. Lathhouses:

These structures are very useful in providing protection from thesun for container grown nursery stock in areas of high summertemperatures and high light intensity. Well established plants alsocan require lath house protection including shade loving plantsLathhouses construction varies widely depending on the mate-rial used. Aluminium pre-fabricated lathhouses are available butmay be more costly than wood structures. Shade is provided byappropriate structures and use of shade nets of different densi-ties allows various intensities of light in the lathhouses.

Miscellaneous propagating structures

i. Mist beds:

These are valuable propagating units both in the green houseand out doors and are useful mainly in rooting of leafy cuttings.

ii. Mist chamber:

This is a structure used to propagate soft wood cuttings, diffi-

26

cult to root plants and shrubs. Here the principle is to spraythe cuttings with a minimum quantity of water. This isachieved by providing the cuttings a series of intermittentsprayings rather than a continuous spray. The intermittentspraying can be done easily by means of a high pressure pumpand a time switch. The pump leads to a pipeline system insidethe propagating structure. The mist nozzles are fitted to thesepipelines and suitably spaced over the propagating material.

iii.Nursery bed:

These are raised beds or boxes made of brick and mortar, pro-vided with drainage holes at the bottom. The dimensions ofthe boxes are 60 cm high, 120 cm broad and length as requiredpreferably not exceeding 10 m. Roof structures for planting onboth sides and forming ridges at the centre are constructed onthe top of the nursery beds. These structures may be madepermanent with angle iron or may be made of wood. Move-able bamboo mats, palm leaf mats are placed over these struc-tures to protect the seedlin"g from hot sun and heavy rains.Even shade roofing can be used for this purpose for raisingsee dings.

iv. Fluorescent light boxes:

Young plants of many species grow satisfactorily under artifi-cial light from fluorescent lamp units. Although adequategrowth of many plant species may be obtained under fluores-cent lamps but not up to the mark compared to good greenhouse conditions.

v. Propagating cases:

Even in green house, humidity conditions are often not suffi-ciently high for rooting. The use of enclosed frames or casescovered with glass or plastic materials may be necessary for suc-cessful rooting. In using such structures, care is necessary toavoid the build up of disease organisms due to high humidity.

27

Fig.2: Layout of a model ornamental Nursery (By IIHR, Bangalore)

Fig.3: Proposed layout of commercial nursery for horticulture crops

Protected structuresC= Perennial Legume; X= Passion fruit; N=Neem

(CARI, Port Blair)

28

Developments in Nursery production:

Some of the important developments made by Indianinstitutions in nursery sector are mentioned here under. Theseapproaches can be tested under Island conditions for devel-opment of nursery sector of horticultural crops.

Low cost poly-house technology to raise off-season nurser-

ies of cucurbits and solanaceous vegetables for higher profit

(IARI, New Delhi)

Poly-house is a zero-energy chamber of polythene sheet(200 gauge) supported on bamboo with sutli and nails, the sizeof which depends on the requirement and availability of space.The sun rays raise the temperature inside the poly-house by 6-100C through transparent polythene sheet which makes theenvironment inside poly-house congenial in December andJanuary for growing nursery of solanaceous andcucurbitaceous vegetables for early planting in the open fieldduring first week of February, when chances of frost are over.By this technology, the harvesting can be advanced by one toone and a half months and farmers can get the bonus price bycatching the early market in spring-summer season.

Use of insect proof nylon nets for quality vegetable seedling

production (IIHR, Bangalore)

Leaf curl is a serious viral disease in tomato especiallyduring hot/summer months. The virus spreads through a vec-tor- whitefly. To control whitefly feeding on growing seed-lings in nursery area, a 40-mesh nylon net is used to cover thenursery area. Thus viral infection is avoided till transplanting

of seedlings in the main field. Viral diseases in chili and capsi-

29

cums like chilly mosaic and leaf curl can also be controlled

during nursery stage by providing nylon net coverage. This

technology can also be used, with 40 mesh nylon nets, to con-

trol Spotted Wilt Virus of watermelon transmitted by thrips.

The technology involves:

Twelve raised beds of 1.2m x 7.5m dimensions are to be

prepared for getting the seedlings for one hectare area of main

field (for tomato). Later the seeds started to germinate in the

beds, 50 mesh nylon nets have to be covered over the beds.

Nylon nets have to be stitched in the dimension of 1.2m width,

8.0m in length and 1.5m in height resulting in a box shape. For

support of the net, Casuarinas or bamboo pads have to be used.

While stitching a net, provision for entry in to the net have to

be made. This entry point should be closable either with straps

or clips, so that entire structure becomes insect proof. The bot-

tom edge of the net have to be buried the soil. A non-walk in

type net coverings can also be prepared with 1-2 feet height

net covering. A movable support system can also be prepared

with ¾" GI pipe or a-iron.

Nursery under shade net:

The Nursery is fully covered with nets, plastic paper,

raised nursery beds, covered with mulching paper. The Ger-

mination trays are filled with coconut fiber mulched fertile

organic manure. The Hybrid seed is shown in the trays and

will be regularly watered and sprayed with pesticides as and

when required. Due to the covering of nursery with shade nets

and paper, the incidence of virus can be minimized, which

can cause major damage to the vegetable crops.

30

Conclusion

The nursery is the place for rearing and multiplying

plants with minimal damage and maximum success. It need

in present era of high value agriculture has increased to a great

extent because it only approach for effective and efficient

utilization of inputs at initial phase of crop plants. Hi-tech

interventions like protected structures, mircoirrigation, plant

growth regulators, soilless media, automatic control devices,

robotics etc have made nursery industry a viable venture. Best

management practices for nursery production address

concerns about soil conservation, pesticide use and water

conservation and protection. But still it is facing a number of

challenges in an effort to produce high-quality nursery stocks

particularly in geographically isolated Islands where timely

input supply is great challenge. However, proper planning and

monitoring have solution for such problems. For this, various

engaged agencies like Department of Agriculture, Central

Agricultural Research Institute, Self Help Groups, and Farmers

needs to work in proper coordination. Thus, nursery sector

have many solutions for horticultural problems of these Islands

but need proper care and attention.

31

Hi tech nursery for plantation and spice crops

The Andaman and Nicobar islands come under the hu-

mid tropics with average rainfall of about 3000 mm annually.

About 86% of the total geographical area is under forest cover.

Out of the total geographical area of 82, 49,000 ha, only 6% i.e.,

around 50,000 ha prior to tsunami was under agriculture

whereas at present only about 46000 ha is under Agriculture.

In fact the agro climatic conditions of these islands are very

much congenial for cultivation of plantation, horticulture and

spices crops. The distribution of agricultural land under dif-

ferent crops are given in table-1

Table 1 Distribution of agriculture land various crops and

production (2005-06)

CROP AREA(HA) PRODUCTION (M/T)

Paddy 7658.47 17255.36

Pulses 430.05 279.85

Oilseeds 53.55 34.20

Vegetables 3668.90 19917.98

Roots crops 1308.44 8845.40

Coconut 20927.02 78.46(in million nut)

Arecanut 4046.44 3058.46

Fruits 2925.20 18564.96

Rubber 1500.0 -

Red oil palm 1593.0 -

Cashew nut 568.50 86.02

Pepper 697.45 36.05

32

Clove 199.61 7.84

Nutmeg 82.62 870000 nos

Cinnamon 152.59 18.03

Ginger 517.30 1019.12

Chilli 387.7 877.6

Turmeric 91.7 102.28

Coconut and arecanut is the major plantation crop ofAndaman & Nicobar Islands and has been associated withsocio cultural facts of people of these islands. Topography ofthese islands are characterized by hilly and mountain terraincoupled with heavy rainfall and undulating nature of soil,which are ideally suitable for growing coconut and arecanut.

COCONUT The coconut palm, Cocos nucifera L., is one of the im-portant and useful palm in the world. It provides a variety ofuseful products like food, fuel and timber. Since every part ofthe tree is being utilized in one or other way and hence it iscalled the "tree of heaven"-the tree that provide all the necessi-ties of life. Coconut is grown in more than 93 countries in theworld. Asia and Pacific countries share is about 80% of thearea and production. India ranks third in the world, with anarea of about 1,935 thousand hectares with a production of12,832.9 million nuts. The productivity is 6,632 nuts per ha(2004-05)

Though the agro- bio diversity of coconut is unique inthese islands, the production and productivity is very poor andstagnating since last two decades. In Andaman and NicobarIslands coconut is grown in an area of about 25,600 ha with a

33

production of 87.10 million nuts annually with the productiv-ity of 3402 nuts per hectare. The average yield of the palm inthe islands are very low (20 nuts/ palm/ year) as compared tothe national average of 44 nuts/ palm/ year prior tsunamiwhile at present the area under coconut has declined to20927.02 ha with a production of 78.46 million nuts. The ma-jor reasons for the low yield of coconut is due to

a) Poor genetic makeup and unselected seedling popu-lations of existing plantation.

b) Overcrowding / dense planting (400 - 500 palms /ha)

c) Planting on hill slopes having shallow / eroded soil.

d) Inadequate plant protection measures.

e) Inadequate soil and nutrient management.

f) Inadequate knowledge and poor adoption of tech-nologies

Planting of high yielding varieties and adopting mod-ern production technologies can increase the productivity.

Soil and Climate

The coconut palm is found to grow under varying climaticand soil conditions. The average temperature in the range of27o-32oC is optimum for a good crop. Heavy and wide spreadrainfall ranging from 1000 to 3000 mm is required by the palm.It can be grown on wide range of soil, however deltaic alluvialsoil and red sandy loam soil is ideal for its growth. Well-drainedsoil, rich in organic matter is highly suitable. Coastal sandyand reclaimed soils with a pH ranging from 5.2 to 8.0 are also

34

suitable. The palms on the sea coast benefit from the humid

climate which is less subject to wide fluctuation of tempera-

ture. They are also benefited by the better supplies of sub soil

moisture due to continuous seepage of fresh water from the

higher inland areas to the sea.

Varieties of Coconut

Coconut can be broadly classified into two varieties

based on stature as the talls and the dwarfs.

Tall palms

Tall palms grow to a height of more than 20 m and flow-

ering starts after 6-7 year of planting. The talls are long-lived

and may attain an age of 80-100 years. The fruits are medium

to large in size and copra content is usually above 150g per nut

and oil content varies from 66 to 70 percent.

Recommended tall varieties are:

1) Andaman Ordinary tall

2) Andaman Giant.

3) Katchal tall

Recommended dwarf cultivars are

1) Andaman orange dwarf

2) Andaman yellow dwarf

3) Andaman green dwarf

4) Niu lekha dwarf (exotic variety)

35

Production of planting material

Selection of seed nuts and seedlings plays an important

role in coconut as the performance can be evaluated only sev-

eral years after planting. If seedlings happen to be of poor qual-

ity, the new plantation will prove to be uneconomic, causing

considerable loss of time and money to the grower.

Criteria for selection of mother palms

Select palms having straight stout trunk with evengrowth and closely spaced leaf scars.

Select palms having circular or semi-circular crownshape with short fronds.

Palms must have a minimum of 30 leaves in thecrown. A higher rate of leaf production is reliableindication of early flowering and high yield.

Short and stout bunch stalks without the tendencyto drooping

Select palms, which produces more than 12 bunchesin a year with more number of female flowers (25or more) and highest setting percentage.

The age of the mother palm should be of 25-60 yearsfor tall variety and 15-25 years for dwarf variety.Avoid very old palms of above 60 years age.

Palm must be regular bearer with annual yield ofmore than 80 nuts and copra content not less than150 g/nut.

Palms must have reach full bearing stage and havebeen providing consistently high yield for at leastfive years.

36

Select the palms, which are free from pest and dis-ease incidence.

Do not select palms growing near the houses, cattleshed, compost pits etc as it is not possible to differ-entiate inherently superior palms from those whoseperformance is due to favorable environment.

Avoid palms producing excessive barren nuts orshedding large number of immature nuts.

Criteria for selection of seed nuts

Select fully matured nuts i.e. about 12-month-oldnuts should be harvested.

Collect seed nuts from January to May from the se-lected mother palms.

Select nuts from heavy bunch (> 12 nuts) which ger-minate much quicker than those from light bunch(< 6 nuts).

Select medium size nuts of round or spherical shapehaving a husked nut weight of at least 680 grams

Do not select nuts having irregular shape and size.

Rope harvest of seed nuts from the trees that arevery tall and in places where the ground is hard.

Select the nuts from the center of the bunch.

Harvested seed nuts are stored in shade to preventdrying of nut water. The seed nuts are generallystored till their husks become completely dry. Seednuts of the tall variety can be stored for two monthswhereas the seed nuts of dwarfs should be sownwith 15 days of harvest.

37

Raising nursery

Select well-drained, coarse-textured soil near water

source for irrigation. Soil may be treated with chlordane 5%

dust @ 120 kg/ha in place where nursery is raised for the first

time to prevent white grubs and termites infestation. Nursery

can be raised in the open place with artificial shade or in gar-

dens where the palms are tall and the ground is not completely

shaded.

The seed nuts should be planted in long and narrow beds

at a spacing of 40 x 30 cm during May- June either vertically or

horizontally in 20-25 cm deep trenches. Irrigate the nursery

once in 3 or 4 days during summer. In areas having high inci-

dence of insect pests and diseases, the seeds can also be treated

with insecticides/pesticides prior to sowing. The seed nuts are

soaked in water for one hour and then kept in a fungicidal

solution (Mancozeb @ 3%) for two hours. In the case of insec-

ticide treatment, the seed nuts are soaked in water for one hour

and then kept in an insecticide solution (Chlorpyriphos @

0.05%) for two hours. To prevent bud rot/dry rot in the seed-

lings, the nursery can be drenched with Mancozeb @ 3%.

Poly bag nursery

Poly bag nursery can be adopted for producing seed-

lings with greater vigour. As a result of the intensive care and

better maintenance of the polybag nursery, vigourous seed-

lings with better root system are obtained, which attain rapid

reproductive development. Compared to the nursery in the

field, watering, weeding and culling operations for the elimi-

nation of unwanted seedlings are easier in poly bag nursery.

38

The seeds can be sown in black polythene bags of 500- gauge

thickness, 45 x 45 cm size for bigger nuts and 30 x 30 cm for

smaller nuts. The bottom of the bags is to be provided with 8-

10 holes for draining the excess water. To fill bigger bags

around 10-12 kg and for smaller bags around 7-8 kg of potting

mixture will be required. The commonly recommended pot-

ting media are top soil mixed with sand in 3:1 ratio or fertile

top soil, sand or coir dust and well rotten and powdered cattle

manure in the ratio of 3: 1: 1. red earth, well rotten and pow-

dered cattle manure and sand in 1: 1 : 1 can also be used. In

order to produce poly bag seedlings, initially the seed nuts are

sown very closely and allowed to germinate in a pre nursery

bed. The seed nuts start germinating about three months after

sowing. The germinated nuts are picked out from nursery once

a week till 80 % of nut germination or 5 months from sowing,

whichever is earlier. The germinated nuts are then placed in

the half filled bags with the sprout positioned upwards in the

centre of the bag and sufficient potting mixture is added to fill

the bags up to two-third portion and the sides slightly pressed

to keep the nut firm. Usually the poly bag seedlings are main-

tained for about 8 to 10 months. The size of the poly bag nurs-

ery bed can be 6 x 3 m with about 115 cm spacing between

beds for hose irrigation and other cultural operations.

Germination percentage

The seeds can be sown in sand/potting

mixture.Germination generally starts from the second month

of sowing and continues till the sixth month of sowing, de-

pending on the variety. Generally, germination is recorded till

the fifth month of sowing and good seed lot will give more

39

than 80% germination. However, in the case of Dwarf variet-

ies such as the Chowghat Orange Dwarf a lower percentage of

germination of around 65% is acceptable.

Seed nuts of tall palms will begin germination within

90-130 days after sowing and 80-85% of seed nuts must have

germinated within five months after sowing. Seed nuts of

dwarf palms germinate 60-95 days after sowing

Criteria for selection of seedling in the nursery

Select seedlings, which have germinated early, i.e.

germination within 3 months after sowing, are suit-

able for planting and it is advisable to reject all the

sprouts which germinated after 5 months of sow-

ing.

From one-year-old nursery, select vigorous seed-

lings having minimum of six leaves and girth of 10

cm at the collar.

Select seedlings which have early splitted the

unexpanded leaf into leaf lets.

Select only healthy seedlings free from pest and dis-

ease.

Establishment of a plantation

Planting systems

Mostly coconuts are planted in square system of plant-ing with a spacing of 7.5 m x 7.5m. This will accommodate 177palms per ha. Pits of 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0m size are dug out and filledwith topsoil, powdered cow dung up to 60 cm depth duringsummer season and seedlings are planted in the pits with theonset of monsoon. In water-logged soils, mounds are made

40

and seedlings are planted in the center of the mound.

Time of planting

Planting is generally done during the beginning of mon-soon season. i.e., from June to September. In areas subject towater logged condition planting can be done after the cessa-tion of the monsoon.

Care of young palms

Sufficient attention and care must be taken to the youngpalms in the initial growth period. The seedlings must be prop-erly shaded during summer. Irrigation with 45 litres of wateronce in 4 days must be provided during summer months. Thepits should be cleared of weeds periodically.

ARECANUT

Arecanut palm (Areca catechu L.) is another importantplantation crops of India. The crop occupies a prominent placeamong the cultivated crops in India especially in the states ofKarnataka, Assam, Kerala, Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil Nadu,Meghalaya and Andaman & Nicobar group of Islands. Indiais the largest producer and consumer of arecanut and it con-tinues to dominate world in area under cultivation and pro-duction and productivity. In A&N Islands in an area of 4046.44hecatares with a production of 3058.46 tonnes.

Climate and Soil

Arecanut requires abundant and well distributed rain-fall. It can be grown upto 1000m altitude in deep and welldrained soils without high water table. Laterite, redlloam andalluvial soils are most suited.

41

Varieties

Variety Growth Shape Yield-Chali Recommendedhabit & Size (kg/palm) for

of nut

Mangala semi Round, 3.0 Costal KarnatakaTalll Small islands and Keralaearly

Sumangala Tall Oval, 3.28 Karnataka, KerelaMedium

Sreemangala Tall Round 3.18 Karnataka andBold Kerala

Mohitnagar Tall Oval to 3.67 West Bengal,Round, Karnataka,Medium Kerala

Samrudhi Tall Oval to 4.34 Andaman &Round Nicobar islandsBold

Method of Propagation

Arecanut is an exclusively seed propagated crop. Beinga perennial and cross pollinated, it is essential that adequatecare is taken in the selection of proper planting material.

Method of seed production

Open pollinated nuts can be collected from the compactblocks established by inter se material of respective varieties.Inter se mating is recommended in order to produce geneti-cally superior pure planting materials and also to achievegreater homogeneity and allow completely random mating.Crossing is suggested to produce hybrids between desiredparents. Selection of typical hybrid seedlings in the nursery ismust.

42

Mother palm selection

The selected mother palm should be more than 12 years

old with early bearing nature and with high fruit set. Palm

should be regular bearer and consistent yielder. Presence of

more number of leaves on crown is also a desirable trait and

palms should be free from diseases and pest incidences.

Seed propagation

Fully ripened nuts having weight of above 35 g should

be selected depending upon the varieties/cultivars. The nuts

selected should float vertically with calyx-end pointing

upwards when allowed to float on water. These nuts produce

the seedlings of greater vigour. The germination should be

more than 80 %.

Method of seedling production

Primary nursery

Selected seed nuts are sown 5cm apart in sand beds of

1.5m width and convenient length with their stalk ends point-

ing upwards. Thick mulching is to be done with straw. Beds

are to be watered daily. The nuts usually commence germina-

tion by 43 days and complete by 94 days. The seedlings are

retained in primary nursery for about six months.

Secondary nursery

For raising the seedlings in secondary nursery, beds of

about 150cm width and 15 cm height is suitable. A spacing of

30-45 cm is considered optimum for planting three month old

sprouts in secondary nursery. The secondary nursery should

43

be given a basal dose of decomposed farmyard manure @ about5 tonnes per ha. The sprouts from primary nursery can also beraised in polythene bags (25 x 15 cm, 150 gauge) filled withpotting mixture (Top soil:FYM:sand=7:3:2). The nursery shouldbe partially shaded for obtaining the quality seedlings.

Standards of the planting material

The seedlings selected should have maximum number ofleaves (five or more) and minimum of 90 cm height with maxi-mum girth at collar region. 12 to 18 month old seedlings arepreferred for transplanting to obtain more vigorous palms withearly flowering. The seedling should have well established rootsystem with 5-8 main fibrous roots intact and active while trans-planting.

Planting time

Planting should be done in May-June in well drainedsoild, and August-September in clay soils prone to water log-ging. May-June planting should be preferred in North-East.

Diseases and pest incidences

The major diseases noticed in the nursery or the trans-planted seedlings are collar rot, leaf blight and leaf spot.

Collar rot

This is common in secondary nurseries and field plantedseedlings. Infection by the pathogen is through collar regionor root. Infection through collar region cause rotting of thegrowing bud while root infection leads to seedling wilt. Pro-viding good drainage and soil drenching with I % Bordeauxmixture will reduce the incidence.

44

SPICES

The major spices grown in these islands are black pepper,

cinnamon, nutmeg and clove. Besides the chilly, ginger and

turmeric are also cultivated. Spices are mainly grown under

multistoried cropping system. The average yield of spices is

low in comparison to mainland due to lack of proven

technology under these islands situation. Previously planting

materials of spices crop were imported from mainland (Kerala)

which costs more.

More constraints in spices production

In Nicobar District major area under coconut

plantation. Though there is great scope for spices

cultivation but tribals are reluctant to take up spices

cultivation.

Lack of quality planting material in appropriate

time.

In nutmeg, identification of female plants is difficult

in early stages by farmers, as a result farmers suffer

a lot. By the time plants attain maturity, there is

possibility of more male plants.

The season for harvest of ginger in these islands is

January/ February and planting season is May/ is

June which results in heavy losses due to decay.

There is no processing unit and marketing facility

for ginger and turmeric. So farmers do not get

remunerative price due to over flooding in the

market.

45

In the humid climate of Andaman and Nicobar

islands, the incidence of pest and disease is very

common e.g. black pepper suffers heavily due to

slow wilt and leaf spot disease. Similarly clove

suffers from stem borer and leaf spot. Considerable

damage is caused to young pepper vines due to

damage by giant african snails also.

To protect seedling damage from direct sunlight and

high rainfall it is desirable to raise the spices seedlings either

in poly houses/ shade net houses made of polysheets/ shade

nets. These structures also protect the seedlings from pest and

disease occurrence and also minimize the mortality of the

seedlings compared to the open field conditions.

BLACK PEPPER

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), the king of spices, is

obtained from the perennial climbing vine. It is native to

Malabar, a region in the Western Coast of South India (Kerala).

Pepper is cultivated since millennia. In Andaman & Nicobar

Islands, the settlers of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka

introduced the spices from South India. Initially it was adopted

for own consumption and then slowly expanded for

commercial purpose. Presently pepper is grown in about 697.45

ha land with an annual production of 36.05 tonnes. The

productivity of pepper (51.68 kg/ ha) in these islands is very

low when compared with the other pepper growing areas of

the country. It is mainly grown in home garden and as mixed

crop in coconut and arecanut plantations.

46

Climate and Soil

Pepper is a plant of humid tropics, which requires ad-equate rainfall and humidity. The crop performs well in tem-perature ranging between 10-40 0C. A well distributed annualrainfall of 1250- 2000 mm is ideal. It can be grown in a widerange of soils such as clay loam, red loam, sandy loam andlateritic soils with a pH of 4.5 to 6.0. However it thrives best onvirgin soil rich in organic matter.

Varieties Suitable For the Islands Condition

Among seven varieties screened, the varieties likePanniyur-1, Panniyur- 2 and Panniyur 5 are found suitable forAndaman conditions.

Propagation

Black pepper can be propagated through seeds and vegetativemeans. Owing to its heterozygous nature, seedlings will notbreed to true to types. Hence black pepper is propagatedvegetatively mainly from cuttings. Runner shoots are ideal formaking cuttings.

Varieties Special features

Panniyur -1 More adaptable to open conditions, sensitiveto excess shade

Panniyur -2 Shade tolerant.

Panniyur - 4 Stable in yield, performs well even in adversecondition.

Panniyur - 5 Suitable for intercropping in arecanut &coconut gardens.

Sreekara Tolerant to drought condition.

Pournami Tolerant to root knot nematode.

Subbakara Selection from karimunda

47

Section of mother vines

The runner shoots for making cuttings should be selected

from uniformly established gardens free from pest and

diseases. While selecting elite mother vines, following points

should be kept in mind.

a) Age of the elite mother vines should 7 years and

above.

b) The vine should have given a stable yield of at least

2 kg dry pepper /vine/year for 4 consecutive years

and above.

c) Runner vines may be collected from a particular va-

riety, in which purity may be maintained.

Black pepper can be multiplied by following methods;

i) Conventional method (through cutting)

ii) Serpentine method

iii) Bamboo split/ Rapid multiplication method

iv) Air layering

Conventional Method (through cuttings)

Pepper is propagated mainly by cuttings raised form

runner shoots. Runner shoots from high yielding ad healthy

vines are separated from the main vine during February- March

and after trimming the leaves, cuttings of 2-3 nodes each are

planted in polythene bags filled with potting mixture contain-

ing soil, sand and now dung at 1:1:1 ratio. Cutting from middle

1/3rd of the shoots are desirable as they are high yielding.

48

Adequate shade must for planting and irrigated frequently.

The cuttings will strike roots and become ready for planting in

May- June. For early initiation of the root, the basal end of the

cutting can be dipped in rooting power viz., Seradix which is

readily available.

Serpentine Method

It is a rapid method of producing rooted cuttings. In

this method polythene bags are filled with rooting medium

(oil, sand and cow dung at 1:1:1 ratio) and 20 polythene bags

are arranged in a row. Rooted cutting of black pepper is placed

in the initial/ first poly bag in a row and the vine is allowed to

grow in a serpentine manner. When the growing vine passes

from the poly bag tow filled with rooting medium the vine is

pressed into the rooting medium with the help of coconut leaf-

let stick, which provides physical support to strike roots on

each of polythene bag. For rapid growth each vine is fed at 15

days interval with, 500g muriate of potash and 250g magne-

sium sulphate in 250 litres of water.

49

After 2-3 months the vine reaches the other end of thepolythene bag kept in a row. Then, the terminal bud is nippedoff and a light pinch of pressure should be given in the firstvine. Later, the vine is crushed at each polythene bag, in orderto activate the axillary buds. After 10 days, each vine is sepa-rated from the crushed point and the polythene bag with singlenode cutting are kept in cool humid place for about 10 daysthereafter the rooted cuttings can be used for main field plant-ing.

Rapid Multiplication Method

The method has been developed by the Indian Instituteof Spice Research, Calicut. Here a trench of 0.75 m deep and0.3 m wide having convenient length is made and then filledwith rooting medium (soil, sand and cow dung at 1:1:1 ratio).Split halves of bamboo with 8-10 cm diameter and 1.25 to 1.50m length are fixed at 450 angle on a strong support touchingone another.

One rooted cutting can be planted in each of the bam-boo split. The lower portion of the bamboo split are filled witha rooting medium (coir dust and FYM 1:2) and the growingvine is tied to the bamboo with dried banana sheath fiber insuch a way as to keep the nodes pressed in to the rooting me-dium. The vines are irrigated regularly. As the growth of vinesprogress the bamboo splits are filled with rooting medium andeach nodes are tied regularly.

Fig 2. Arrangement of Bamboos in rapid multiplicationtechnique

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For rapid growth each vine is fed at 15 days intervalwith 250ml of nutrient solution prepared by dissolving 1 kgurea, 750g supper phosphate, 500g muriate of potash and 250g magnesium sulphate in 250 liters of water.

When the vine reaches the top of the bamboo in 3 to 4months, the terminal bud is nipped off and the vine is crushedat about three nodes above the base, in order to activate theaxillary buds. After 10 days each vine is cut at the crushedpoint, removed from the rooting medium and separated. Theseparated single node cutting with bunch of roots are plantedin the poly bag filled with pot mixture and kept in cool humidcondition. When the buds starts developing in about 3 weeksthe poly bags are shifted to semi shade condition.

The main advantages of this method are

1. Multiplication rapid (1.40)

2. Root system is well developed

3. Better establishment

Air Layering

In the conventional system of raising rooted cuttings,rapid multiplication and simple method of nursery raising ofblack pepper is accepted but adoption is not becoming popularby the growers and commercial nurserymen because of theprohibitive cost in the system. Hence, a new system has beendeveloped by the CARI, Port Blair, which is a very simple,cheaper and will produce better quality seedlings.

A trench of 30 cm wide and 30 cm deep is dug atconvenient length with sufficient drainage. The trenches arefilled with sand, garden topsoil and dry cow dung in 1:1:1proportion. Adequate over - head shade is provided in thearea by erecting pandals covered with coconut leaves or agro-shade net. Then, the rooted cuttings ate planted in the trench,

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keeping adequate distance between the plants so as to facilitatethe coiling of the trailing vine. When the vines starts trailing,exposing the adventitious root in each nodes, air layeringshould be carried out after leaving 2-3 nodes from the base.The leaves with petiole are removed by using a sharp knife.About 10-15g weight of sphagnum moss and dry cow dungslightly moistened are placed around the stem to enclose thenode. A piece of polythene (4 sq.cm) is wrapped carefullyaround the node so that the soil mixture is completely coveredand tied firmly at both the ends. The same procedure isrepeated by leaving alternate nodes and continued till 70-80days, so that 9-10 rooted cutting are produced from a singlevine. The suitable time for removal of the layer from the parentplant is determined by observing root formation through thetransparent film of the polythene. When the vines are readyfor separation, the tip of the vine is nipped off and a crushedat the base of the third node. After a week the vines areseparated at every lower base of the air- layered portion.

To facilitate rapid growth of vines, a nutrient solutionconsisting of 1 kg urea, 1 kg rock phosphate, 1 kg muriate ofpotash and 250 g of magnesium sulphate dissolved in 300 litreof water is applied to the vine at the rate of 2510 ml per vine.In this method, 10 cuttings can be produced from a single vinewithin a period of three months. Thus in a year we can produce40 cuttings.

Test for vigour of seedlings

i) The age of the rooted cutting should be 3 months fromthe date of planting in the polythene bags.

ii) The rooted cutting should be of minimum height of25 cm with 5 with vigorous growth withoutexhibiting any nutrient deficiency symptoms, pestand disease infection.

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iii) Varietal purity should be maintained.

Disease Management in Nursery.

The two important nursery disease viz., leaf rot caused

by Rhizoctionia solani and basal wilt caused by Sclerotium

rolfsi can be minimum if solarised soil is inoculated with VAM

and Trichoderma. However, if isolated incidence of these

disease is noticed, timely adoption of phytosanitary measures

and spot application Bordeaux mixture (1%) may be done. In

areas where nematode problems occur, addition of crushed

neem kernal or neem cake is recommended.

CLOVE

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum L), the dried unopened

flower buds of the evergreen tree is an important spice,

popular for its flavor and medicinal values. Clove oil is used

in perfumeries, pharmaceuticals and flavouring industries. In

India, it is cultivated in 3430 ha with a production of 3270

tonnes, whereas in Andaman of it is cultivated in an area of

199.61 ha with a production of 7.84 tonnes and the productivity

of 39.28 kg/ha.

Soil and Climate

Clove is a tropical tree, requires warm humid climate,

with a temperature of 20 to 300 C, and annual rainfall of 1500

to 2500 mm. deep black loam soil with high humus content is

ideal for its growth. It grows satisfactory on laterite soils, clay

loams and black soil having good drainage. However sandy

soil is not suitable.

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Propagation

Clove is propagated through seed, which is calledmother clove. Fruits are allowed to ripe on the tree and dropdown naturally. Such fruits are collected from the ground andsown directly in nursery or soaked in water overnight beforesowing. In the later case the pericarp is removed before sowing.Since the viability is lost within a week after harvest sowingmust be done immediately after collection.

Nursery Practices

Seedbed of 15-20 cm height, one meter width andconvenient length are prepared. The beds are made with loosesoil over which a layer of 5-8 cm thick sand is spread. Seedsare sown in a depth of 2 cm 2 to 3 spacing. The seed bed shouldbe protected from direct sunlight. Germination starts from 10to 15 days last for about 40 days. The germinated seedlingsare transplanted in polythene bags (30 x 15cm) containing soil,sand and FYM in 1:1: 1 ration. Seedling of 18 to 24 months oldtransplanted the main field.

NUTMEG

Nutmegs (Myristica fragrans) play an important role inconfectionary pharmaceutical industries. In A&N Islandsnutmug is grown in an area of 82.62 ha with annual productionof 8, 70,000 no's nuts. Nutmeg and mace also yields 7 to 16and 4 to 15 percent of oil respectively. The oil is used forflavouring food products, liquors and in perfumery industries.The pericarp is used for making jams, jellies and pickles.

Climate and Soil

Nutmeg prefers warm humid climate with an annualrainfall of 1500mm. areas with soils of clay loam, sandy loamand red laterite are ideal for its growth. Both dry climate andwaterlogged condition are not suitable for nutmeg cultivation.

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Varieties

There is no named variety of nutmeg in India.

Propagation and Nursery Techniques

Nutmegs are usually propagated through seed. Large

sized fully ripe fruits are collected as and when they fall. The

fleshy rind of the fruit and mace covering the seeds are

removed and sown immediately in nursery beds or poly bags.

Regular watering is essential for better germination. The

germination starts from the 30th days and lasts up to 90 days

after sowing. About 18 to 24 months old seedlings are used

for transplanting in the main field.

Epicotyl Grafting Technique

Nutmeg seedlings (20-25 days old) having 10-12 cm in

height with 3-4 coppery colour leaves are used as rootstocks.

A transverse cut is given at 4-5 cm above the cotyledon and

the succulent slender stem is cut off thereafter a vertical cut

(cleft) of 4-5 cm length is made in the middle with a sharp

knife. The procured scion stick is prepared into a wedge shape

by giving a slating cut of 4-5 cm length on either side at the

basal portion. It is then inserted into the cleft of the rootstock

carefully in such a way that the cambial layers of both the

rootstock and the scion are matching. The joint portion is

wrapped with a plastic film tightly for further healing. The

scion is protected from desiccation by capping/ covering it

with a narrow polythene bag. The grafted plants are kept under

the shade for 10 to 15 days. Then the cap/cover is removed

and the grafts are shifted to open condition.

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CINNAMON

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) also called as Ceylon

cinnamon or 'sweet wood' is one of the oldest known spices is

the dried bark of cinnamon verum. In A&N Islands cinnamon

is grown in an area of 152.59 ha with annual production of

18.03tonnes. Leaf oil and bark oil of cinnamon can be distilled

from the dried leaves and bark respectively. The oil has a

pungent odour and hot taste and contains 70 to 80% of eugenol.

The leaf oil and bark oil are used commercially in many

pharmacement of about 2000 to 2500 mm.

Climate and Soil

Cinnamon is hardly plant, which tolerates a wide range

of soil and climatic condition. It comes up well form sea level

up to an elevation of about 1000m. Mostly grown as a rainfed

crop with an annual rainfall requirement of about 2000 to 2500

mm.

Nursery Techniques

It is commonly propagated through seeds. However

cutting as well as layers can be used for propagation.

Cinnamon generally flowers in January and fruits ripen during

June- August. The fully ripened fruits are either picked up

from the tree or the fallen ones are collected from the ground.

Seeds are removed from the fruits, washed and sown

immediately in nursery beds or polythene bags containing a

mixture of sand, FYM and soil (2:1:1). Germination starts

within 15 to 20 days.

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Vegetables and Tubers crops Seedlingraising and their management

Introduction

The climatic conditions of A & N islands are warm

humid with the temperature ranging between 22-32oC. The

mean relative humidity is about 82% with an average annual

rainfall varying between 3000-3500 mm. The Andaman and

Nicobar Islands have long been facing a chronic shortage of

vegetables, although these islands have potential land

resources to meet the local demand. In A & N Islands

vegetables are cultivated over an area of 3803.58ha with a total

production of 25682.30MT with a productivity of 7t/ha. The

vegetables like potato, onion, garlic and other non-perishables

can be imported from mainland for local consumption. The

production of other vegetables in the islands is inhibited by

the pest and diseases, over saturation of soil due to heavy rains,

constraints of sunlight during rainy season and pollination

problems due to less movement of the bees and other insects.

Because of above constraints, common vegetables like brinjal,

cowpea, gourds are also sold very costly. After December,

when the first crop of rice is harvested, vegetables are grown

as rice fallow and very cheap for a period of 1-2months. With

the onset of rains, all these low lying areas are filled with rain

water and suddenly there will be scarcity of vegetables and

the cost goes very high. Even though it has been proved that

suitable crops and their varieties can perform very well under

these islands, lack of suitable land, cost of labor, attack of

pests/lack of planting materials and poor transport facilities,

make vegetable production a challenging job. In solanaceous

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vegetable crops, some of the bacterial wilt resistant varieties

of brinjal, chilli and tomato are performing with 80-90 per cent

survival but in the next season becomes susceptible. Similarly,

cucurbitaceous crops like cucumber, ridge gourd and bitter

gourd performs well in these islands. Some of the non-

traditional vegetables like French bean, cauliflower, knol khol,

capsicum etc. also come up well during dry season (December

- April). Hence, the production and supply of healthy seedlings

is very important for getting higher yield and quality. In most

of the advanced countries vegetable seedling production is

taken up by specialized companies or as a capital venture. In

India, vegetable seedling production is gradually changing

from open field nurseries to protected raised bed or seedling

tray productions in some of the intensive vegetables growing

areas. Seedling production as a specialized practice is also fast

catching up in several states of India.

Benefits nursery raising:

The soil is well prepared and all operationsrequired to raise seedlings are carried out in mostefficient manner.

Large number of seedlings can be produced froman unit area

Sowing seeds in nursery allows additional time forpreparatory tillage in the main field and if needed,the harvesting of previous crop can be prolonged

Off season sowing of seeds becomes possible whichultimately fetches more return.

Over crowding of plants in the main plot can bechecked or thinning operation can be avoided

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Discarding of week seedlings become possible

It reduces the seed rate and cost of cultivation

Types of nursery beds:

There are 3 types of beds, viz., flat bed, raised bed andhot bed.

i) Flat bed:

This is an old but popular type of bed commonly usedby the farmers in villages. The width of the bed is adjusted toapproach its centre conveniently. This types of bed is prone toover watering and thus decaying of seedlings. It is notrecommended specially during rainy season.

ii) Raised bed:

This is the most common type of nursery bed which hasbeen widely accepted by the vegetable growers. The height ofthe bed is kept to 20 cm and width from 80-100 cm with theconvenient length as the requirement of the main field. Inraised bed, the remain loose over watering is avoided and rootgrowth gets intensified. It also facilitates the air and lightpenetration, intercultural operations, pests and diseasesmanagements.

Hot bed:

This is not very common.

Protected structure for seedling raising

The seedling trays are commonly kept under nylon nethouse or poly house. Net house is cost effective and feasibleto grow vegetable seedlings. It is commonly built using granitestone pillars of size 10' x 6" x 4". These stone pillars are spaced

at Sm x Sm and grouted to a depth of 2 feet. The stone pillars

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all along the periphery of the net house should be tied to apeg stone using guy wire. The height of the structure shouldbe 8 feet. On top of each stone pillar used rubber tube is tiedso that sharp edges of the pillars do not damage the nylonmesh and shade net. Wire grid is provided at the top of thestructure as support for the nylon mesh. Normally farmerscover the sides with 40 mesh UV stabilized nylon insect proofnet and in the top 50% UV stabilized HDPE shade net is usedto cover the net house. It is recommended to cover the sidesand top of the net house with 40 mesh UV stabilized nyloninsect proof net. During summer and hot sunny days 25 % or35% UV stabilized HDPE shade net is spread over the nylonmesh on the top of the net house to maintain ambienttemperatures suitable for crop growth. Provision should bemade to pull polythene sheet over the pro-trays in the eventof rainfall by way of making low tunnel structure. Forpreparing low tunnel structure, 3/4" HDPE pipes or bamboostick and 400-gauge polyethylene sheet can be used. Theapproximate cost for building stone pillar net house will beRs. 80 to Rs. 100 per square meter depending on the locality.

Solarization of nursery beds:

It is a method of heating soil through sunlight bycovering it with clear /transparent polythene sheet to controlsoil borne diseases including nematodes. Other additionalbeneficial effects include control of weeds, insect pests andrelease of plant nutrients resulting in increased crop growth.Solarization is a non-chemical alternative for disease, insectpest and weed control. It can be successfully used fordisinfection of any seedbed to produce healthy seedlings of

vegetable.

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Method of soil solarization:

Prepare the raised bed, add organic manure and make

the bed ready for sowing.

Bring the bed to field capacity by irrigating. Cover the

nursery beds with 200 gauge transparent polyethylene film as

tightly and closely to the ground as possible.

Leave the beds covered for 30-40 days. The soil

temperature of the nursery bed thus covered can go up to 52°C

in summer.

Care should be taken to see that sheets do not tear off.

Types of Containers

i) Seedling Trays or Punnets :

Seedling trays and punnets are shallow so the seedraising mix stays warm. Shallow seed trays also a have a bettersurface/depth ratio to improve aeration. Seed can be sowndirectly into seedling trays or the seedling tray used as a trayto hold punnets, jiffy pots, jiffy starters or 48 cell growing trays.48 cell growing trays are made of a soft plastic that allows youto squeeze the entire seedling out without damage to the rootball. Seedling trays are designed to fit bottom heat propagatorsand Mini Propagators. Sowing seed directly into a seedlingtray gives you a good surface to work from in order to 'prickout' or just thin your seedlings. Small tree seeds should firstbe sown in a seedling tray and later transplanted at the 4-6-leaf stage, into individual tree tubes, before planting out intotheir final position. This is because pots are too deep and staytoo cold and wet for good germination. Tree seeds can take 3-

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6 months to germinate, depending on factors like soil

temperature so they should be labelled with the name and

date of sowing and left alone in a seed tray. Seedling trays are

also called as pro-trays (propagation tray) or flats, plug trays

or jiffy trays. The most commonly used are 98 celled trays for

tomato, capsicum, cabbage, cauliflower, chilli, yellow wax,

brinjal and bitter gourd. The dimension is 54 cm in length and

27 cm in breadth with a cavity depth of 4 cm. Trays are made

of polypropylene and reusable. Life of the tray depends on

the handling. Seedling trays have been designed in such a way

that each seedling gets appropriate quantity of growing media

and the right amount of moisture. Trays have pre punched

holes to each cavity for proper drainage of excess water and

also have right spacing. These trays are readily available with

nursery input suppliers in Bangalore

ii) Plantable Pots:

These include Jiffy Pots, Jiffy Plant Starters and Pot

maker Pots. These allow you to sow individual seeds in

controlled conditions, without the need for pricking out. A

big advantage is they reduce transplanting shock as the whole

container is planted. The Jiffy Plant Starters are particularly

useful for starting tomatoes, capsicums and eggplants. The

Jiffy Pots are great for starting larger seeds such as zucchini,

corn, melon and cucumber. A Potmaker is used to make your

own small pots out of newspaper. Jiffy Pots and handmade

Potmaker pots need to be filled with a seed raising mix, while

the Jiffy Plant Starters are a container and mix combined.

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Growing media for seedling trays

Sterilized commercial growing media is better as theincidence of seedling diseases is less or nil and it contains rightamount of moisture in it. The most common growing mediaused is coco peat, a by-product of coir industry and it has highwater holding capacity. It should be well decomposed,sterilized and supplemented with major and minor nutrientsbefore using as it is low in nutrients and high in lignin content.Other growing media which have given good result arecocopeat:vermicompost and vermicompost:sand in equalproportions

Seedling production using seedling trays

In the past, the farmers themselves used to produce theseedlings required for transplanting at lower cost, as most ofvarieties were open pollinated types. Nowadays, manyprogressive farmers and entrepreneurs are taking up qualityseedling production using seedling trays as a commercialactivity mostly for F1 hybrids as the cost of seeds is quite high.Seedling production of tomato, capsicum, cauliflower, brinjaland cabbage F1 hybrids using seedling trays and protectivestructure such as insect proof net houses, shade houses andlow cost naturally ventilated greenhouses are already acommercial venture.

Advantages

Provides independent area for each seed togerminate and grow

Improve germination and minimises wastage ofexpensive seeds

Reduces seedling mortality or damping off becauseof sterilized growing media.

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Uniform, healthy growth and early maturity. .

Ease in handling and cheaper transportation.

Better root development and less damage whiletransplanting .

Good main-field establishment and crop stand

Method of seedling raising in seedling trays

Fill the seedling tray with the appropriate growingmedium.

Make a small depression (0.5 cm) with fingertip, inthe center of the cell sowing. Alternatively,depression can be created by stacking 10 trays oneover other and pressing the trays together.

Sow one seed per cell and cover with medium.

No irrigation is required before or after sowing ifcoco peat having 300-400 percent moisture is used.

Keep 10 trays one over other for 3 to 6 days,depending on the crops. Cover the entire stack withpolyethylene sheet. This ensures conservation ofmoisture until germination. No irrigation isrequired till seedling emergence. Care must betaken for spreading the trays when the seedling isjust emerging, otherwise seedlings will getetiolated.

Seeds start emerging after about 3-6 days of sowingdepending upon the crops. Shift the trays to polyor net house and spread over a bed covered with

polyethylene sheet.

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The trays should be irrigated lightly every day

depending upon the prevailing weather conditions

by using a fine sprinkling rose can or with hose

pipe fitted with rose. Never over irrigate trays, as

it results in leaching of nutrients and building up

of diseases.

Drench the trays fungicides as a precautionary

measure against seedling mortality.

The media may need supplementation of nutrients

if the seedlings show deficiency symptoms. Spray

0.3 per cent (3g/ litre) of 100 percent water soluble

fertilizer (19 all with trace elements) twice ( 12 and

20 days after sowing).

Protect the trays from rain by covering with

polyethylene sheets in the form of low tunnel.

Harden the seedlings by withholding irrigation and

reducing the shade before transplanting.

Spray systemic insecticides like lmidacloprid (0.2

ml/litre) 7 - 10 days after germination and before

transplanting, for managing the insect vectors.

The seedlings will be ready in about 21-42 days for

transplanting to the main field depending upon the

crop.

Mechanization of vegetable seedling production

As more and more vegetable farmers are resorting to buy

their seedlings from the commercial vegetable nurseries, there

is a need to go for the mechanization for mass-production of

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vegetable seedlings. To address this, IIHR, Bangalore hasdeveloped the following machinery to facilitate mechanizationof vegetable seedling production by the interested nurseries:a) Media Siever, b) Batch Type Media Mixer, c) Protray FillingMachine, d) Plate Type Dibbler, e) Handle Operated ProtrayDibbler, Plate Type Vacuum Seeder, g) Handle OperatedVacuum Seeder for Portrays, h) Automatic Protray SeedingMachine. Using this machine about 200 seedling trays per hourcan be filled and seeds sown.

Seedling raising by raised bed method

Prepare 10 m x 15 m area of land by finely tilling ordigging to raise seedling for one hectare area.

Prepare beds of 9 m long 1 m wide and 15-20 cmhigh and number of beds require depends on thecrop.

Break the clods and bring the bed to a fine tilth.

Apply 15 kg well decomposed FYM to each of thisbed. Add chemical fertilizers @ 100 g each ofnitrogen, phosphorus and potash to each bed.

Mix 3 g Trichoderma culture in 100 g neem cake/sq mt of nursey area and prepare nursery beds. Sowthe seeds on lines with a spacing of 8 cm X 2 cmand cover with a thin layer of a manure.

Cover the bed with dry grass or straw untilgermination.

Sprinkle 50 to 100 g of insecticide dust formulationsaround the nursery beds to prevent ants from eatingthe seeds.

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As soon as seeds germinate, drench the nurserywith copper oxy chloride (at 3gilitre).

Cover the beds with 40 or 50 mesh nylon net toprotect against vectors like whitefly and thrips andaphids.

Seedlings have to be hardened before transplantingby withholding the irrigation and removing thenylon net.

Spray systemic insecticides like Imidacloprid (0.2ml/litre) 7 -10 days after germination and beforetransplanting, for managing the insect vectors.

The seedlings will be ready in 25-42 days aftersowing for transplanting depending on the crops.

Use of Nylon net

It is important to have vegetable seedlings that are freeof insect pests and disease problems. The earlier the plantsare infected with pests or diseases, the more severe the effecton the field crop growth and yield. Hence, growing vegetableseedling under cover using insect proof nylon net (40-50 mesh)is a good practice. Use Casurina or bamboo poles or GI pipesto support the net. To raise seedlings sufficient for one hectare,a net covered area of about 150 square meter is required, whichwill require one time expenditure of Rs. 5000 for procuringinputs and stitching the net.

Raising off-season nurseries:

Plug-tray nursery raising technology

The cucurbits are warm season crops. They are sown inlast week of February or in first week of March when nighttemperature is around 18-200C. But in polyhouse theirseedlings can be raised during December and January in

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polythene bags protected from cold winds and frost. Byplanting these seedlings during January-end or first week ofFebruary, their yield could be taken in one and one-and a halfmonths in advance than the normal method of direct sowing.This technology fetches the bonus price due to marketing ofproduce in the off-season. Mostly the farmers are growingcucurbits during their normal growing season by sowing ofseeds and when such vegetables are harvested for marketing,the markets are flooded with these vegetables and the growerssometimes are even not getting back their cost of production.But the same vegetables are fetching very high price duringtheir off-season availability. Seedlings of these vegetables cannot be raised through the traditional system of nurserygrowing in soil media because these vegetables can not tolerateslight damage to their root and shoot system. But few yearsback a technology was developed for off-season cultivationof these crops under which seedlings of these cucurbits wereraised in poly bags by using soil and compost as media, butthis technology is expensive, needs lot of protected space andlabour, and the plastic of the polyethylene bags is a problemfor the environment. At the Indo-Israel Project of the IndianAgricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, plug-tray nurseryraising technology by using cocopeat, vermiculite and perliteas soilless media has been standardized for raising off-seasonseedlings of almost all the cucurbitaceous vegetables. Thistechnique is capable of vigorous root development, suitablefor nursery raising without any damage to the seedlings. Thistechnology is quite economical for the vegetable growers ofthe northern plains of India, because with the introduction ofthis technique, farmers can grow a large number of seedlingsas per requirement for off-season cultivation of these cucurbitsfor fetching high price of the off-season produce. The plug-tray nursery raising technology by using soilless media canbe extended to the growers in various parts of northern Indiafor growing off-season cucurbitaceous vegetables.

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Similarly, in plains as well as in temperate regions ofthe country, the seedlings of tomato, Chilli, capsicum andbrinjal can be grown under plastic cover protecting themagainst frost and severe cold. The environmental conditionparticularly increase in temperature inside polyhouse, mayhave hastened the germination and early growth of warmseason vegetable seedlings for raising early crops in spring-summer.

Asparagus, sweet potato, pointed-gourd and ivy gourdare sensitive to low temperature. The propagating materialsof these vegetables can be well-maintained under polyhousein winter season before planting their cuttings in early spring-summer season for higher profit.

Basic requirements:

Selection of seeds:

It is imperative to have better quality seed possessinggenetic characters suited to the environment in which it isgrown. Good vegetable seed must be true-to name, viable,disease- and pest-free, free from weeds, dirt and other foreignmaterials.

Selection of cultivars:

Cultivars suitable for open field condition are usuallysuitable for polyhouse cultivation. But relatively rapid-maturing cultivars and high-yielding hybrids are ideal. Theselection of cultivars and hybrids depend on plant type andtheir growth behaviour. Tomato cultivars and hybrids shouldbe indeterminate type. The plants are grown upright as a singlestem rather than bush. The cucumber cultivars should beunique. They should have only female flowering habit, withdark green parthenocarpic (seedless) fruits free of bitterness.

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Some of the important vegetables and tuber crops seed rateand time of transplanting are being given in Table 1 and 2.

Table.1 Seed rate and transplanting time of vegetables crops

Table2.Tuber crops propagation materials and requirement

Crops Seed rate/ha Days to transplanting

Tomato 350g 25-30

Brinjal 350g 35-40

Chillies 1.00 kg 35-40

Capsicum 500g 30-35

Cabbage 325 25-30

Cauliflower 325 25-30

Knol-Khol 1.00g 25-30

Broccoli 325 25-30

Crops Propagation Size of the propagation materialmaterial

Cassava Setts/ stem 20-25 cm with 8-10 nodescutting

Sweet potato Terminal 20-25 cm with 8-10 nodesvinecuttings

Taro Corms 50g sizeSwam taro Runners/ 20-25 cm

StolonsGreater yam Cut tubers 500gLesser yam Cut tubers 500gElephant footyam Setts/ whole 500g

seed corm/cut pieces

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Conclusion

The solanaceous and crucifer vegetables are

commonly grown in nursery and then transplanted to the main

field. It is possible to minimize the seed cost and cost of

seedling production if the farmers are well educated on the

use of poly tubes/ plastic trays for raising the vegetables

seedlings. In case of tuber crops the role of nursery is very

less known because the all those crops are being propagated

through the asexually/ vegetative propagation. Hence, the

farmers have to choose the right variety and time method of

multiplication of seedlings and production of vegetables and

tuber crops.

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Establishment of nursery and production ofquality planting material of Fruit crops

Introduction

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands comes under thehumid tropics with an average rainfall of about 3000 mm. Outof the total geographical area of 8249 km2, only 6 % i.e. 50,000ha at present is under agriculture. The climatic conditions arehighly suited for cultivation of horticultural crops. Presentlythey are grown in an area of about 37,160 ha. The importanthorticultural crops grown widely in these islands are coconut,arecanut, banana, mango, guava, papaya, black pepper clove,cinnamon, ginger and nutmeg, brinjal, chillies, cowpea,bhendi, and all cucurbitaceous vegetables. The long historyof cultivation of fruit crops in the Bay islands, large numberof cultivars of banana, mango, papaya cultivars existing.Inspite of the conducive and favourable agro-climaticconditions, the production of fruits in these islands is verylow. About 18564 metric tones of fruits are produced with aproductivity of 6.34 tones /ha respectively. The productivityof the fruits can be increased to the extant of 10.0 t /ha if propermanagement and advanced scientific techniques are integratedin cultivation. Due to the scarcity of the land the only optionis to increase the productivity of these fruits.

In view of growing importance of fruit crops, thedemand for quality planting material has increased manifoldthroughout the country in the recent past. However, thegreatest bottleneck in the expansion of area under fruits is thenon-availability of genuine and quality planting material in

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adequate quantity from reliable government nurseries. More

often than not, the farmers have to get the fruit plants from

unreliable sources and this practice is causing great harm to

the fruit industry. Starting planting material production from

own needs lot of planning and expertise. The plan should show

allocation of plots/area to different components of the nursery

such as mother plants of different fruits/cultivars, rootstocks,

roads/paths, water channels, drainage system, buildings/other.

Preliminary considerations:

1. Identify the potential for planting material production

and to set realistic production targets based on the

resource availability. Availability of sufficient resources,

particularly the genuine and certified scion / budwood

and rootstock according to the scientific

recommendations in vogue as well as that of skilled

manpower for the propagation methods to be followed

should be the major considerations for setting realistic

targets, from a quality control point of view.

2. Location of targeted planting material production asselection of an ideal location can also serve to improveproduction quality considerably. In general, it shouldbe located at a site with access to modern communicationand transport facilities, good water source, electricity,skilled and unskilled labour availability throughout theseason as well as professionally qualified and competentmanpower to oversee the production and qualitycontrol. Places with a mild climate, long growing seasonand even distribution of rainfall is most suitable forplanting material production while areas with extremes

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of temperature or commonly subjected to dry winds,

frequent flooding, hail, storms or are known to be frost

pockets are better avoided as they adversely affect the

quality of planting material. Soil should preferably be

light to medium in texture with good fertility, water

holding capacity and drainage, ideally with a pH range

of 6.0 to 7.0. Topography should preferably be plain with

gentle slope (1 to 2 %); and in very sloppy areas terracing

need to be done.

3. The major considerations would be propagation method

and its seasonal variations for success and quality of

the final produce, rootstock to be used, and

specifications for the scion / bud wood including its

genuineness and seasonality of availability.

4. Identify the inputs necessary for each stage of

production and develop specifications and requirements

for each input. These generally include containers,

growing medium, fertilizer (liquid feed or granular; if

granular, regular release or control release), irrigation

water, plant growth regulators, pesticides, herbicides,

etc. The specifications for each input should be two or

three features critical to the production of quality

planting material and should be quantitative (that can

be measured and verified, Example: container - black

polybags 300 gauge thickness, 24 cm x 18cm size with 4

to 6 holes 5 cm above the bottom; irrigation water - less

than 0.5 dsm-1 EC, less than 100 ppm CaCO3 content;

etc). The specifications for size and durability of

containers should be based on the duration the planting

74

material has to retained in them without becoming pot-

bound and without any bending or twisting of the

taproot. Containers should have provision for drainage

of excess water. The widely used growing medium in

fruit crop nurseries at present is a mixture of sand, FYM

and red earth in equal proportions. This medium needs

sterilization by treatment with heat (steam or

solarization) or chemicals (such as formaldehyde) to get

rid of inherent soil borne pathogens such as Fusarium,

Phytophthora etc and pests such as nematodes.

Afterwards, the sterilized medium has to be inoculated

with beneficial soil microorganisms such as Vesicular

Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM) and Phosphate

Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB), supplemented with rock

phosphate / super phosphate, filled into the containers

and planted with the seed / seedling / cutting.

Colonization of the beneficial microbes in the root zone

can be verified forty-five days after the inoculation. Use

of commercial sterile potting mixes can avoid

sterilization of growing medium. Coco-peat, a byproduct

of coir industry, has high water holding capacity and

good texture, but is low in mineral nutrients.

Organic materials such as leaf mold can also be

used for preparing growing media, but its composition

can vary widely making quality control difficult. The

points to be considered for growing medium of nursery

plants are proper drainage and water holding capacity,

ability to supply requisite plant nutrients, freedom from

pests and disease inoculums and proper texture to

facilitate root growth. Handling and storing the media

75

inside potting sheds helps to prevent their quality

deterioration. The quality of irrigation water with respect

to its pH, EC, and dissolved salts has to be defined based

on the sensitivity of the plant species under

consideration to these and has to be checked at frequent

intervals, especially during summer.

5. An appropriate procedure might call for periodic

measurement of microbial load, soluble salts and pH of

the water and media prior to use in production while

container label of fertilizers and pesticides may be

checked for content and active ingredient concentration

while procuring and the composition of the fertilizer /

pesticide solution should be verified prior to use.

6. Proper nursery records may be maintained

incorporating all the above information either in the

registers and / or in the computer for monitoring. This

would be also useful in identifying probable flaws and

to rectify them subsequently. At every step, continuous

and effective coordination with research organizations

on the latest technology development regarding the

nursery management aspects would be helpful to

upgrade and perfect the quality control measures.

Seedling Production using Seedling Trays:

In the past, the farmers themselves use to produce all

seedlings used for transplanting. Now a days many

progressive farmers are coming forward to take up quality

seedling production using seedling trays and supply to the

individual farmers. Fruit crops like papaya bigger sized trays

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can be used for raising the seedlings. This method is mostly

adopted for raising seedlings of F1 hybrids since the cost of

the seed is quite high.

Method of soil solarization in nursery bed

1. Prepare the raised bed, add organic manure and make

the bed ready for sowing in every respect.

2. Bring the bed to field capacity by irrigating. Cover the

nursery beds with 200 gauge transparent polyethylene

film as tightly and closely to the ground as possible.

3. Leave the beds covered for 30-40 days. The soil

temperature of the nursery bed thus covered can go up

to 52oC in summer months.

4. Check the sheets for the tear and if found torn out, seal

with transparent tapes.

5. After 30-40 days, remove the polyethylene cover. Sow

the seed with least disturbance to the top soil in the bed.

Methods of Vegetative Propagation:

Budding:

For budding, the thickness of the rootstock should be

near to that of a pencil. It is better to take well swollen and

unsprouted buds from leaf axils of mature one-year-old twigs

of the scion variety. 'Forkert' or 'patch' methods can be used

and the size of the bud wood may be nearly 2x1 cm and

budded at a height of nearly 15cm above the ground level.

Polythene tape can be used for keeping the buds close to the

stock, about 2 weeks after budding the tape can be opened up

77

to examine the success of the budding. After the bud starts

sprouting the top portion can be cut. Depending on the type

of crop 'T' or 'Inverted T' budding can also be adopted for

some of the ornamental crops.

Grafting:

The common method of grafting is 'inarching' or

'approach grafting'. 'Veneer' grafting has also been found to

simple and successful method. For 'Veneer' grafting the scion

must be taken from one-month-old shoot duly defoliated for

forcing the buds. About 3-5 cm long shoot with one or two

buds is used for grafting. The percentage success during July

has been recorded as 80%. In places where humidity is more

than 70% or where mist chamber facility is there soft wood

grafting and stone grafting can be practiced.

Points to be remembered while grafting:

1. The scions and rootstock should be preferably of

the same diameter (for veneer)

2. The scions should be pre-cured

3. Grafting should be taken up when there is high

humidity

4. Grafted plants are to be kept in mist if possible

5. Grafts should be labeled after grafting so that

varieties are not mixed

6. Rootstock portion should be cut off after the leaves

of the scion turns green.

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Stooling:

This method can be used for quick multiplication ofdesired varieties. In this method 3-4 years old plants are cutdown near to the ground. When the new shoots emerge, IBA(5000ppm) is applied in lanolin in ring during July. After about10 days soil is earthed up to cover the ringed part. BySeptember, the rooted shoots can be separated. This methodis easy and plot of 4-5 m square can yield 300 rooted shootseach year.

Air layering:

In this method, limbs of 1/2 inch or more in diameterare girdled by removing a strip of bark about one and halftimes the thickness of the limb. The girdled area is bound witha ball of moistened sphagnum moss several inches in diameterand 4.5 inches long which is then wrapped with a sheet ofpolythene paper and tied securely at each end with rubberbands or string. Usually roots begin to form in 3-5 weeks. Whenthe roots grow through the ball of moss, the stem may besevered below the girdled area gradually. The polythene filmis then removed from the rooted stem, which is then severed,potted and kept in the shade until new leaves appear. Whenthe new growth is 6-8 inches long the plant can be hardenedin full sunlight, preparatory to transplanting in the field.

Management of plants after propagation:

The propagated plants need to be hardened. It is alwaysbetter to harden them in the shade net houses or climatecontrolled houses. If these are not available then they need to

be kept in semi-shade conditions, so that there is no mortality

79

of plants when they are taken to the main field. Timely sprays

for insects and diseases need to be given after ascertaining the

cause. To maintain the plants in healthy condition, it is better

to given micro-nutrient sprays. However, it is also of

paramount importance that the plants need to be labeled

properly so that the variety is not mixed up.

Points to be remembered while labeling:

1. The material taken for labeling should be long lasting

2. Generic or species name should not mentioned

3. Common name of the variety needs to be written

without spelling mistake

4. Label should be written with permanent markers

5. For the identification of the plants, labels in local

languages can be written in addition to English.

BANANA AND PLANTAIN

Botanical Name: Musa spp.

Information regarding mother plants:

The mother plants should be true to type, healthy, high

yielding, free from viral (BBTV, BSV, BBMV and CMV), fungal

(Fusarium wilt) and bacterial (Erwinia/Tip over) diseases and

nematodes and corm weevil infestation.

Method of Propagation:

Vegetative propagation by Suckers

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Planting material standards for propagation by suckers:'

Sword Suckers' having broad corm with narrow leavesare recommended. The suckers should be 3 months old,uniform in size, weighing 1-1.5 kg for Rasthali, PoovanNendran, Ney Poovan, and Cavendish banana varieties. Forvarieties like Karpuravalli, Red Banana and Monthan, 4months old, uniform suckers weighing 1.5-2.0 kg should beused.

Tissue culture plants

Standards of the planting material for propagation by tissueculture:

The secondary hardened plant should be of true to type,> 30 cm in height, 5 cm in girth with at least five fully opened,healthy, green leaves. The randomly tested plants should havehealthy root system and free from nematode, Erwinia and FoC infestation. Plants exhibiting symptoms of somaclonalvariations of unusual foliage characteristics should bediscarded.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.)

Commercial cultivars

Neelum, Banglora, Mulgoa, Suvaranarekha,Banganpalli, Rumani, Raspuri, Badami, Malda, Fazli,Himsagar, Kishenbhog, Gulabkhas, Jardalu

Improved varieties

Amrapali, Mallika, Ambika, Arka AnmolArka Aruna,Arka Neelkiran, Arka Puneet, Alfazli, AU Rumani, Ratna,Sindhu

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Raising of rootstocks

Mango seedlings grown from stones of seedling treesare used as rootstocks. Stones should be collected fromvigorous, disease free and high yielding trees of seedlingmangoes during July-August. Mango seeds are recalcitrantand lose viability very soon on desiccation. If the mango stonesare not sown within a few days of their removal from the fruit,they can be stored under moist condition in shade, coveringwith moist soil, sand or sawdust, etc. Before sowing stonesshould be immersed in water and floating stones should bediscarded as they are not considered viable Stones are sownduring in June to August, depending upon the ripening seasonof the mango, in beds mixed with well decomposed farm yardmanure at the rate of 8-10 tonnes per hectare. When theseedlings attain the age of 2-3 months, they should betransplanted in well prepared beds or polybags. Aftertransplanting, proper care should be exercised in irrigatingthe young transplanted seedlings. Attack of leaf cutting insectsis common during rainy season, which may affect the growthof the seedlings adversely. Care should be taken well inadvance for their control before damage. In frost prone areas,the rootstocks should also be protected from frost by thatching.Plant is allowed to grow as a single stem for six to eight months.When the plantt attains pencil thickness or a little more, it isready for grafting.

Methods of propagation :

Nurserymen in many of the mango growing areas stilluse inarching , traditional method of propagation. During past

few decades, experimental results have shown that veneer

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grafting technique can be used with high success rate inMadhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.Stone (epicotyl) grafting is suitable for Konkan region ofMaharashtra and Coastal regions. Now-a-days softwoodgrafting is being used commercially for mango propagationin several parts of south India. Veneer grafting and soft woodgrafting techniques can be used for large scale multiplicationof mango in north India. With the use of polyhouse andnethouse structures, period of propagation can be extendedeasily under north Indian conditions.

Softwood grafting

The technique of softwood grafting is similar to that ofcleft or wedge grafting. In this case, grafting is done on 3 monthto 8 month old rootstocks. In south India, the rootstocks attaingraftable thickness within 3-6 months due mild winter. In thepast , this technique has been in use in situ orchardestablishment under adverse soil and climatic conditions asthe grafting operation is performed using cleft/wedge methodon the newly grown top portion of the plant one year after therootstock establishment in the field . The scion shoots of thethickness equal to that of rootstocks are defoliated 7-10 daysprior to grafting. The graft should be secured firmly using 1.5cm wide, 200-gauge polyethylene strip. July and Augustmonths with high humidity and moderate temperature arethe best for the success of softwood grafting.

Veneer grafting

This method of propagation holds promise for massscale commercial propagation. The method is simple and canbe adopted with success. Eight month to one year old seedlingrootstocks are suitable for this method. For conducting this

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grafting operation, a downward and inward 3-4 cm long cut

is made in the smooth area of the stock at a height of about 20

cm. At the base of cut, a small shorter cut is given to intersect

the first so as to remove the piece of wood and bark. The scion

stick is given a long slanting cut on one side and a small short

cut on the other so as to match the cuts of the stock. The scion

is inserted in the stock so that the cambium layers come on

the longer side. The graft union is then tied with polythene

strip as recommended for inarching. After the scion takes and

remains green for more than 10 days, the rootstock should be

clipped in stages. The scion wood to be used for veneer grafting

requires similar preparation. The desired shoots should be

defoliated at least one week prior to grafting so that the

dormant buds in the leaf axils become swollen.

Stone or epicotyl grafting

Mango is generally propagated by inarching and veneer

grafting in north India. These methods are time consuming.

Stone/ epicotyl grafting is a technique of faster multiplication

of mango. This method is simple, economic and fast. Fresh

mango stones are sown in the nursery beds. After germination,

10-15 day old seedlings with tender stems and coppery leaves

are lifted with along with stones. The roots and stones are

dipped into 0.1 per cent Carbendazim solution for 5 minutes

after washing the soil. The seedling stems are headed back

leaving 6-8 cm long stem. A 3-4.5 cm longitudinal cut is made

into the middle portion of the cut stem. A wedge shaped cut

starting on both sides is made on the lower part of scion stick.

The scion stick should be 4-5 months old and 10-15 cm long

containing plumpy terminal buds. The scion stick is then

84

inserted in the cleft of the seedlings and tied with polythenestrip. The grafts are then planted in polyethylene bagscontaining potting mixture. The bags are then kept in the shadeprotecting from heavy rain. When the scion sprouts and theleaves become green, the grafted plants should be planted innursery beds. July is the most suitable month for stone grafting.

Care of nursery plants

Mango plants at nursery stage are likely to be damagedby frost under north Indian conditions. So, the nursery bedsshould be covered with thatches made of sarkanda, etc. Thebeds should be irrigated shenever there is danger of frost.During summer, the irrigation should be given at 4-5 dayintervals depending upon the soil condition. A lightapplication of Calcium Ammonium Nitrate or Ammoniumsulphate is also recommended to encourage the growth ofplants. The beds/polybags should be kept free from weeds byregular weeding/hoeing.

Plant Protection Measures

Insect pests

Mango hopper (Idioscopus spp. and Amritodusatkinsoni) : It is active in February -March. The nymphs andadults such the juice from tender leaves. For control, 2-3 spraysof 0.04 % monocrotophos is recommended.

Diseases

Mango malformation (Bunchy top): On seedlings, overthree months old, swellings appears in the axils of leaves. Theaffected plants should immediately be uprooted anddestroyed. Such seedlings should not be used for rootstocks.

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Standards for veneer grafting in mango.

Characters Standards

Method of propagation: Veneer grafting

Type of rootstock: Straight & vigorous growth

Raising rootstock: In polyethylene bag

Size of polyethylene bag: 20 x 10 cm / 10 x 25 cm

Age of rootstock: One year old

Diameter of rootstock: 0.5 - 0.7 cm

Age of scion shoots: 3 - 4 months old

Diameter of scion: 0.5 - 0.7 cm

Length of scion stick: 15 - 18 cm

Plant height: 60 - 70 cm

Stem girth: 2.5 - 3.5 cm

Root type / Architecture: Tap root, Root should not be

overgrown, Coiling of root should not be there

Uniformity of grafting: Smooth, and union of graft 15 - 20

cm, above ground level/upper surface of polyethylene bag

Foliage: Healthy and green green

Precautions: Regular watering for long transportation. In the

absence of polyethylene bag, the earth ball should not develop

cracks. Ball of earth should be properly covered with grasses

Standards of soft wood grafting in mango

Characters Standards

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Method of propagation: Wedge grafting

Type of rootstock: Straight & vigorous growth

Raising rootstock: In polyethylene bag

Size of polyethylene bag: 20 x 10 cm / 10 x 25 cm

Age of rootstock: 7 to 9 months

Diameter of rootstock: 0.5 - 0.9 cm

Age of scion shoots: 3 - 4 months old

Diameter of scion: 0.5 - 0.9 cm

Length of scion sticks: 15 - 18 cm

Plant height: 60 - 65 cm

Stem girth: 2.5- 3.0 cm

Union height (grafting height): Union of graft 18 - 20 cm aboveground level

Foliage: Healthy and Green

Precautions: When grafts are set out in the nursery, always handlethem by holding the rootstock. Do not bump the scion, becausethis may disturb the callus tissue, causing the graft to die.

Papaya (Carica papaya L.)

Botanical Name: Carica papaya L.

Information regarding mother plants: True to type plantsproducing high yields and quality fruits

Commercial cultivars: Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, PusaNanha, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Giant, Coorg Honey Dew, Co. 1,Co. 2, Co. 3, Co. 4, Co. 5, Co. 6, Co. 7, Sunrise Solo, Washington,Surya

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Method of Propagation: Papaya is propagated by seed. Seedshould be fresh as its viability is lost in about 45 days.

Method of seed production: Sib Mating

Method of Sib Mating:

To maintain the purity of papaya seeds, sib-mating isnecessary ie., mating of sister and brother plants from the sameparent. In this method, seeds from the fruits of a tree whichshow the typical parental qualities of the tree, i.e. leaves andfruits are first selected. The seeds of these fruits are sown andthe seedlings transplanted in the main field and when theseplants put forth flowers, progenies conforming to thecharacters which formed the basis for the original selectionare marked among the female as well as male plants. Pollensfrom the male plant is taken and put on the stigma of femaleflowers one day ahead of opening of the flowers. The femaleflowers are then covered with butter paper bags to preventtheir contamination with other flowers. It is marked with atag. The fruit sets in about five to seven days when the bag isremoved. When these sib-mated fruits mature, they areharvested and the seeds are extracted from raising secondgeneration of plants. This process is continued from generationto generation while the entire 28 population raised from thein-breds show uniformity of characters for which selectionswere originally made.

Seed rate: 250-300 g per hectare

Soil treatment: Formaldehyde treatment followed by coveringwith polythene sheet for 4-5 days and leaving it further

exposed for 3-4 days

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Seed treatment: Seed treated with captan @ 3g/kg seed

Seed bed size 3 m (length)X 1m (Width) X 10-15 cm (Height)

Polythene size 20 X 15 cm or 25 X 10 cm

Polythene mixture Soil: sand : FYM in 1 : 1 : 1 ratio , Depth of

sowing - 1-2 cm, Spacing between row to row 10-15cm

Time of sowing: August-September

Irrigation: Frequent light irrigations as per requirement

Standards of the planting material

Height of the plant: 15-30 cm

Age of the plant: One month

Growth of the plant: Vigorous

Root system of the plant: Well developed without coiling of

roots

Disease incidence

Damping off

Serious disease in nursery, causes both pre and post emergence

death of seedlings in nursery

Control:

Seed treatment with thiram or captan, Drenching of nursery

with formaldehyde, 0.4 % thiram or captan

Guava (Psidium guajava L.)

Commercial cultivars : Allahabad Safeda, Sardar (L-49)

Improved cultivars : Lalit, Shweta, Arka Mridula, Arka

Amulya, Dharidar, Kohir Safeda, Pant Prabhat, Safed Jam

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Raising of rootstocks

Raising rootstocks in polyethylene bags is recommended

as this give better establishment of plants in the field on

account of undisturbed tap root system. Moreover, nursery

raising in polyethylene bags saves labour in weeding,

watering, shifting and lifting of plants. The chief advantage

of using polyethylene bags is that, the seedlings can be raised

almost round the year under controlled conditions. Guava

seeds have a hard coating over the endocarp as a result of

which usually long time is required for germination. Fresh

seeds should be extracted from dpe fruits and washed

thoroughly to remove the pulpy materialclinging to the seeds.

It should be treated with fungicide (copper oxychloride) to

prevent damping-off of seedling before sowing in the

polyethylene bag. If the damping-off occurs as the seedlings

emerge, both the seedlings and the media should be treated

with a fungicide. A group of fungi is responsible for

dampingoff of the seedlings. For controlling damping off,

treatment with 0.3% copper oxychloride has been found very

effective. Seeds of guava are sown in polyethylene bags (20x10

cm or 18x27cm) at any time (JanuaryDecember). Polyethylene

bags are filled with soil, sand and farmyard manures in 3:1:1

ratio. All the polyethylene bags are covered with 100 micron

(400 gauge) white polyethylene sheet soon after sowing of

seed. During winter months, the polyethylene mulch

conserves heat and create conducive environment

(microclimate) for rapid germination and early establishment

of seedlings. Seed covered with polyethylene sheet gives as

high as 97 per cent success within three weeks.

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Patch Budding

Seedlings of about one-year- age, pencil thick, uniformand active in growth are selected. This method is mostsatisfactory when vigorously growing plants with 1.25-2.5 cmin stem diameter, are used as stock. The trees from which budsare taken should be highly vegetative with lush succulentgrowth to permit easy separation of buds from the stem. It isbetter to take swollen and unsprouted dormant buds from leafaxil of mature twigs of the scion variety. A patch,approximately 1 cm (0.5 inch) to 1.5 cm (0.75 inch) with a budseems to be taken for better success. Similarly, 1-1.5 cm longpatch is removed from the rootstock and bud is fitted into theremaining portion on the stock seedling. Bud should be fittedat a height of nearly 15 cm above the ground level.Polyethylene strip is used for keeping the buds close to thestock. When the bark adheres tightly to the wood, budding isusually successful. After about 2-3 weeks of budding thepolyethylene strip can be opened to examine the success. Insuccessful cases, about one-third shoot of the rootstock can beremoved for forcing the growth of buds. The remaining two-thirds can be removed after three weeks of the first cutting,leaving about 2-3 em above the bud. The best time for buddingis from May to August in different parts of the country.

Stooling

Stooling is the easiest and cheapest method of guavapropagation. This method can be used for quick multiplicationof desired varieties and also rootstocks. In this method, self-rooted plants (cuttings and layers) are planted 0.5 m apart in

the stooling bed. These are allowed to grow for about three

91

years. Then these are cut down at the ground level in March.

New shoots emerge on the beheaded stumps. A 30-cm wide

ring of bark is removed from the base of each shoot rubbing

the cambium of the exposed portion in May. All the shoots

are mounted with the soil to a height of 30 cm. The soil is

covered with mulch to conserve the moisture. After a period

of two months of the onset of monsoon, the shoots are detached

from the mother plant at ringed portion and planted in the

nursery. The shoots are headed back to maintain the root and

shoot balance before planting in the nursery by following the

technique of ringing and mounding of the shoots, second time

stooling is done on the same mother shoot in the first week of

September. The rooted shoot layers are detached in the first

week of November. Thus, stooling is done twice on the same

mother stool in a year. The stooling of a mother stool can be

done for many years. With the advancement of its age, the

number of stool layers also increases every year. The growth

and development of a stool layers are better than seedlings.

The application of rooting hormone is not required.

Airlayering

Air layering is one of the most important commercial

method in practice for guava propagation. Rainy season

(preferably July-August) is the most suitable period for air

layering. In this method, limbs of about 1.2cm or more in

diameter are girdled by removing a strip of bark with a width

of about 2cm. The girdled area is bound with a ball of

moistened sphagnum moss of about 7 em in diameter and 10-

13cm long, which is then wrapped with polyethylene film and

tied loosely over the wrap to prevent bird damage and also to

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prevent the moistened moss from overheating. Roots usually

start developing in three to five weeks. When they grow

through the ball of moss, the stem may be detached from the

mother plant below the girdled area. The polyethylene film is

removed and the new plant is potted in manured soil in pot/

polyethylene bags and kept in the shade until new leaves

appear. When the new growth is about 15-20cm long, the plant

is hardened in full sunlight before transplanting in the field.

Soft-wood /Wedge grafting

Soft-wood /Wedge grafting, a technique for rapid

multiplication has been perfected at Central Institute for

Subtropical Horticulture (CISH), Lucknow. This technique has

a tremendous potential for multiplying guava plants rapidly

throughout the year both in greenhouse and under open

conditions. Presently, the institute is producing quality

materials of guava through wedge grafting technique round

the year in greenhouse as well as in open conditions. The

technique involves growing of seedlings in polyethylene bags,

grafting, capping and hardening of grafts. Seedlings are raised

for rootstocks in the nursery for approximately 6 to 8 months.

When the stem diameter of seedling is of pencil thickness (0.5-

1.0 cm) they are chosen for wedge grafting. In this technique,

proper selection and preparation of scion sticks is very

important for obtaining higher success. Shoot with growing

apical portion (terminal growth) which is 3 to 4 months old is

ideal for this technique. The scion shoot of pencil thickness,

with 3 to 4 healthy buds of 15-18 cm long is used for grafting.

Selected scion shoots are defoliated on the mother plant, about

5-7 days prior to detaching. At the same time, the apical

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growing portion of selected shoot is also beheaded. This helps

in forcing the dormant buds to swell. In this way, the buds on

the scion are ready to start sprouting at the time of grafting.

This treatment is essential for high success of grafts.

After selection of the scion, rootstock (seedling) is

headed back by retaining 15-18 cm long stem above the soil

level in the polyethylene bag. The beheaded rootstock is split

to about 4.0 - 4.5 cm deep through the centre of the stem with

grafting knife. A wedge shaped cut, slanting from both the

sides (4.0 - 4.5 cm long) is made on the lower side of the scion

shoot. The scion stick is then inserted into the split of the stock

and pressed properly so that cambium tissues of rootstock and

scion stick should come in contact with each other. Care must

be exercised to match the cambium layer of the stock and scion

along with full length of each component. The union is then

tied with the help of 150 gauge polyethylene strip, 2 cm in

width and 25 - 30 cm in length. Immediately after grafting,

the graft is covered by 2.5 x 18.0 cm long white polyethylene

cap which is tied with rubber band at the lower end. The scion

starts sprouting after 9 to 12 days which is visible from out

side. The cap is removed after 25 days in the evening hours.

The grafts are transferred to net house for hardening.

Standards of soft wood/wedge grafting in guava

Characters Standards

Method of propagation: Soft wood/Wedge grafting

Type of rootstock: Straight & active growth stage

Size of polyethylene bag: 20 x 10 cm / 10 x 25 cm

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Age of rootstock: 6 to 8 months

Diameter of rootstock: 0.5 - 1.0 cm

Age of scion shoots: 3 - 4 months old

Diameter of scion: 0.5 - 1.0 cm

Length of scion sticks: 12 - 15 cm

No of buds on the scion stick: 3-4 buds

Union height (grafting height): 15-20 cm above the soil

Root type/ Architecture: Well developed root system without

coiling

Plant height: 45-60 cm

Stem girth: 1.5-2.5cm

Foliage: Healthy and green foliage having 3 to 4 branches

Precautions: When grafts are set out in the nursery, always

handle them by holding the rootstock. Do not bump the scion,

because this may disturb the callus tissue, causing the graft to

die

Standards of patch budding in Guava

Characters Standards

Method of propagation: Patch budding

Type of rootstock: Straight & active growth stage

Raising rootstock: In polyethylene bag

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Size of polyethylene bag: 20 x 10 cm / 10 x 25 cm

Age of rootstock: 10 to 12 month old

Diameter of rootstock: 1.25 - 2.50 cm

Age of scion shoots: 4 - 5 months old

Diameter of scion: 1.25 - 2.50 cm

Size of patch: 1 X 1.5 cm

Budding height: 15-20 cm above the soil/ground

Stem girth: 3.5-4.5 cm

Bud union: Smooth

Plant height: 40-60 cm

Root type/ Architecture: Well developed root system without

coiling

Foliage: Healthy and green foliage having 3 to 4branches

Precautions: When grafts are set out in the nursery, always

handle them by holding the rootstock. Do not bump the scion,

because this may disturb the callus tissue, causing the graft to

die.

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Establishment of nursery and production ofquality planting material of Flower crops

Introduction

Floriculture in India is growing at the rate of 7-10% per

annum. The area under flowers is around 1, 16,000 ha

concentrated mostly in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, and West Bengal. The success of

floriculture industry mainly depends on the quality of seed

and planting materials. Because of the diversity in floriculture

products, production and distribution of both vegetatively

propagated plant material and also seed propagated plant

materials have emerged as the most important and powerful

business world over. In Andaman and Nicobar Islands, only

a handful of people cultivate traditional flowers like Marigold,

Croosandra, Tuberose and Jasmine in their backyard or

Kitchen gardens in the Bay Island. The demand of flowers in

Andaman and Nicobar Islands at present is met from the

import from mainland. With the extension of air port and

international flights, these Islands are going to become one of

the important tourist destinations. Therefore, the demand of

flowers is going to increase substantially. It has been found

that some of cut flowers like tuberose, gerbera, marigold,

crossandra, and gladiolus have been proved beyond doubt

that they can be grown very well here. The total cost of import

of flowers is approximately four crore sixty lakhs sixty five

thousands rupees and the local supply is only of four lakh

rupees only. The requirement of traditional and cut flowers

is largely met by airlifting it from the mainland. This result in

exorbitant cost of flowers because of the damages caused

97

during the transport of this highly perishable commodity and

high freight charges. Hence, good quality planting material

(seeds, bulbs, etc) production in the Islands itself is a basic

need of a grower. The quality refers to genuine and diseased

free material. Good quality planting material will boost

productivity. Seeds or bulbs etc are the carriers of genetic

potential for higher crop production. The farmers are less

sensitive to price when they are sure of quality planting

material its exclusiveness and the monetary compensations

that will accrue from higher production. In case of problems

caused by virus and virus like diseases, use of virus free

planting material becomes mandatory. Viability and good

germination are of paramount importance in case of seed

propagated ornamental crops (Marigold, Aster, Zinnia, etc).

In ornamental crops very little have been achieved in the

production of genuine planting material free from the diseases.

It is perhaps lack of infrastructure facilities and trained

manpower. Cultivation of flower crops for planting material

production (seed, bulbs production etc) requires constant

attention, in-depth knowledge, skill and specialization. The

growers have adopted mostly open-pollinated cultivars. There

is a need to improve the quality of seeds and bulbs produced

in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Important considerations in quality plant materialproduction.

Aspects of quality, which have an effect on plant performance,

are either intrinsic or visible

Visible aspects (In case of plants propagated through budding

or grafting. e.g.: rose)

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Homogeneity of plants - Lack of homogeneity mayindicate different grades of inputs or growthdifferences in the production field. Source ofrootstock and bud wood is important.

Diameter of rootstock indicates the grade ofrootstock and quality of the growth process.

Well-developed fibrous root system. Thischaracteristic demonstrates growth on a well-prepared soil and regular growth during the periodof production.

Strong outgrowth of bud or graft. A strong branchhas the potential to quickly develop a branchingstructure, the basis for flower production. Theinitial development, fast or slow, one or morebranches, is often variety related.

No mechanical damage, no visible pests anddiseases.

Healthy appearance. No growth abnormalities,green branches.

Intrinsic aspects

Strong physiological potential. Stress-free growthduring the plant production period will enable theplant to re-grow easily after planting in the field orgreen house, because plants have stored reservefood.

Healthy reproduction material and genetichomogeneity. Selection of source for reproductionmaterial is based on healthy growth and materiali.e. bud wood and root stock, true to variety.

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Free of non-visible diseases, e.g. Agrobacterium,Verticillium. Once the plants are uprooted, thesediseases, if in the early stage, are not visible. Duringthe plant production process this has to becontrolled.

Sources of quality planting material

Since quality of planting material effects the production,it is necessary to collect the basic material from a genuine andreliable source. Efforts should be made to identify nodalcenters for supply of elite planting material of importantornamental plants in our country. In recent years severalmultinational and industrial houses have entered intofloriculture business and are producing quality plant material.

The planting materials of those elite varieties aresupplied from these institutions in small quantities to usersfor future multiplication.

Field grown nursery:

Field production requires soils with good fertility, highOrganic-matter content (3-5%), and fine tilth, sandy-clay toclay-loam soil, which will hold together in a ball, are ideal.

Container plant production:

Container production does not necessarily require goodsoil on site. Container growing medium can be brought fromremote locations. However, good soil on site as a resource inmedia construction may be useful. A firm surface, whichallows for the placing of containers and insures surface

drainage, is a must. The advantages of containerized

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production include. High plant densities, use of land unsuitedfor field production, Planting times independent of theweather, Lower transportation costs because of lightweightmedia and less root loss and a greater chance of survival thanwith field-grown plants. The disadvantages are also numerouslike small containers need frequent watering, nutrients arerapidly depleted, Plants easily become root-bound, Containersare costly, labour costs to pot up plants are high and the rootsare stressed by temperature extremes. There are several factorsto keep in mind when deciding which containers to use: cost,design features that control root growth, how the containeraffects growing medium moisture content and temperature,availability, how the container suits the particular needs ofthe nursery, durability, and shipping capacity. Round black-plastic pots are the norm, but they can cause root constriction,leading to plants with poorly developed root systems. Thereare other kinds of containers that promote better root systems.For instance, copper-lined, white, and light-colored containersproduce more root growth, and square and stair-step pots helpkeep plants from becoming root-bound.

Seedling Production using Seedling Trays:

In the past, the farmers themselves use to produce allseedlings used for transplanting. Now a days manyprogressive farmers are coming forward to take up qualityseedling production using seedling trays and supply to theindividual farmers.

Solarization for nursery bed sterilization

It is a method of heating soil through sunlight bycovering it with transparent polythene sheet to control soilborne diseases including nematodes. This method used forthe disinfection of raised nursery bed made in soil to producehealthy seedlings of vegetable. Other additional beneficial

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effects include control of weeds, insect pests and release of

plant nutrients resulting in increased crop growth. Solarization

is a nonchemical alternative for disease, insect pest and weed

control.

Propagation Techniques

Rose: Roses can be propagated by cuttings, layering,

budding and grafting. Among all these methods, budding on

a rootstock is widely practiced. Roses are mainly propagated

through budding. In the budding technique, 'T' budding is

commonly practiced. The rootstocks used are Rosa multiflora

(Karnataka, West Bengal and Bihar), Rosa indica (North India)

and Rosa bourbaniana (North India), A thornless rootstock

namely NISHKANT has been developed at IIHR Since it is

devoid of thorns, close planting of rootstocks can be taken up

for budding operation.

Budding Technique:

The rootstocks are normally propagated through

cuttings. The dormant buds from a selected variety are

carefully removed with a sharp, Knife along with a small

portion of stem. The selected rootstock is pruned to about 7-

10 cm height and on a pencil thick stem, a 'T' shape cut is

made and the bark is slightly loosened to accommodate the

selected bud. After inserting the bud the bark portion of the

rootstock is covered and tied with a film of polythene. The

dormant buds get incorporated into the rootstock and sprout

to produce new flush.

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The Important methods of propagation

1. Seed Propagation

Propagation by seeds is the major methods by which

many ornamental plants are perpetuated. It is one of the most

efficient and widely used propagation method. Various types

of seasonal shrubs and ornamental flowering and avenue trees

are being multiplied by the seeds.

Nursery preparation and sowing of seeds:

The seeds can be sown in seed pans, seed frames, pots

or in baskets. For larger requirements, permanent seed frames

could be constructed for sowing the seeds. Adequate drainage

facilities should be provided in the sowing media in order to

drain out the excess moisture. The soil for sowing seed should

be light and porous. A mixture made up of one part in each of

loam and sand and two parts of leaf mould is ideal for sowing.

The seeds should be sown in the nursery beds evenly and

thinly. The seedings in the thickly sown seed bed will be lanky

due to competition for nutrition and also subject to damping

of disease easily. After sowing the seeds they should be

covered with fine sand or leaf mould twice the thickness of

the seeds. As a general rule large sized seeds should be sown

a bit deeper.

2. Cutting

Propagation by cutting is a simple and less expensive

method. Cutting is a process by which a plant is produced by

severing a vegetative portion from the plant and rooting it in

a favourable medium under optimum conditions. Plant parts

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such as stems, roots, leaves and modified stems such as corms,

rhizomes, tubers, runners and bulbs are used for this purpose.

The stem cutting can be categorized into 3 types.

Softwood cuttings:

These types of cutting can still be sub-divided into two

groups. In the first group comes those cuttings which are taken

from herbaceous plants such as coleus, carnation, dahlia,

chrysanthemum etc. the second group consists of cuttings

taken from the unripened tips of woody plants, such as most

of the ornamental shrubs and some tree. The cutting should

be detached from the mother plant from below a node.

Semi-hard- wood cuttings:

Semi-hard-wood cuttings are those which have passed

the soft-wood stage but yet to ripen fully., Jasmines and

hydrangeas are example of plants from which such cuttings

are taken for propagation.

Hard -wood cuttings:

The cuttings which are taken from the mature current

years growth, as in some shrubs and tree. While in the first

tow categories of cuttings the length of cutting remains

between 2.5 to 10 cm and 15 to 25 cm, but in case of hard-

wood cuttings the length depends upon the nature of plants

and prevailing climatic conditions. But normally, for many

hare-wood cuttings the length varies between 15 and 30 cm.

The stem cuttings are further categorized into 3 groups.

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i.) Terminal cuttings: Such cutting are obtained fromterminal portion of a shoot. The leaves from thelower portion of the cutting are removed by nipping(and not by tearing off), while 2-4 leaves areretained in the apex. If the size of the leaves is verylarger, these may be cut into halves. Most of thecuttings are to be inserted in the rooting media asearly as possible, after being detached from themother plant. But in case of cacti and some othersucculent plants these are air -dried for 2-4 daysbefore inserting in the rooting media.

ii.) Heel cutting: when lateral shoots are pulled offfrom the stem with a portion of the stem attachedto it, these are called heel cuttings. Heel cuttingsroot more easily. If needed, the basal end could besmoothened off with a sharp knife. Sometimescarnation cutting are prepared in this way.

iii.) Node cuttings: Plants like Dracaena andDieffenbachia are propagated from single ormultiple node cuttings. Such cuttings are normallyplaced horizontally on the rooting media.

iv.) Root cuttings: Root cuttings should be taken fromyoung roots of average thickness and the lengthmay vary from 2.5 to 15 cm with one or a few buds.The cuttings are placed horizontally or verticallyin light soil or sand. The horizontally placedcuttings are covered sufficiently. The adventitiousbuds give rise to new shoots and roots to grow fromthe base of these buds or from the cut sections ofthe old roots.

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v.) Leaf cuttings: In this method the leaf stalk whennotched and placed in rooting medium, theyproduce individual plants.

Factors affecting rooting in cuttings: Age and nutritionalenvironmental factors affect the rooting of cuttings. Age andnutritional condition of the stock plant, position of the shooton the parent plant, maturity of the tissue at the base of thecuttings and presence of leaves and buds on the shoot are theinternal factors affecting the rooting of cuttings. Light,temperature, humidity and rooting medium are the externalfactors affecting the rooting wounding, defoliation treatmentwith growth regulators is used especially in ornamental likeBougainvillea (2000 ppm of IBA+NAA mixture by quick dipmethod) and Ixora (IBA 200 ppm). Vase on shrubs like Tagar,Crotons, Hemelia and Climbers and creepers as well as treeslike Pangara and peltoforum are being propagated by cuttings.

3. Layering

Layering is done when a clone can not be rooted throughstem cutting. It is an important method of commercialpropagation in ornamental like Jasmine, Hibiscus, Ixora,Mussanda. Generally the plants, which are difficult to multiplyby cutting, can be raised by one or other method of layering.In this method since the twigs are attached to the mother plant,the supply of food and water supply is not discontinued; thishelps in rooting in layer than cuttings. Rooting of layering isencouraged by etiolating. Presence of sufficient oxygen,moisture and temperature and application of root promotingsubstance at the time of layering help to get profuse root in ashort time. Root promoting substance are applied as powderor in lanolin.

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Simple or ground layering:

It is the common and simplest from of layering. Majority

of the variegated plants which are difficult to root from cuttings

could be rooted through this method of layering. Some

clumbers are also rooted through this.

Air layering:

Air layering or gootie is one of the most widely used

method of layerage in ornamental plants. A large number of

shrubs, foliage plants and even ornamental trees are raised by

this method. Generally branches of plants which are not prone

to bending upto the ground level for layering are propagated

by this method. Generally terminal portions are used for air

layers. The mature branch is slit or nitched below a node at

the desired height. The part of the wounded stem, as well as 5

cm on either side of the wound, is covered with damp

sphagnum moss and this is covered over by polythene paper

and secondly tied at both ends the polythene paper around

the moss to form a bag and fold the ends several times inwards

to prevent the moisture in the moss from coming out. The two

ends are tied firmly on the two sides of the stem layered.

4. Grafting

Grafting is the method of propagation used for

perpetuating clones that cannot be readily maintained by

several methods of propagation. It is used for obtaining special

forms of plan growth etc. This method of propagation is limited

for plants. Sometimes approach grafting is done for

propagation of delicate Hawaiian cultivars of Hibiscus.

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5. Budding

In budding, a single bud, as against a scion wood

containing a number of buds in the case of grafting is inserted

on the rootstock in a manner that both will unite and continue

to grow as a single plant. Three to five weeks after the budding

operation, the portion of the rootstock about 3-5 cm above the

union, is cut off. Mostly 'T' budding is employed for

propagation of most of the ornamental plants. The patch

budding is generally not popular. This method is sometimes

used for multiplication of hibiscus hybrids. The optimum time

of budding is when the stock plant is actively growing and

the bark separates easily from the wood.

6. Others

Suckers:

In some plants new stems are produced from the

adventitious buds on their roots. Such new growths are called

suckers. These suckers can be perpetuated as individual plants.

(e.g. gerbera, chrysanthemum)

Division:

This type of propagation is the simplest method of

propagation for increasing the number of stock plants. It

involves simply dividing the plants into small pieces each of

which must contain a portion of the rootstock with leaves or

buds or as a few roots. Division must be carried out during

the dormant season. The clumps are lifted with a fork and are

divided by separating them into suitable sized portions. Each

portion shows contain about 3 or 4 buds or stems and the

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outside portions of the clumps should be selected, as these

are the most vigorous. Some of the clumps are easy to divide

by pulling them apart after shaking of the loose soil, others

are more difficult, and the rhizomes or rootstocks have to be

separated with or without knife or through with a spade. The

divided portions must be planted firmly and well watered

within an hour or two. Majority of herbaceous ornamentals

can be increased through this method. (e.g. Alstroemaria,

Delphinium, Campanula, Armeria, Daisy etc.)

Rhizomes:

Rhizomes are sub- terrnean stems that arise from a lateral

bud from the main stem at ground level and extend

underground near the surface horizontally. The aerial shoots

develop from the laterial buds. Generally rhizomes are cut

into small pieces having one or more buds and planted for

multiplication (e.g. Canna) Stolons A slender branch, which

normally produces roots and bears a bud at this extreme, this

forming a new plant e.g. Chlorophytum.

Tubers:

They are short, thickned part of subterranean branches,

which store large quantities of plant food, mainly starch.

Tubers contain buds in the axils of reduced leaves. (eg.

Tuberose)

Corm:

These are underground stem with a short, fleshy, vertical

axis covered with dried leaf bases. (e.g. gladiolus).

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Plug production of flower seedlings

There has been a shift from growing seedlings on flat

and raised nursery beds in open field towards growing value

added transplants in specially designed containers such as

plug trays.

A major advantage of block or modular raised seedlings

as compared with that of bare-root transplants is the significant

reduction of the transplanting shock resulting in improved

crop establishment and yield of several annuals. Container

raised seedlings are easy to handle, grade, shift and transport

manually as well as mechanically. Further, it provides good

control of young plants in the nursery due to better water

drainage, aeration, sanitation, quick take-off and uniform

growth in nursery and in the field after transplanting.

Production of healthy seedlings is a prerequisite for good

initial crop growth that results in optimum vegetative growth

that gets finally transformed into the potential economic yield.

Healthy growth of the plant from the beginning also ensures

better use efficiency of scarce and costly inputs like water,

nutrients and better tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses.

Advantages of growing seedlings in plastic trays under

protected structures:

Seeds germinate properly.

Mortality of seedlings is very rare,

There is no loss of expensive seeds of hybrids.

There is adequate space for each seedling to grow

properly.

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Equal and healthy growth of each seedling.

Damage due to pests and diseases are very rare.

Seedlings do not wither during transport.

Promotes better root growth.

Damage to roots is very rare during shifting and

planting.

Hassle free planting.

Facilitates uniform maturity of the crop.

Protective structure for seedling production

Seedlings of ornamental crops are being grown in low

cost poly houses and net houses. The mainframe can be of

steel pipes, wooden poles or even granite stone pillars. Poly

houses are clad with 200 micron UV stabilized polythene sheet

on the roof and the sides are covered with 40 mesh insect-

proof nylon net. A retractable (50%) shade net is provided

below the roof to be used during the days of bright sunlight

and high temperature. Foggers may also be provided to bring

down the temperature during summer days. The mainframe

can also be erected with wooden poles or granite stone pillars

bringing down the expenditure further. In recent years net

houses are becoming popular to raise the seedlings. Granite

stone pillars of 6 to 8 feet long are erected as the mainframe of

the net house. The roof is generally covered with a shade net

and the sides are covered with the insect proof net. However,

it is advisable to cover the roof also with the insect proof net

above the retractable shade net to have better control over the

entry of insect vectors like white flies which may be carried

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by the air currents and gain entry into the greenhouse. Further

it is essential to harden the seedlings before transplanting. A

retractable shade net will be useful to regulate the shade in

the greenhouse depending on the light levels prevailing in

the greenhouse. Plastic pipes of ¾ inch are bent in arch shape

over the nursery beds and are covered with a plastic sheet to

protect the seedlings from rain as and when required. This

structure provides adequate light, shade and humidity and

also protects the seedlings from thrips and white flies that

spread the virus diseases.

Plug Trays:

Plug trays are also called as pro-trays (propagation

trays). The most commonly used are 98-celled trays. The

dimensions of the trays are generally 54 cm in length and 27

cm in width with a cavity depth of 4 cm. These trays are made

of polypropylene and are re-usable up to five to six times

depending on the care with which they are handled. Before

using every time it is necessary that these trays are thoroughly

washed and disinfected with a fungicide. The holes at the

bottom of the cells control the moisture properly. Equal spaced

cells facilitate equal growth of the seedlings. Coir dust (Coco

peat) Well decomposed and sterilized commercial growing

medium is better as the incidence of seedling diseases is less

or nil and it contains in it right amount of moisture to support

seed germination. The most commonly used growing medium

is coir dust (coco peat), which is steam sterilized to prevent

nursery diseases. Coco peat is a by-product of coir industry

and it has high water holding capacity. It should be well

decomposed, sterilized and supplemented with major and

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micro nutrient sources before using it as the growing medium.

Neem cake enriched with Trichoderma (100:1) is applied @

100 kg per tonne of the medium to prevent seedling diseases.

Technique of raising seedlings Fill the seedling tray with

appropriate growing medium such as coco peat or vermin

compost + sand mixed in equal proportion. About 1-1.25 kg

of coco peat is required to fill one 98-celled tray. Make a small

depression for sowing (0.5 cm) by fingertip or a dibbler in the

center of the cell. Sow one seed per cell and cover the cells

with the coco peat. Irrigation is not required before or after

sowing till seeds germinate if coco peat having adequate

moisture is used as the medium. Keep about 10 trays one over

the other for 3 to 6 days, depending on the crop. Cover the

entire stack of trays with a polyethylene sheet to ensure

conservation of moisture and warmth that hastens

germination. Care must be taken for spreading the trays when

the seeds start sprouting. The trays with sprouted seeds are

placed in pairs over a bed covered with polyethylene sheet.

Seedling trays are watered daily, or as needed (not too wet or

too dry) using a rose can or a hosepipe with a rose. The trays

are also drenched with a fungicide as a precautionary measure

against seedling mortality. Spray (3g / L) 100 percent water-

soluble fertilizer (19 per cent NPK plus trace elements) twice

(12 and 20 days after sowing). Protect the seedlings from

rainfall by covering the arch erected on the beds with

polyethylene sheet whenever it rains. Hardening of seedlings

Tray grown seedlings in a green house especially need

hardening as they are raised with lower light levels. Harden

the seedlings by withholding irrigation and reducing the shade

before transplanting. Pest Management Drenching plug trays

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with copper oxy chloride (0.4 %) before filling them with

growing medium prevents seedling diseases. Spray systemic

insecticides like Imidacloprid (0.3ml/liter) 7-10 days aftergermination and before transplanting. The seedlings will beready in about 21-42 days for transplanting into the main fielddepending upon the crop.

Rooting and Growing Media

Potting Media

Field soil is sometimes used in container mixes (10%-30% by volume), but soil is heavy and requires the additionalstep of pasteurization to eliminate diseases and weed seeds.The standard replacement for soil is peat moss, but there hasbeen concern over the past few years that peat is a non-renewable resource. Consequently, research is beingconducted to determine what materials can be used to replacepeat. Calculating substrate quantity The volume of thecontainer has to be determined by filling the container withwater. The total amount of water added is the volume of thecontainer. The volume of the container has to be multipliedwith the number of seedlings/plants to be produced. Theresulting volume can be divided by 20, the capacity of one bigbucket, to get approximately the number of buckets of substrateneeded to fill all containers. In general, small polybags usuallyhold 0.5 litres of water, large bags more than 1.5 litres androot trainers less than 0.5 litres. Media for plant growth andseed germination has great significance in nursery business.Propagating medium plays an important role in raising ofsuccessful plant material in nursery production. Propagatingmedium is the substance, be it peat, sand, cocopeat, vermiculite

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or other material, into which the unrooted cuttings are inserted

or seeds are sown for germination. The material for rooting

and growing media may be used either alone or incorporated

with one or more products in combination. The materials used

for rooting media may be naturally occurring or max; be

manufactured artificially. In many cases, the waste or surplus

products from the industries viz., saw dust is used for this

purpose.

Qualities of a ideal rooting media:

The substance must have appropriate physical and

chemical properties. They must retain sufficient water and air.

They must allow sufficient drainage. The substance must be

free from weed seeds, nematodes, fungi, bacteria and insect

pests. The acidity or alkalinity should be in optimum for

different species. The medium must be sufficiently firm and

dense to hold the cuttings or seeds in place during rooting or

germination. Its volume must be fairly constant when either

wet or dry. It must be capable of being sterilized. The rooting

media should support the cuttings to avoid lodging. This is

particularly important whenever larger level cuttings are used

under mist chamber conditions Selection criteria for media.

Always consider utilizing local products to save transportation

costs. Check the quality of the product before buying. Check

for the grade or particle size and freedom from impurities such

as silt and harmful salts. Obtain local guidance of agricultural

officers for selecting appropriate media. The pH of the media

should be checked. An optimum pH for the rooting medium

should be 5.5 - 6.5, with a range of 4.0 - 5.0. Select a rooting

media which has optimum air filled porosity range of around

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34%. The media must provide sufficient oxygen to the base ofcuttings. Ensure that the product is well graded. Select a mediawhich can retain structures during rooting particularly wheremist and fogging units are used for mist propagation. Select amedium which does not require any mixing

Media for propagation and growing nursery plants

There are several media and mixtures of different kindare available for use in propagation such as in seedgermination, rooting of cuttings and for growing containerstock. Commonly used media with a brief description ofproperties are given below:

i) Soil:

A soil is composed of materials in the solid, liquid andgaseous states. These materials must exist in the properproportions for satisfactory plant growth. The textureof a soil depends upon relative proportions of sand, siltand clay. Maintenance of a favourable granular andcrumb soil structure is very important.

ii) Sand:

Sand consists of small rock grains (0.05 to 2.0 mm)formed as result of the weathering of various rocks. Itsmineral composition depends on type of rock. Quartzsand is generally used for propagation and plasteringgrade is used for rooting of cuttings. Sand should bepreferably sterilised before use.

iii) Peat:

There are different types of peats available because ofmode and circumstances of its formation, the plantspecies from which it is formed. Peat consists of theremains of aquatic, marsh, bog or swamp vegetation

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which has been preserved under water in a partially

decomposed state. Composition of peat varies widely

depending upon the vegetation, decomposition and

degree of acidity. The main advantage of moss peat is

that it is a uniform product. It is free from pests, diseases

and weed seeds. Useful for growing rooted cuttings or

seedlings. Peat is easily compressed and can be

purchased in polythene covered bags. Peat is the

material most commonly used and forms the basis of

many different propagation media when mixed with

other components. Peat can be mixed, with either fine

or coarse sand, perlite or vermiculate, sawdust. Peat is

formed by the partial decomposition of plants in areas

of high rainfall and the types of peat can vary

considerably in color and structure. A medium grade

sphagnum peat is generally recommended

iv) Sphagmum moss:

The sphagmum moss is the dehydrated remains of acid-

bog plants of the genus Sphagmum. It is relatively sterile,

light in weight and has a very high water holding

capacity and contains specific fungistatic substances. It

is very popular media per propagation of pomegranate

in Maharashtra by air layering.

v) Vermuculite:

It is a micaceous mineral which expands markedly when

heated. It is chemically a hydrated magnesium -

aluminium - iron silicate. It is very light in weight,

neutral in reaction with good buffering properties and

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insoluble in water. .. It can absorb large quantities of

water. Normally has pH range between 6.0 - 6.5, has a

buffering action. Vermiculate will not re-expand if

excessively firmed or compressed. It is normally mixed

with peat moss, because vermuculite alone will not

support the cuttings. It is suitable for rooting cuttings

intended for export to overcome specific plant

quarantine regulation

vi) Perlite:

It is a gray white material of volcanic origin mined from

lava flows and has neutral reaction with no buffering

and no cation exchange capacity and no mineral

contents. Chemically perlite is made up of alumino -

silicates. It is light, sterile, contain no nutrients. It has

pH of 6.0 - 7.5 range. It may be used alone but is best

used with peat moss for woody ornamentals. Since it is

light in weight, it is useful for mist propagation benches

because there is little chance of damages to the structure

from weight stress. It is a useful material for rooting and

shipping cuttings when there are specific plant

quarantine regulations.

vii) Pumice:

It is a gray or white volcanic rock, which is originally

frothed by gases to give it sponge like and porous

character. It is made up of aluminium silicate and also

contain small quantities of potassium and sodium. It

provides good aeration and drainage to the media

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viii) Leaf mold:

Maple, Oak, Sycamore and elm are among the leaf typessuitable for leaf mold. This material is little used inmodern large scale propagation procedures. Leaf moldin easily available in India. It has a very low bulk densityi.e. 0.1 - 0.25 gms/cm3. ix) Sawdust and woodshavings:These are used mostly for propagating media. Abiproduct formed during the processing of woodmaterial. It is free from harmful substances, freedomfrom salts, nitrogen deficiency. If sawdust is excessivelycomposted, there is a problem of drainage. Controlledrelease fertilizers can be used along with sawdust

x) Cocopeat:

It is also called cocodust. A by product of cutting andsifting coconuts for fibre production. It is the mostpopular growing media available these days. Cocopeathas excellent aeration of 15 to 25% because of its finestructure. Coco substrates are expected to degradeslower than substrates such as peat moss. Do not addpotassium to media as it is already available in coir. Incocopeat media add more nitrogen as micro organismin coco peat need to break down the few easilydegradable substances present in peat Soil mixtures forcontainer growing In propagation procedures, youngseedlings or rooted cuttings are sometimes planteddirectly in the field but frequently they are started in asoil mix in some type of container such as peat or plasticpots or clay flower pots or metal cans. Potting mixture

for rooted cuttings and young seedlings The general

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potting mixture for rooted cuttings and seedling is 1 or

2 parts of sand, 1 part of loam soil and 1 part peatmoss

or shredded bark or leaf mold. For container grown

general nursery stock, it is 1 part sand, 2 parts loam soil

and 1 part peat moss or shredded bark of leaf mold is

generally recommended potting mixture. General

standards of media / substrate water content (% by

weight) maximum 80% organic content (% of dry matter)

minimum 90% pH of water - maximum 4.5 Ec (mS/cm

at 25° C in the 1:1.5 volume extract) maximum 0.5.

Lay out and Planning Good Nursery

Nursery is an area for rearing plants. It is the place where

all kinds of plants like trees, shrubs, climbers etc. are grown

and kept for transporting or for using them as stock plants for

budding, grafting and other method of propagation or for sale.

The modern nurseries also serve as an area where garden tools,

fertilizers are also offered for sale along with plant material.

The number of genuine and quality fruit and ornamental

plants varieties produced by Agricultural Universities, State

Departments of Horticulture and Research Institutions are very

meagre to meet the demand of large number of growers

through out the country. Such high quality planting material

could be produced by careful planning, establishment and

management of nurseries. The success of any nursery depends

largely upon several factors viz., proper selection of site, careful

planning, selection of crops and varieties which are in good

demand and procuring the progeny from the reputed

institutions/nurseries, elite gardens, establishment of mother

plants blocks/scion banks, acquiring scientific information of

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each variety and skilful management in production of

necessary scions as well as marketing the same. For the

establishment of ornamental plant nursery on scientific base

the following points have to be considered.

A. Selection of site Location:

The selected site for establishing a nursery should be

located in an established nursery area. By doing so, one can

share the experiences of fellow nurserymen and thereby many

mistakes can be avoided in planning, management and

marketing of the nursery stock. The selected site should

preferably on a highway or atleast connected with a good

motorable road, which facilitates easy and economic transport

of inputs and nursery plants to the users, orchardists and fruit

growers. The selected site should also have electricity and other

communication facilities. These facilities will improve the

production as well as marketing.

Soil:

The success of any nursery depends mainly upon the

quality of soil and abundant supply of good quality potable

water. Before selecting the site for nursery, the soil and water

analysis must be done, since most of the fruit and ornamental

plants cannot tolerate salinity and alkalinity. The soil should

be light to medium in texture with good fertility and sufficient

water holding capacity along with good drainage. A soil pH

of 6.0 to 7.0 is most suitable for any nursery. Salinity in soil or

irrigation water leads to salt injury resulting in nutritional

deficiencies, marginal browning of leaves and in acute cases

death of grafts, layers and nursery seedlings especially in

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summer months. Therefore, a careful selection of soil with

good quality irrigation water supply is of paramount

importanance for the nursery.

Topography:

The topography of the selected land should be plain with

one per cent slope. The slope facilitates smooth flow of

irrigation water.

B. Planning and layout of a nursery

After selection of site for the establishment of a nursery,

planning may be done in consultation with an experienced

horticulturist or nurserymen. By doing so the cost on

establishment, production and marketing can be reduced

substantially, besides performing various nursery operations

most efficiently and economically. While planning and layout

is being done, the following components are to be taken care

and provision should be made for these.

1. Fence:

Prior to the establishment of a nursery, a good fence with

barbed wire must be erected all around the nursery to prevent

tress pass of animals and theft. The fence could be further

strengthened by planting a live hedge with thorny fruit plants

(like Koranda).

2. Roads and paths:

A proper planning for roads and paths inside the nursery

will not only add beauty, but also make the nursery operations

easy and economical. This could be achieved by dividing the

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nursery into different blocks and various sections. But at the

same time, the land should not be wasted by unnecessarily

laying out of paths and roads.

3. Progeny block/Mother plant block:

The nursery should have a well-maintained progeny

block or mother plant block/scion bank planted with those

varieties in good demand. The grafts/layers/ rooted cuttings/

seedlings should be obtained preferably from the original

breeder /research institute from where it is released or from a

reputed nursery. One should remember that, the success of

any nursery largely depends upon the initial selection of

progeny plants or mother plants for further multiplication. Any

mistake made in this aspect will result in loss of the reputation

of the nursery. A well managed progeny block or mother plants

block will not only create confidence among the customers

but also reduces the cost of production and increases the

success rate of grafting/ budding/layering because of

availability of fresh scion material throughout the season

within the nursery itself and there will not be any lag period

between separations of scion and graftage.

4. Wells, sump, pipelines, generators etc:

Fruit and ornamental nursery plants require abundant

supply of water for irrigation, since they are grown in polybags

or pots with limited quantity of potting mixture. Hence

sufficient number of wells to yield sufficient quantity of

irrigation water is a must in nurseries. In areas with low water

yields and frequent power failures, a sump to hold sufficient

quantity of water to irrigate the nursery plants is also very

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much essential along with appropriate pump for lifting the

irrigation water. In areas where electricity failure is a problem

which is more common, an alternate power supply (generator)

is very essential for smooth running of pumpset. Since water

scarcity is a limiting factor in most of the areas in the country

a well laid out PVC pipeline system will solve the problem to

a greater extent. An experienced agricultural engineer may be

consulted in this regard for layout of pipeline. This facilitates

efficient and economic distribution of irrigation water to

various components in the nursery.

5. Office cum stores:

An office-cum-stores is needed for effective

management of the nursery. A store room of suitable size is

needed for storing polybags, tools and implements, packaging

material, labels, pesticides, fertilizers etc.

6. Seed beds:

In a nursery, this component is essential to raise the

seedlings and rootstocks. These are to be laid out near the water

source, since they require frequent watering and irrigation.

Beds of 1-meter width of any convenient length are to be made.

A working area of 60cm between the beds is necessary. This

facilitates ease in sowing of seeds, weeding, watering, spraying

and lifting of seedlings. Irrigation channels are to be laid out

conveniently. Alternatively, sprinkler irrigation system may

be provided for watering the beds, which offers uniform

germination and seedling growth.

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7. Nursery beds:

Rising of seedlings / rootstocks in polybags requires

more space compared to nursery beds but mortality is greatly

reduced along with uniformity. Nursery beds area should also

have a provision to keep the grafted plants either in trenches

of 30cm deep and 1 m wide so as to accommodate 500 grafts /

layers in each bed. Alternatively, the grafts/ layers can be

arranged on the ground in beds of 1 m wide with 60cm

working place in between the beds. Such beds can be irrigated

either with a rose fitted to a flexible hosepipe or by overhead

micro sprinklers.

8. Potting mixture and potting yard:

For better success of nursery plants, a good potting

mixture is necessary. The potting mixtures for different

purposes can be prepared by mixing fertile red soil, well rotten

FYM, leaf mold, oil cakes etc. in different proportions. The

potting mixture may be prepared well in advance by adding

sufficient quantity of superphosphate for better decomposition

and solubilization. The potting mixture may be kept near the

potting yard, where potting/pocketing is done. Construction

of a potting yard of suitable size facilitates potting of seedlings

or grafting/ budding operations even on a rainy day.

C. Structures for nursery:

1. Shade houses:

Shade houses in nurseries in tropical and sub-tropical

regions offer many advantages like raising of seedlings in bags

directly, protecting the grafts from hot summer months,

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effective irrigation through upside down overhead

microsprinklers. The shade houses made with shade nets (50%

or 75%) for regulation of shade are particularly very useful in

arid regions where the humidity is very low during summer

months.

2. Green houses/Polyhouses :

Grafting or budding of several fruit species under

polyhouses or low cost green houses with natural ventilation

will enhance the percentage of graft/bud take besides faster

growth of grafts due to favourable micro climatic conditions

of polyhouse.

General Nursery Management Practices

Facilities required for propagating many plant species

by seed, cuttings or grafting and budding include two basic

units namely a structure with temperature control and ample

light such as a green house or hot bed where seeds can be

germinated or cuttings rooted. The second unit, is a structure

into which the young tender plants can be moved for

hardening preparatory to transplanting and cold frames or lath

houses are useful for this purpose. Propagating structures

i. Green houses:

There are number of types of green houses namely low

cost green house and commercial green houses. In green house

construction, a wood or metal frame work is built to which

wood or metal sash bars are fixed to support panes of glass

embedded in putty. In all polyhouses/ green houses means

of providing air movement and air exchange is necessary to

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aid in controlling temperature and humidity. It is best, if

possible to have in the green house heating and self opening

ventilators and evaporative cooling systems. ii. Plastic green

houses: Green houses covered with various types of plastic

film have become very popular for small home garden as well

as for large commercial installation. Several kinds of plastic

materials are available and are cheaper than glass. Plastic

houses are usually of temporary construction except when

permanent high cost coverings are used. Plastic covered green

houses tend to be much lighter than glass covered ones with a

build up of excessive high humidity.

a) Polythene film:

This is the most inexpensive covering material but it is

the short lasting one. However, UV ray resisting

polyethylene film of various thickness is usually

recommended which lasts longer.

b) PVC film:

This material is pliable and comes in various thickness

and widths upto 6 ft. It is longer lasting than polythene

and is more expensive PVC surface of film tends to

collect dust and lower the light intensity in due course

of time.

c) Polyester film:

This is a strong material with excellent weathering

properties lasting for 3-5 years and is unaffected by

extremes of heat or cold. But is usually costlier than

polythene film/pvc film.

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d) Fiberglass:

Rigid panels, corrugated or flat fiber glass sheets

embedded in plastic are widely used for green house

construction. Fibre glass is strong, long lasting, light

weight and easily applied which is coming in a variety

of widths, lengths and thickness. It is costlier than poly

thin film/pvc film.

iii. Hotbeds:

The hot bed is often used for the same purpose as a green

house but in a smaller scale. Amateur operations and seedlings

can be started and leafy cuttings root early in the season in

such structures. Heat is provided artificially below the

propagating medium by electric heating cables, pot water,

steam pipes or hot air blows. As in the green house, in the hot

beds attention must be paid for shading and ventilation as

well as temperature and humidity control.

iv. Lathhouses:

These structures are very useful in providing protection

from the sun for container grown nursery stock in areas of

high summer temperatures and high light intensity. Well

established plants also can require lath house protection

including shade loving plants Lathhouses construction varies

widely depending on the material used. Aluminium pre-

fabricated lathhouses are available but may be more costly

than wood structures. Shade is provided by appropriate

structures and use of shade nets of different densities allow

various intensities of light in the lathhouses.

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Miscellaneous propagating structures

i. Mist beds:

These are valuable propagating units both in the green

house and out doors and are useful mainly in rooting of leafy

cuttings.

ii. Mist chamber:

This is a structure used to propagate soft wood cuttings,

difficult to root plants and shrubs. Here the principle is to spray

the cuttings with a minimum quantity of water. This is

achieved by providing the cuttings a series of intermittent

sprayings rather than a continuous spray. The intermittent

spraying can be done easily by means of a high pressure pump

and a time switch. The pump leads to a pipeline system inside

the propagating structure. The mist nozzles are fitted to these

pipelines and suitably spaced over the propagating material.

iii. Nursery bed:

These are raised beds or boxes made of brick and mortar,

provided with drainage holes at the bottom. The dimensions

of the boxes are 60 cm high, 120 cm broad and length as

required preferably not exceeding 10 m. Roof structures for

planting on both sides and forming ridges at the centre are

constructed on the top of the nursery beds. These structures

may be made permanent with angle iron or may be made of

wood. Moveable bamboo mats, palm leaf mats are placed over

these structures to protect the seedling from hot sun and heavy

rains. Even shade roofing can be used for this purpose for

raising see dings.

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iv. Fluorescent light boxes:

Young plants of many species grow satisfactorily under

artificial light from fluorescent lamp units. Although adequate

growth of many plant species may be obtained under

fluorescent lamps but not up to the mark compared to good

green house conditions.

v. Propagating cases:

Even in green house, humidity conditions are often notsufficiently high for rooting. The use of enclosed frames orcases covered with glass or plastic materials may be necessaryfor successful rooting. In using such structures, care isnecessary to avoid the build up of disease organisms due tohigh humidity. Types/species/varieties of plants forproduction under polyhouse conditions. There are manytender and half hardy plants worth raising each year, all ofwhich can be propagated from cuttings throughout the year.Under Indian conditions, quoset type, multi span green houseis most suitable, because of its low cost and ease of fabrication,ultraviolet resistant low density polyethylene single filmcladding of 200 micron thickness is sufficient for naturallyventilated and fan and pad green houses. Fan and Pad greenhouses are most suitable for nursery raising and rooting ofcuttings due to high relative humidity inside. High humiditycan be maintained in green house used for nursery raising orfor rooting cuttings by misting or fogging which is also knownas mist chamber. The containerized transplant production andthe hybrid seed production of high value annual ornamentalshave become a service oriented industry in advanced

countries. Thus, the green house technology for production

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of planting material would be highly paying, there being a

demand for planting material. Nurserymen are enterpreneurs

can avail themselves of the subsidy facilities being provided

by the Government of India and technical guidance provided

by the State Department of Horticulture and the Agricultural

Universities for adopting the technology and making covered

cultivation or profitable venture.

Shade Nets

The shadenets are primarily used to protect the nursery

plants from direct sunlight. The planting material requires

certain amount of protected cultivation systems, which help

in maintaining the freshness and appeal of the plants. The

shade nets are available in desired shading percentages. These

are ultraviolet ray stabilised and can be used for longer time.

With many incentives in the form of subsidies from the

Government, use of shade net is becoming more popular. The

main effect of shade net is to reduce sunlight to the required

intensity. Though white, green and black are popular colours,

red and blue nets are recent introductions. Transluscent blue

shade net gives blue light, which is found to be excellent for

plant growth. For general purpose shading nets with open

weave pattern are preferred in fan and pad system, however

closed weaving patterns will be useful. Shade nets are also

used as sunscreen in low cost polyhouses or glass houses used

for production of plant material. Movable screen have the

advantage that whenever sunlight decreases the shade net can

be moved to one side to let more sunlight. Shade nets help

increase in quantity (growth) and quality besides having

partial protection from biotic and abiotic stresses. Fertilization

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Commercial synthetic fertilizers (including slow-release and

liquid fertilizers) have played a key role in modern nurseries.

The two most widely used irrigation systems are

overhead and drip (or trickle). Overhead irrigation is designed

to cover a large area, and these systems are the least expensive

to install. However, this method produces uneven water

distribution, which can slow plant growth, encourage disease,

and contribute to runoff. Drip or trickle system, which uses

60%-70% less water than overhead systems. Drip irrigation

systems cost more to install than overhead systems, but have

superior application uniformity and efficiency. They are also

less affected by wind and crop canopies, and they produce

less runoff. Another advantage is that workers can continue

working while the plants are being irrigated. The biggest

disadvantage to trickle irrigation, besides the initial cost, is

keeping the pipes and emitters clean. A third, less-used type

of irrigation system is sub irrigation using capillary sand beds.

In this system, water rises into containerized plants through

capillary action. Usually, the sand bed is covered with at least

one inch of fine sand, and slopes very slightly from one end

to the other. Water is released at the high end and slowly

percolates to the low end. These systems cost the most to

install, but they have no runoff or leaching. Weed Control

Weed control is extremely important. Weeds not only compete

for water and nutrients, but they can also hinder sales of

nursery stock. Weed control efforts should focus on two areas:

in the pot and under the pot. Sanitation is the least costly and

most effective method for controlling weeds. To prevent weed

seeds from blowing into pots, attention to a vegetation-free

zone both on and surrounding the production bed-is critical.

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Hand weeding is costly, but it may be appropriate in a small

nursery setting. Weeds must be removed when they are still

small, since large quantities of media are lost when big weeds

are pulled out of containers. Herbicides, on the other hand,

are widely used in container nursery production. Even though

weed-free media is used to establish nursery plants, wind and

birds and surface irrigation water are sources of weed seeds

that get deposited onto the pot surface. Thus, pre- and post-

emergent herbicides are commonly used in commercial

nursery production to control these freeloaders.

Nursery Plant Protection

Insect pests, diseases are critical factors in the process

of multiplication of plant material under open as well as

controlled conditions. Control of insects and diseases are

integral part of the nursery plant production.

Pest management: Prevention or avoidance of pests and

their damage is possible by the following methods:

Maintain vigorous, healthy plants by using proper

culture and management practices

Practice IPM and realize that all culture and

management factors can affect pests

Scout plants for pests o Use soaps, oils and

botanicals whenever possible

Spot spray only infested plants that exceed the

threshold

Destroy heavily infested or injured plants

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Conserve and promote beneficial insects byselective pesticide use

Disease management:

Steam Sterilization: Rooting media sterilisation isessential if it has been exposed or previously usedas it may contain undesirable microorganisms,insects, and weeds. Steam sterilisation is relativelyexpensive but ecofriendly compared to chemicalsterilisation

Soil Solarization: In solar sterilisation, the soil isploughed thoroughly and covered with polythenesheet for few days depending on temperatureconditions

Hot Water Treatment (bulbs,corms)

Biological Control (Bacillus, Pseudomonas, andStreptomyces and fungi such as Trichodermareduces fungal plant pathogens)

Chemical Control

Pest

Scales

Scales are serious pests on many plants. These remaincovered inside a hard coating which looks like a waxy scaleand infest lower surface of leaves, veins of branches. Theseinsects suck plant sap and as a result plants become weak.The affected leaves turn yellow, deformed while the branchesand the plant may die - in severe cases. Plants with green shadeor semi shade are more prone to attack. If tender annualflowerings crops are attacked, it is necessary to eradicate themimmediately.

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Management:

Selection of scale free planting material prevents earlybuild up of pest. Cutting and burning of infested parts reducesfurther spread. Sprays of dimethoate, etheon andchlorpyriphos at 0.05% provides effective control of scales.Application of 10% pongamia oil to pruned shoots completelycontrols rose red scale within 3 weeks. Natural enemies viz.,Aphytis spp. Chilocorus nigritus and Pharasymnus horni arecommon enemies of red scale in nature. Spraying of fish oilresin soap at 0.5 kg/30 litres of water or methyl parathion0.05% or dimethoate 0.05% provides effective control of scaleson orchids.

Thrips

Thrips are minute insects and mainly attack tenderleaves and growing buds. These are sucking insects whichaffect a large number of plants. Both nymphls and adults canaffect plant parts. As a result of sucking nature of the pest,plants become weak and the affected parts develop brownstreaks, with burnt appearance. The tender twigs, foliage,flower buds get distorted and dry.

Management:

Sprays of oxydemeton methyl or dimethoate oroxydemet on methyl or acephate given at 0.05% at 10 daysinterval provides significant control of thrips. A predatorywasp, Polistes hebraeus preys on R. cruentatus. Soil applicationof phorate @ 1 kg a.i./ha also reduces thrips damage.Drenching soil with chlorpyriphos 0.1% also helps in reducing

population.

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Aphids

Aphids are sucking insects which are blackish orbrownish or green in colour and suck sap from tender shoots,leaves and flower buds. The aphids excrete honey-dews onthe foliage causing sooty mould to grow over the foliage.Shoots or foliage get deformed. Affected plants become weak,retard in growth. In case of ornamental plants, ornamentallook may be affected.

Management:

Spraying of dimathoate 0.05% or oxydemeton-methyl0.05% or malathion 0.1 % at 10-15 days interval controls aphidpopulation effectively. To prevent recurrence of the pestgranular insecticides like phorate @ 1.0 kg a.i/ ha should beapplied to soil. Application of 4% alcohol extracts of Solanumindicum and Erythrina indica provides good control of roseaphid. Water extract of pongamia kernel 4% or pongamia oil2% sprays cause significant mortality of aphids, onchrysanthemum. Application of neem oil 1 % also reducesaphid population effectively. Grubs and adults of coccinellidbeetles and maggots prey upon the aphids and effectively wipeout their population in nature.

Mealybug

Mealy bugs are small fleshy insects which remaincovered in a white, wooly and waxy secretions. .. Generallyolder plants are affected. The insects suck the sap as a resultof which plants weaken, leaves turn yellow & get deformed.In severe cases affected plants may even die .. Mealy bugssecrete honey dews which stick to the foliage and as a resultof which sooty mould cover the leaf surface impairing thenormal activity of the leaves

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Management:

Prompt collection and desctruction of infested partsreduces spread of the pest. Crawling of ants on plants is thesign of beginning of mealybug infestation. Spraying shouldbe taken up at this stage. Sprays of methyl parathion 0.05% ordimethoate 0.05% or acephate 0.1 % at 15 days intervaleffectively controls mealybug infestation. Application ofpongamia oil 2% also provides good control of mealy bugs, ifplant is not sensitive to oil sprays. Release of coccinellidpredator, Cryptolamus montrouzieri and a parasitoid,Leptomastridia abnormis reduces mealy bug population inglass house grown ornamentals.

Whiteflies

Whiteflise are tinny insects, white in colour and are veryactive.

Management:

Excessive dampness and dark conditions should beavoided for crops grown under protected conditions. Removaland burning of heavily infested leaves checks multiplicationof the pest. Clean cultivation, using of insect screening netsand Proper closing of doors help in preventing incidence ofwhiteflies. Spraying of phosphamidin 0.05% alternated withtriazophos 0.05% at an early stage of infestation effectivelycontains pest build up. Sprays of methomyl and acephate at0.05% significantly reduce nymph and pupal population. Amanagement package of spraying dichlorvos 0.05% for adults,triazophos or Spark at 0.05% alternating with pongamia oil

1% for nymphs and soil application of carbofuran @ 1 kg a.i./

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ha provides effective control of whitefly on gerbera. Releaseof a parasitoid, Encarsia formosa (6 adults/m2), and use ofyellow sticky traps gives significant control of whiteflies ongreen house ornamentals.

Mites

The mite is a minute dot sized pest red in colour almostinvisible to the naked eyes, resembling the spider but not atrue spider. This is a sucking type of pest if established once,they may become a serious problem. The tender shoots affectedby mites develop spots and turn yellow, dry and drop.

Management:

Cutting and burning of severely infested plant partsreduces further multiplication of mites. Proper ventilation,irrigation and clean cultivation are essential to keep the pestpopulation under control. Acaricides like dicofol 0.05% andwettable sulphur 0.3% sprays (2-3) at 15 days interval givesconsiderable control of mites. Spraying of triazophos 0.05%or dimethoate 0.05% followed by a spray of pongamia oil 1 %provides significant control of T.urticae on carnation. Newacariades like vertimec, pentac Apollo, Mitac, Cascade are alsoused to combat mite problem in nurseries. Commercial neemformulation (3500 ppm azadirachtin) application against T.urticae Causes mortality, growth retardation, reduction in egghatchability and egg laying. Methyl parathion 0.05%,fluvalinate 0.012% and ethion 0.05% also offer significantcontrol of mites that infest various ornamentals. Use of dicofol,0.05%, protenofos 0.05% and wetlable sulfur 0.05% bringsdown mites population considerably on ornamental crops.Release of predatory mite, Amblyseivs sp @ 20/plantsuccessfully contains T.uritcae population on Rose.

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Leaf Eating Caterpillars

Caterpillars feed on foliage. They damage leaves byfeeding

Management:

Collection and destruction of egg masses and leavesinfested with early larval instars of hairy caterpillar and S.liturareduces pest build up. Setting up of light traps attracts adultmoths and helps in monitoring pest population. Spraying ofquinalphos 0.05% or chlorpyriphos 0.05% gives protection tofoliage from semiloopers, hairy caterpillars and S.litura.Application of Bacillus thuringiensis dust and spray (3 x 106spores) gives effective control of these caterpillars on rose.Spraying of plant derivatives like neem oil 1 % or neem kernelextract 4% checks damage by early instar larvae.

Leaf Beetles and Weevils

Management:

Soil application of phorate or carbofuran @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha controls grubs. Setting up of light traps helps in collectingadults and monitoring pest incidence. Fortnightly sprays ofquinalphos 0.05% or methyl parathion 0.05% or chlorpyriphos0.05% taken up in the evening protects foliage from betles andweevils on rose. Ethanol extract of neem kernel at 2.5% or neemoil 1 % inhibits feeding by chafer beetles on rose.

Cut Worms

These are essentially found in a nursery. The insectremains in the soil and attacks the seedlings at ground level.

Management: Use of light traps collects adult moths. Poisonbait consisting of carbaryl or malathion at 0.1% , wheat branandmollasses scattered in the fielkd, controls larvae. Sprays

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of methyl parathion 0.05% or quinalphos 0.05% providesprotection to foliage from cut worms. Application of granulosisvirus causes 90-94% mortality of cutworm on ornamentals.

Leafminers

The larvae of the insects mines into leaves betweenepidermal layers leaving excreta on leaf surfaces. The affectedleaves become brittle turn brown & dry.

Management:

Removal and destruction of severely mined leavesreduces further damage. Sprays of deltanethns 0.05%triazophos 0.06% and pongamia oil 0.5% causes significantmortality of larvae. Drenching of soil with Margosan (0.33%)and spraying with same chemical at 0.94 and 1.25% effectivelyreduces number of pupae and adults. Use of yellow stickytraps coated with chlorpyriphos or permethrin reduces adultpopulation. Release of eulophid parasitoid. Diglyphusintermedius @ 1000 at weekly intervals gives considerablereduction of leaf miner population on chrysanthemum. SnailsAnd Slugs

Snails are one of the important pests found in nursery.They cut the young plants at general level and damageseedlings during rainy season.

Management:

Hand picking and killing by putting them in 5% saltsolution is the most effective method to bring down thepopulation. Spreading of 'Snail kill' (3% metaldehyde pellets)in the field kills snails and slugs. Spraying of neem oil 1 %and water extract of soapnut 5% protects foliage from snaildamage.

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Diseases

i) Damping off:

This is a major disease of germinating seeds which iscaused by three separate fungi mainly species of PythiumRhizoctonia and. Phytophthora. The disease is expressed eitherby the failure of the seedling to emerge or by the death of theseedling soon after emergence. A common symptom is thegirdling of young seedling stems at the soil surface. Dampingoff usually occurs only in youmg, succullent seedlings duringor shortly after germination, but older plants may be affectedin severe cases. Control measures involves direct control byuse of Captan 0.2% or Bavistin 0.15% or Kavach 0.2%,drenching or use of organomecuerials such as Cersan orThiram or Agrosan as seed treatment chemicals at rate of 2g/ka of seed. Regulation of environmental conditions such asexcess humidity, water also plays an important role in spreadand control of disease.

ii) Anthracnose:

This is a kind of leaf spot formed in young plants andspots are circular, slightly raised concentric and are studdedwith large number of raised black or red bodies. The infectionspreads rapidly under high humid conditions, spraying withcopper fungicides 0.2% or Bavistin 0.15%, will control thedisease.

iii) Blights:

These also sometimes causes damage to the nurserystock in high humid areas. The blights are kept under controlby constant and timely spray of copper fungicides 0.2% orDithane Z-78 0.2%

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iv) Dieback:

This is serious in some of the grafts/buddlings at the

young stage. The disease may be due to fungi. The symptoms

are drying up of the margin of the leaf and drying slowly

spreads to young shoots in severe cases. Control measures

involves dipping of scion sticks in Bavistin or Benlate 0.2°/"

solution and prophylactic sprays with Topsin M 0.15% or

Bavistin 0.15%. v) Leaf spots: The disease is very common in

grown up plans and number of fungi as well as bacteria is

involved. The leaf spots vary in size shape colour and extent

of damage. The symptoms vary according to the pathogen

involved. Spraying with Copper fungicide 0.2% or Bavistin

0.15% or Dithane Z-78 0.2% will control the disease.

vi) Powdery mildews:

This is a common malady in most of ornamental crops

during dry cool weather and when plants produce new flesh.

The powdery mildews are easily recognised by the presence

of scattered areas showing powdery growth mostly on the

young leaves. Spraying with wetable sulphur sulfex 0.2% or

Calixin 0.15% will control the disease. Precautions for handling

plant protection equipment. They should be kept away from

food or feed stuffs and medicines. The instructions found on

the labels should be carefully read and strictly followed. Bags

and containers of pesticides should be cut open with a separate

knife intended for such purposes. The empty containers, after

the use of the chemical, should be destroyed and should not

be put into some other use. While preparing the spray solutions

bare hands should not be used for mixing the chemical with

water. Inhaling of pesticide sprays or dusts and smoking,

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chewing, eating or drinking while mixing or applying the

chemicals should be avoided Spilling of pesticides on skin or

clothing should as far as possible be avoided. The clothes

should be washed after each operation .. Particles or drops of

pesticides which may accidentally get into eyes should be

flushed out immediately with large volumes of clean water. It

is preferable that protective clothings and devices are used

while handling poisonous chemicals to avoid exposure to

sprays or drifts. Dusting or spraying should never be done

against the wind and it is preferable to have them done in

cool and calm weather. Sprayer nozzles should not be blown

by mouth if gets blocked while spraying. Washers and other

contaminated parts should be buried. After handling

pesticides hands, face and body should be washed and

clothing changed. Washing of equipment after use and

containers in or near wells, or streams should be avoided.

Persons engaged in handling pesticides should undergo

regular medical check up. In case of any suspected poisoning

due to insecticides the nearest physician should be called

immediately.

Symptoms and Management of Nutrients

Plant performance in nursery depends on nutrient status

in plant media, but nothing has been worked out owing to its

short duration of plant with nursery. Nutrients are necessary

for growth and productivity of crops. Apart from the

N,P,K,Ca,Mg and S, micronutrients such as Zn, Fe, Cu, B, Mo,

Mn, el, etc are also necessary for maintaining the normal health

and metabolism of plants. However, nutrient deficiency can

lead to poor and stunted growth of plants resulting in poor

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performance. Often nurserymen are encountered with some

deficiency symptoms appearing in nursery plants and they

should have sufficient knowledge to identify the nutrient

deficiencies in nursery plants to take up appropriate steps to

correct the nutrient deficiencies. The deficiencies are

manifested in various plant parts. The appearance of plant

parts can be used by nurserymen to help indicate plant health

in general and nutrient deficiencies in particular. The

expression of deficiency symptoms are varied among the plant

parts viz., whole plant, leaves, stem, roots etc., depending upon

the role of the element and nutrient content. The deficiency

symptoms of different micro and macro nutrients and their

corrections are given hereunder.

Nutrient deficiency symptoms in plants

Deficiency Symptoms

A. Older or lower leaves affected

1. Nitrogen (or posphorus) Deficiency - Effects mostly

generalised over whole plant, more or less drying,

scorching of lower leaves, plant light or dark green.

a) Nitrogen Deficiency - Plants light green light

yellow, drying to light brown colour, stalks short

and slender if element is deficient in later stages of

growth.

b) Phosphorus Deficiency - Plant dark green, often

developing red and purple colour, lower leaves

sometime yellow; turning to greenish brown black

colour.

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2. Magnesium, Potassium or Zinc Deficiency - Effectsmostly localised, mottling or chlorosis with or withoutspots of dead tissue on lower leaves, little or no dryingup of lower leaves

a) Magnesium Deficiency - Lower leaves mottled orchlorotic, without dead spots, leaves may reddenas with cotton, sometimes with dead spot tips andmargin turned or curved upwards, stalks slender.

b) Potassium or Zinc Deficiency - Lower leavesmottled or chlorotic, with dead spots.

i) Potassium Deficiency - Spots of dead tissuesmall usually at tips and between veins, moremarked at margins of leaves, stalks slender.

ii) Zinc Deficiency - Spots generalised, rapidlyenlarging and generally involving areasbetween veins eventually involving secondaryand even primary veins, leaves thick, stalkswith shortened inter nodes.

B. New or bud leaves affected (symptoms localised)

1. Calcium or Boron Deficiency - Terminal buds, followingappearance of distortions at tips or bases of youngleaves.

a) Calcium Deficiency - Young leaves of terminal budat first typically hooked, finally dying back at tipsand margins so that latter growth is characterisedby a cut out appearance at these points, stalks finally

die at terminal bud.

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b) Boron Deficiency - Young leaves of terminal budbecoming light green at bases, with final breakdown here; in later growth, leaves become twisted,stalk finally dies back at terminal bud.

2. Copper, Manganese, Sulphur or Iron Deficiency -Terminal bud commonly remains alive, wilting orchlorosis of younger or bud leaves with or without spotsof dead tissues, veins light or dark green.

i) Copper Deficiency - Young leaves permanentlywilted or marked chlorosis; twig or stalk just belowtip and seed head often unable to stand erect inlater stage when shortages are acute.

ii) Manganese or iron Deficiency - Young leaves notwilted, chlorosis present or without spots of deadissue scattered over the leaves.

a) Manganese Deficiency - Sports of dead tissuescattered over the leaves smallest veins tend toremain green producing a checkered orreticulated effect.

b) Sulphur or Iron Deficiency - Dead spots notcommonly present, chlorosis may not involveveins making them light dark green in colour.

i) Sulphur Deficiency - Young leaves withveins and tissue between veins light greenin colour.

ii) Iron Deficiency - Young leaves chlorosis,principal veins green, stalks short andslender.

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c) Stems

i) Phosphorus Deficiency - Stunted shadeplants but have stronger stems.

ii) Sulphur Deficiency - Thin and erect stems.

iii) Pottassium Deficiency - Stocky appearancewith short internodes.

iv) Copper Deficiency - Slender and weakstems with poor lignification spilling orcracking on the barks.

Control measures

Nutrient deficiency can be easily rectified by applyingthe deficient element either by soil application or by foliarapplication or by the combined application of soil + foliarspray. Nitrogen: Applying recommended doses of N fertilizers.If the deficiency is observed during the growth phase, 1% ofurea can be used.

Phosphorus:

Recommended doses of P and foliar spray of 2% DAPor 1 % super phosphate extract.

Potassium:

Recommended doses of K and foliar spray of 1 % KClor 1% K2SO4 Calcium: Lime application depending upon thepH and foliar spray of 1 % calcium nitrate (Fruit crops)

Magnesium:

Soil application of Domolite or Gypsum SaltMgSO4,7H2O depending upon the deficiency and 0.5% ofGypsum salt as foliar spray.

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Zinc:

Soil application of Zinc Sulphate at 12.5 - 25 kg/ha andfoliar spray of 0.5% Zinc Sulphate.

Iron:

Soil application of Ferrous sulphate at 50kg/ha andfoliar spray of 0.5% Ferrous sulphate (for calcerous soil, onlyfoliar spray is recommended)

Manganese:

Soil application of Manganese sulphate at 25 kg/ha andfoliar spray of 0.2-0.4% MnSO4

Copper :

Soil application of Copper Sulphate at 10kg/ha andfoliar spray of 0.5% CuSO4

Boron:

Soil application of Borax at 15-20 kg/ha and foliar sprayof 0.2% Borix acid

Molybdenum:

Soil application of 500g to 2 kg of Ammonium molybdateand 0.1 % foliar spray of ammonium molybdate.

Nutrients can be sprayed on the foliage of the cropseither in the morning or late evening. Spray can be repeated 2to 3 times with an interval of 15-20 days with 400 litres of sprayfluid per ha. Spray fluid should be prepared only with cleanwater. Spraying can be done with hand operated sprayer. Careshould be taken to ensure that the entire foliage should bethoroughly wet. Spray fluid can be mixed with any wettingagent at 1 ml per litre of spray fluids. Spraying on young foliageyields better results than spraying on the old mature leaves.