noether's theorem- the science of symmetry and the law of conservation

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Noether's Theorem: The

Science of Symmetry and the

Law of ConservationBey-Ling Sha

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Symmetry and the Law of Conservation, Journal of Public Relations Research, 16:4,

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Noethers Theorem: The Science ofSymmetry and the Law of Conservation

Bey-Ling ShaDepartment of Communication

University of Maryland, College Park

Noethers Theorem shows that symmetryor changecan only exist simulta-

neously with conservation or invariance. For public relations, the implication is that

an organization can behave symmetrically while maintaining certain beliefs, prin-

ciples, or purposes that will never be relinquished. A case study of the Democratic

Progressive Party (DPP) on Taiwan using participant observation (13 months), quali-

tative interviews (n = 22), and a quantitative survey (n = 166; response rate = 28.77%)

showed that the organization exhibited symmetry by reaching out to external publics,engaging in dialogue with them, and expressing openness regarding Taiwan inde-

pendence. Simultaneously, the party conserved its interests in gaining power and es-

tablishing an independent Taiwan. Recent electoral victories of the DPP suggest the

effectiveness of symmetryconservation for public relations practice.

The concept of symmetry has generated much scholarship and debate in public re-

lations, much of which was reviewed by J. Grunig (2001). Yet, the dimension of

symmetricalasymmetrical communication remains one that continues to generate

confusion and criticism among public relations scholars, possibly because of mis-

conceptions associated with the termsymmetry(J. Grunig, 2001). In hopes of pro-

viding scholars with elucidating terminology, in this article, I offer a new articula-

tion of the concept of symmetry in public relations by integrating concepts from

mathematical physics. Specifically, I applied Noethers Theorem to public rela-

tions theory and investigated the public relations behaviors of a political party on

Taiwan. The findings show that symmetry and conservation are related concepts

that must exist simultaneously, not only in mathematical physics, but also in public

relations.

JOURNAL OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH,16(4), 391416Copyright 2004, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Requests for reprints should be sent to Bey-Ling Sha, San Diego State University, School of

Communication, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 921824561. E-mail:[email protected]

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THE EVOLUTION OF SYMMETRY IN PUBLIC RELATIONS

Originally, researchers believed that the two-way asymmetrical model of public re-lations involvedseeking information so as to better persuade organizational publics

to change (J. Grunig & Hunt, 1984). In this view, organizations practicing the

two-way asymmetrical model tried to shape the attitudes and behaviors of their

publics using persuasion and manipulation (Dozier, J. Grunig, & L. Grunig, 1995).

On the other hand, the symmetrical model involved a genuine dialogue between the

organization and its publics. Furthermore, this genuine dialogue signaled a willing-

ness to change the organization and not merely its publics (J. Grunig & L. Grunig,

1996; J. Grunig & Hunt, 1984). Thus, organizations using the symmetrical model

tried to understand their publics and to reach mutually satisfactory results, whereastheasymmetricalmodel focusedonsatisfying only organizational concerns (Dozier

et al., 1995).

In their original conception, these two-way models seemed to hold worldviews

that opposed each other (J. Grunig & White, 1992). In other words, it appeared that

use of the asymmetrical model meant seeking organizational benefits to the detri-

ment of organizational publics, whereas the use of the symmetrical model implied

seeking the benefits of the publics to the detriment of organizational interests. Per-

haps for this reason, scholars such as Leichty (1997) asserted that symmetrical

public relations, which he also termed collaborative public relations, is unfeasi-ble in certain situations.

Before Leichty (1997), Murphy (1991) pointed out that the symmetrical model

seemed to imply relinquishing organizational interests to satisfy the interests of or-

ganizational publics. Murphy considered this unrealistic and developed a mixed-

motive model of public relations, in which organizations and publics try to satisfy

both their own interests and each others interests. The mixed-motive model was

an improved conceptualization of what J. Grunig had in mind when he described

the two-way symmetrical model (J. Grunig & L. Grunig, 1996, p. 5). Specifically,

Murphys (1991) articulation of the mixed-motive model underscored the realitythat in the symmetrical model of public relations, organizations do not completely

relinquish their own interests.

The authors of the Excellence study (see J. Grunig, 1992) themselves suggested

that the asymmetrical model is a practical one for organizations to use in certain

circumstances. Findings from the Excellence study suggested that knowing how to

use both the asymmetrical and symmetrical models of public relations formed the

core of communication excellence (Dozier et al., 1995, p. 50). As Dozier et al. ex-

plained, [k]nowledge of symmetrical and asymmetrical practices, it seems, goes

hand in hand to help communication departments and organizations achieve com-munication excellence (p. 47).

Asa result, theyarticulated a contingency model of excellent two-way public re-

lations(J.Grunig,L.Grunig,& Dozier, 1996) thatresolves theprevious tensions be-

392 SHA

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tweensymmetryandasymmetry. In thecontingencymodel, theconceptsofsymme-

try andasymmetry no longeroccupy polarizedendsofa continuum. Rather, oneend

of the continuum represents asymmetrical public relations that benefits only theor-ganization (calledpure asymmetry). The other end represents asymmetrical public

relations that benefits only the publics (calledpure cooperation).

In the middle of this continuum lies a symmetrical, winwin zone, where orga-

nizations and publics can engage in mixed-motive communication (J. Grunig et

al., 1996, p. 221). In this way, the contingency model acknowledges that symmetri-

cal public relations occurs in ways that accommodate the interests of both organi-

zations and their publics while recognizing that neither side completely relin-

quishes its fundamental interests.

Despite the development of the contingency model, many researchers in publicrelations continue to have difficulty seeing past the (mis)implication that symme-

try and asymmetry occupy each end of a polarized continuum characterizing pub-

lic relations practice. Perhaps, this is because these terms appear to place the con-

cepts in opposition to each other and thus confuse public relations scholars.

NOETHERS THEOREM

In seeking a term for the idea that symmetry involves also the organizationsself-interest, I turned to mathematical physics and the work of pure mathemati-

cian Emmy Noether (cf. Brewer & Smith, 1981; Dick, 1981). Noether

(18821935) today is considered one of the most brilliant mathematicians of the

20th century (cf. Teicher, 1999), although she faced gender and religious dis-

crimination during her lifetime. After German universities finally began to admit

women, Noether matriculated at the University of Erlangen in 1904the only

woman in a class of 47 students of mathematics. She earned her PhD, summa

cum laude, in 1907, but was unable to find a formal university appointment be-

cause of her gender. Thus, she worked informally for several years, often with-out pay, and permitted to lecture only because the class was listed officially

under a male colleagues name. In 1933, the Nazi regime dismissed Noether

from her informal position at the University of Gottingen because she was Jew-

ish. That fall, she accepted a guest professorship at Bryn Mawr College in the

United States where she taught until her sudden death in 1935 following a tu-

mor-removal operation (Noether, 1987).

Despite the discrimination she faced, Noether developed several theories that

gradually gained recognition among both mathematicians and physicists. In 1921,

she published her Theory of Ideals in Rings, considered by mathematicians to-day as her most important work (Flenner, 1999; Noether, 1987). In addition, physi-

cists recognize Noethers first theorem, published in 1918 and today called simply

Noethers Theorem (NeEman, 1999; Noether, 1987). Ironically, Noether herself

NOETHERS THEOREM 393

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could not even present the now-famous paper,Invariante Variationsproblem,that

contained her important discovery because as a woman, she was barred from mem-

bership in the Royal Society of Gottingen. Only members could make presenta-tions, and Noethers theorem thus was presented by her male colleague Felix Klein

(Byers, 1999).

The specific equations associated with Noethers Theorem prove a mathemati-

cal law of conservation associated with symmetry (Alekseevskii, 1988; Byers,

1999). In other words, for every symmetry, there is a corresponding law of conser-

vation. Before applying Noethers Theorem to public relations, one must under-

stand the scientific principles at the heart of the theorem.

THE SCIENCE OF SYMMETRY

The concept of symmetry is one that has fascinated scholars long before public

relations researchers incorporated the term into our field. Perhaps the first scien-

tist to attempt a popular explanation of symmetry to a lay audience was

Shubnikov, who published a book titledSymmetryin his native Russian in the

early 1940s (Shubnikov & Koptsik, 1974). This work inspired the now classic

and widely cited volumeSymmetryby German mathematician Hermann Weyl,

which was published in English in 1952. More recently, an excellent basic text-book on symmetry is A Symmetry Primer for Scientists (Rosen, 1983), which

was updated more than a decade later (Rosen, 1995).

Manytypes of symmetry exist, fromones that are intuitive even for nonscientists

to onesthatinvolvecomplex differentialequations.1 One of the most intuitive forms

of symmetry is bilateral or reflective symmetry. In lay terms, reflective symmetry

meansthatpartsofafigureoneithersideofadividinglineABmirroreachother(see

Figure 1). Thus, a two-dimensional figure is symmetrical when at least one line di-

videsit into two (or more) mirror images (Daintith& Clark,1999;Kornegay, 1999).

BecauseinthisfiguretherearethreepossiblelocationsforlineABtoproduceasym-metrical figureAB1, AB2, and AB3a triangle has three degrees of symmetry.

Evenincases where thetwo parts donot literally mirroreachother, bilateralsymme-

trystillmaybefoundifthetwopartsbalanceeachotherinsomeway.Forthisreason,

symmetryhasbeenofinterestnotonlytoscientistsbutalsotoartistsandmusicians.

The concept of symmetry thus is intricately related to aesthetics (cf. Hargittai,

1992; Heilbronner & Dunitz, 1993; Shubnikov & Koptsik, 1974; Stewart &

Golubitsky, 1992; Weyl, 1952). Weyl (1952) wrote that [b]eauty is bound up with

symmetry (p. 3), at least insofar as that term denotes good proportions, good bal-

ance, and that sort of concordance of several parts by which they integrate into a

394 SHA

1For specific explanations of various types of symmetry, see Rosen (1975).

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whole (p. 3). Shubnikov and Koptsik also noted that when the ancient Greeks

studied symmetry or proportionality, this undertaking was part of their effort to

study harmony. In art, symmetry signifies rest [and] order (Frey, 1949, p. 276).

Yet, in science, symmetry is not so much about rest and order as it is about transfor-

mations that give the appearance of rest and order.

By definition, symmetry exists when an object can be converted into itself in

what is called asymmetry operationor atransformationthat leaves an object ap-parently unchanged (cf. Boardman, OConnor, & Young, 1973; Heilbronner &

Dunitz, 1993; Rosen, 1975, 1992; Stewart & Golubitsky, 1992). Looking again at

our two-dimensional triangle, rotational symmetry occurs when a triangle is ro-

tated by 30. After a single rotation, the triangle appears just as it did prior to the

rotation, yet it is changed because it rests on a different side (see Figure 2). In sum,

the triangle has three symmetry operations; after the third rotation, it is back to

resting on the same side it began resting on when the example began.

By this definition that of symmetries being possible transformations, figures

become more symmetrical when they are more complex. In other words, the moresymmetries something has, the more symmetrical it is; for example, a pentagon is

more symmetrical than a triangle because the pentagon has five symmetry opera-

tions, whereas the triangle has only three.

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION

Given the various types of symmetry, the power of Noethers Theorem lay in itsability to provemathematicallythat each type of symmetry had a correspond-

ing law of conservation. In English, the theorem states that:


FIGURE1 Reflective symmetry.

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To every continuous transformation of coordinates and consequent transformation of

field functions which make the variation of the action integral vanish, there corre-

sponds a certain invariant, i.e., a certain combination of field functions and their de-

rivatives which is conserved. (Shubnikov & Koptsik, 1974, pp. 341342)

Today, scholars agree that the concept of symmetry involves simultaneously the

laws of conservation (Rosen, 1975, 1983, 1995). Shubnikov and Koptsik (1974)

noted two opposing aspects [of symmetry]: transformation (change) and conser-vation (invariance) (p. ix). Similarly, Dixon (1992) wrote that:

Classical symmetry is defined as invariance of form under one or more congruent

transformations (isometry). The concept of symmetry may be generalised in a num-

ber of ways,by maintaining the central idea of invariance while extending the scope

for permissible transformations[italics added]. (p. 149)

Rosen (1995) offered the more accessible explanation that what symmetryboils down to in the final analysis is that the situation possesses the possibility of a

change that leaves some aspect of the situation unchanged (p. 157).

Even without getting into the mathematical details of the theorem,2 its implica-

tions are intuitively understandable. For example, Figure 3 is symmetrical with re-

spect to the line AB, which may also be called the axis of symmetry(cf. James &

James,1992).Forsymmetry tocontinue toexist, the locationoflineABmustbecon-

served; that is, the linecannotmove. If itdid move,say, fromABtoAC, thenthe fig-

396 SHA

FIGURE 2 Rotational symmetry.

2

My thanks to Dieter Brill, Department of Physics, University of Maryland, for clarifying thatNoethers Theorem applies only to continuous symmetries rather than to discrete symmetries. He did

note, however, that in quantum mechanics, the operator for a discrete symmetry will typically com-

mute with the Hamiltonian, which is thecharacteristic of a conserved quantity[italics added] in that

realm (D. R. Brill, personal communication, January 22, 2003).

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ure isnolongersymmetricalwithrespectto theaxis.Hence, theexistenceof symme-

try in this figure implies the simultaneous conservation of the axis of symmetry.

When the concept of symmetry is taken to a higher level, the laws of conserva-

tion remain in place. Specific mathematical proofs that have been given by Rosen

(1983, 1995) demonstrate the conservation of energy in temporal-displacementsymmetry, the conservation of linear momentum in spatial-displacement symme-

try, and the conservation of angular momentum in rotational symmetry (for details,

see Rosen, 1995, p. 151).

APPLICATIONS OF NOETHERS THEOREM

Noethers Theorem continues to be used and refined today in various scientific ar-eas,3 including nonlinear mechanics (e.g., Djondjorov & Vassilev, 1996; Kara,

2001), theoretical and applied physics (e.g., Fu, Liu, & Mei, 1998; Govinder, Heil,

& Uzer 1998; Ibragimov, Kara, & Mahomed, 1998; Kaushal, 1998), and fluid me-

chanics (Benjamin & Olver, 1982).

Extensive library research indicated that although symmetry is a subject of vari-

ous disciplines, Noethers Theorem had yet to be applied outside the traditional

hard sciences, thus making this article the first (in all likelihood) to incorporate


3In January 2002, a word search using Noethers Theorem in MathSciNet, a search engine main-

tained by the American Mathematical Society, yielded more than 900articles. Even when Boolean con-

struction narrowed the search to include the termssymmetry, conservation,andapplication,about 70

articles appeared.

FIGURE 3: Conservation of the axis

of symmetry.

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this useful theorem into a social scientific discipline, even though the application

offered here is conceptual rather than technical or mathematical.

Noethers Theorem extrapolated to public relations theory can move forwardour understanding of symmetrical public relations behaviors because the articula-

tion of a symmetryconservation duality helps us understand that public relations

still may be symmetrical even if both parties conserve their fundamental interests.

Thus, using the termconservationhelps to resolve misunderstandings related to

the termasymmetryand enables scholars to accept symmetrical public relations

without fearing that symmetry means relinquishing the organizations interests in

favor of those of the publics. After all, the law of conservation means that despite

whatever transformations an organization may undergo in communicating with its

stakeholders, some aspect of the organization will always remain invariant.Furthermore, I believe that the law of conservation implies that every organiza-

tion, even as it engages in symmetrical communication, conserves some fundamen-

talbelief,principle,orpurposethatwillneverberelinquished.Symmetricalcommu-

nication means seeking mutual understanding between an organization and its

publics (J. Grunig, 2001). However, for mutual understanding to be possible, both

the organization and the public must maintain the fundamental goals or intents that

comprise their core identities, even though they may negotiate on other goals less

central totheirexistence.Ifthe intentsoftheorganizationand thepublicweretokeep

changing, the one party would never come to an understanding of the other party.The next section offers the findings of an empirical investigation of whether a

political party used symmetrical-conserving public relations behaviors. In this re-

search, I sought to answer the following questions:

RQ1: In what ways, if at all, did the organization exhibit symmetry in its com-

munication with external publics?

RQ2: In what ways, if at all, did the organization exhibit conservation in its

communication with external publics?

METHOD

This research was based on a case study of the Democratic Progressive Party

(DPP), which at the time of data collection was the major political opposition

party4 on Taiwan. Yin (1989) defined acase studyas an empirical inquiry that in-

vestigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context and in which

multiple sources of evidence are used (p. 23). Thus, within this case study meth-

398 SHA

4After these data were collected, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) candidate won the presi-

dency in 2000. Subsequently, in 2001, the party gained legislative majority in the Legislative Yuan or

Assembly, thus making the DPP the ruling party on Taiwan.

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odology, I used a triangulation of methods: participation observation, survey, and

qualitative interviews.

All data were collected in Mandarin Chinese, and translated by the author withsome assistance from individuals fluent in both Mandarin Chinese and English.

Although I investigated symmetry and conservation in the organizations commu-

nication with both internal and external publics, only data regarding the latter are

presented here.

Participant Observation

First, I conducted participant observation in the sociopolitical contexts of the DPPfrom June 1997 to July 1998. (See Appendix A for portion of the observation guide

relevant to this discussion.) This technique included informal interviews with

nearly 100 informants on Taiwan who were members of the party or members of

its publics.

Informants were friends and acquaintances who supplied information through

casual discussions of Taiwans political and social environments without my us-

ing a tape recorder or interview protocol. Some informants were party members

who wanted to share their insights but who refused to be tape recorded for vari-

ous reasons. Furthermore, I listened to and observed strangers going about themundane tasks of their daily lives, for example, in buses, in classes, at movie

theaters, at the market, on trains, at bars, and in restaurants. To facilitate the re-

cording of observations, I kept with me at all times notepaper and a pen so that I

could write down observations before I forgot them. Nuggets of information

were retained in memory until I could make notes unobtrusively, either at home

or simply away from the informants.

Survey

In addition, I administered a survey to 577 party members (n= 166; response rate

28.77%5). Because the organizations director of the Department of Organiza-

tional Development explained that the partys central headquarters did not have ac-

curate lists of all organizational members across the islandthus making random

sampling of all party members impossiblethe sampling frame was comprised of

organizational leaders elected from and by the party membership.

The survey instrument was developed initially by J. Grunig (J. Grunig & L.

Grunig, 1992) and included four items that have been used extensively around


5According to a professor from National Chengchi Universitys Election Study Center, a 20% re-

sponserate wouldbeconsidered average onTaiwanfora mail survey dealing with political issues; a 35%

responseratewouldbeconsideredextremelygood(I.C.Liu,personalcommunication,January9,1998).

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the world by scholars studying the models of public relations (e.g., Korea: Kim

& Hon, 1998; Greece: Lyra, 1991; Brazil: Penteado, 1996). A fifth item was

added because later research (cf. Huang, 1997) indicated that conflict manage-ment was part of symmetrical communication. The Chinese language version of

these items, developed and validated by Huang (1990, 1997), was pretested on

11 individuals and adjusted in minor ways and then back translated to verify ac-

curacy of meaning. Questionnaire items were scored based on a scale ranging

from 4 (often), 3 (sometimes), 2 (rarely), to 1 (never). Negatively worded items

were reverse scored.

Demographic information on survey respondents is shown in Tables 1

through 3. In general, the questionnaire respondents reflected the partys mem-

bership, which at the time of this study was predominantly male, married, andmiddle aged. Furthermore, all geographic regions of the island were represented

by the respondents, with nearly even representation of each of the four major

residential areas: Taipei city (18.7%); Taichung, Changhwa, and Nantou

(18.7%); Tainan, Yunglin, and Chiayi (19.3%); and Kaoshiung, Pingtung, and

Penghu (18.7%).

Qualitative Interviews

Finally, the study included formal, semistructured, qualitative interviews with 22

party members. Wolcott (1995) distinguished participant observation as passive

400 SHA

TABLE 1

Respondent Sex

Sex Frequency % of Total Respondents

Male 137 82.5

Female 27 16.3

No Response 2 1.2

Total 166 100.0

TABLE 2

Respondent Marital Status

Marital Status Frequency % of Total Respondentsa

Never married 17 10.2

Married 142 85.5

Previously married, presently single 7 4.2Total 166 99.9

aPercentages do not equal 100 due to rounding.

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acceptance of whatever information comes along, whereas interviewing leans

more toward aggressively seeking information (p. 102). Interviews were con-

ducted at the participants choice of location, usually an office. A few interviews

were conducted in other locales, such as a caf. Each interview lasted about 1 hr.

(See Appendix B for portion of interview protocol relevant to this discussion.)

Before undertaking the interview process itself, I pretested my interview ques-

tions, style, and technique with several individuals on Taiwan unaffiliated with thecase organization. Then, because Ostrander (1995) suggested starting at the top

to be the most expedient way to begin interviewing elites, I began the 6-month-

long interview process by interviewing a very high-ranking individual in the

partys central headquarters who helped establish my credibility among party

elites when he personally gave me a tour of the headquarters offices and introduced

me to various people. Likewise, the second person to be interviewed directed one

of the most powerful departments at central headquarters.

Access to other interview participants was gained in various ways. In the begin-

ning, cold-calls were made to department heads working at the partys centralheadquarters requesting interview sessions with them. Later, many participants

were questionnaire respondents who had indicated their willingness to participate

in the qualitative portion of the study. Other interviewees were people contacted

for interviews after the author met them at party activities. Finally, access to partic-

ipants also was gained via personal introductions by acquaintances or by individu-

als who already had been interviewed.

The 22 interview participants covered a wide range of backgrounds. Men and

women were interviewed, as were individuals in urban and rural areas and in the

northern and southern parts of the island. Participants came from a variety of pro-fessional fields from which it was deduced that most participants had completed

their college degrees. Many of the interview participants in this study had been

party members since the organizations founding.


TABLE 3

Respondent Age

Age Frequency % of Total Respondents

Under 20 0 0.0

2029 8 4.8

3039 38 22.9

4049 66 39.8

5059 40 24.1

6069 12 7.2

7079 1 0.6

80 and over 0 0.0

No Response 1 0.6

Total 166 100.0

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CONTEXTS

Because a case study is linked inextricably to its contexts (Yin, 1989), I offer in thissection historical and political information on Taiwan that facilitates comprehen-

sion of this studys findings. Because this section recounts either general informa-

tion belonging in the public domain or common historical knowledge, no sources

are cited.6

In 1895, Taiwan was ceded by China to Japan, which governed the island for the

next50years.WhenWWIIendedin 1945withanAllieddefeatof Japan,Taiwanwas

returnedtoChina, which then was governed by the NationalistParty (Kuomingtang

or KMT). At that time, however, the Nationalist government on Chinawas engaged

ina civil war with the communists. The communists won the war in1949 and estab-lishedthePeoplesRepublicofChina(PRC)onthemainland.Thegovernmentofthe

Nationalist Republic of China (ROC) retreated to Taiwan.

Once on the island, the ROC government established martial law, arguing that it

was still engaged in a war to retake the mainland from the communists. Under mar-

tial law, the government restricted the formation of political associations, re-

pressed political dissent, and monitored citizens vigilantly for signs of what the

ROC government called treason. Treason included voicing support for commu-

nism or suggesting that Taiwan become a sovereign state apart from mainland

China. This period of political repression is known today as the White Terror. Atthe time, however, most people did not dare to speak of politics or against political

repression; it was common practice for the KMT to tap phones and for the local

security patrols to serve as government eavesdroppers on the people.

Nevertheless, some individuals continued to work for political resistance even

during the White Terror. In 1977, a movement emerged called the dang wailiter-

ally meaning outside the [Nationalist] partythat was essentially a loosely or-

ganized coalition of opposition politicians. In the 1977 elections,dang waipoliti-

cians won an impressive 21 of 77 seats in the Taiwan Provincial Assembly.

However, a mass demonstration over vote counting irregularities in the town ofChungli resulted in a burnt police station and several civilian casualties.

The Chungli Incident thus marked the beginning of a revived opposition move-

ment that organized numerous street demonstrations and public protests. On De-

cember 10, 1979,dang waileaders organized a human rights rally that resulted in

large-scale rioting after a mass confrontation with police. Known today as the

402 SHA

6For additional information regarding Taiwan, I recommend the following sources: for a solid over-

view on Taiwan, Copper (1996); for Taiwan culture and customs, Bates and Bates (1995); for Taiwanidentity and democratization, Wachman (1994); for Taiwan nationalism, Mendel (1970); for National-

ist Party (Kuomingtang or KMT) and Taiwan history up to 1987, Tien (1989); for KMT evolution after

the lifting of martial law, McBeath (1997); for an entrepreneurial analysis of political opposition move-

ments, Hwang (1995); and for politics on Taiwan up to the mid-1970s, Clough (1978).

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Kaohsiung Incident, the riot was the excuse KMT officials needed to arrest and

sentence eight major figures in the opposition.

Despite the Chungli and Kaohsiung Incidents, thedang waimovement contin-ued to gain strength and become more organized, even officially sponsoring candi-

dates for electoral office. On September 28, 1986,dang waidelegates from across

the island gathered in Taipei to nominate candidates for the year-end parliamentary

elections. At the convention, the 132 delegates voted unanimously to form the

Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) even though such political associations were

still illegal under martial law.

The KMT chose not to punish the DPP, thus signaling the start of a more demo-

cratic era. Martial law was lifted in 1987, although the ROC government continued

to assert its claim to mainland China. In the next decade, the KMT graduallyopened local-level, provincial-level, and then national-level offices to popular

elections. This democratization culminated in the 1996 elections in which the

ROC president was elected directly by the people for the first time in history. Tai-

wan today is a thriving democracy (Taiwan: World of Information Business Intelli-

gence Report,2000).

Important to this case study is the fact that both the communist party on main-

land China and the Nationalist party on Taiwan continue to define China as the

countrys boundaries stood after WWII, which includes Taiwan. Thus, at the time

of this study, the PRC government viewed Taiwan as a rebel province occupiedby Nationalist forces; whereas the ROC government viewed Taiwan as its tempo-

rary haven, as it planned to retake the mainland and reunify China. A third

party to this situation, however, was the DPP.

Even before its official founding as the DPP, the dang waisupported Taiwanin-

dependence.Bythisterm, dangwaiactivistsmeanttheestablishmentofasovereign

Taiwan to which neither the PRC nor the ROC could lay claim. When the DPP was

founded, Taiwan independence was a plank in the partys official platform. As the

data from this study show, the organization remains committed to this goal today.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Data showed that the DPP exhibited both symmetry and conservation in its com-

munication efforts with external publics. Furthermore, the partys more recent

electoral success suggests the effectiveness of using symmetrical-conserving pub-

lic relations.

Symmetrical Behaviors

RQ1: In what ways, if at all, did the organization exhibit symmetry in its com-

munication with external publics?


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Table 4 offers information on the reliability analysis and item means for the

construct of symmetry. The items for symmetrical communication had an alpha of

.6880. This reliability score surpassed those of .50 to .65 reported and accepted bymost communication researchers (cf. J. Grunig & L. Grunig, 1992), although it did

not meet the .80 standard of Carmines and Zeller (1979).

As shown in Table 4, the DPP exhibited moderate levels of symmetrical com-

munication (M= 3.03), engaging in such behaviors sometimes and suggesting

that the organization used other types of communication at other times. Thus, I

present the qualitative data, which offer clearer insight into the symmetricalcon-

serving communication efforts of the DPP.

The DPP exhibited symmetrical communication as it (a) engaged in the media-

tion of conflicts among its publics, (b) actively sought input from its externalpublics, (c) engaged in dialogue with the then-ruling KMT, and (d) showed an

openness to the opinions of its publics regarding the issue of Taiwan independence.

Mediation efforts constituted a large part of local party leaders work. One in-

terviewee gave an example of mediating between the China Petroleum Company,

which had leaked oil into the ocean, and local fishermen who wanted to claim repa-

rations because the leaks had damaged their livelihood. On another occasion, I had

to delay an interview by nearly an hour because the participant was mediating be-

tween two parties involved in a car accident. That interview participant later ex-

plained that such mediation efforts were a regular part of the work carried out byhis office.

404 SHA

TABLE 4

Reliability Analysis for External Symmetrical Communication

Itema M SD

Corrected

Item-Total

Correlation

if Item

Deleted

1. They not only try to change the attitudes and behaviors ofmembers of the public, but also try to change the service

centers attitudes and behaviors.

3.07 0.81 .4925 .6166

2. They consider the opinions of members of the public and

try to change the service centers behaviors and policies.

3.17 0.78 .6891 .5313

3. Before making final decisions or adopting policies, they

seek the opinions of those groups or individuals to be

affected by the decision or policy.

3.17 0.82 .4899 .6174

4. Their main goal consists of getting the general public to do

things their way (item reverse scored).

2.59 0.90 .1300 .7738

5. They play an important role in mediating conflicts between

the service center and members of the public.

3.14 0.82 .4978 .6138

Note. OverallM= 3.03;N= 138;= .6880. Figures for the means and standard deviations were rounded to

the nearest 10th decimal place.aReliability coefficients: five items.

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Furthermore, the party representatives were not merely passively helping peo-

ple who came along. Interviewees indicated that elected representatives and their

assistants sometimes would seek out constituents, thus exhibiting the symmetricalbehavior of seeking input from organizational publics. For instance, one partici-

pant said the following:

Ifwe have time, we find a few assistants and go out to visit people, visit people on our

own initiative. Sometimes, we go and ask them if theres anything they need us to do

for them, if they need help with anything. You have to pro-actively be concerned

about people. You cant wait to let them come find you.

As another interviewee put it, The elected representative of that area will bekeeping in touch with his friends and supporters in that area. In instances in which

elected officials themselves did not have time to communicate with their constitu-

ents, they would send their assistants to seek out the voters. One participant ex-

plained, There are some assistants who go out and query the people, or help the

community. Its not that they sit here and wait for the citizens or party members

to come [to them]. Party workers also would make follow-up phone calls or visits

to individuals who had sought assistance in the past just to make sure that problems

had been resolved or that situations had been taken care of appropriately.

The DPP also showed a willingness to cooperate with the KMT in some policyarenas. For instance, in the summer of 1997, DPP legislators worked with their

KMT counterparts in proposing changes to the ROCs Constitution. This kind of

cooperation marked a change from the asymmetrical tactics the DPP had used in

the past. Many interview participants explained that the DPP no longer was the

street-demonstrating party of its past. During the martial law era, the organiza-

tions communication efforts had centered on asymmetrical tactics such as protests

and demonstrations. However, by the time of this case study, the DPP increasingly

had begun to engage in symmetrical public relations behaviors such as listening to

the voters and mediating conflicts among citizens.This new spirit of symmetry was reflected in how the DPP handled the inde-

pendence issue in 1998. Specifically, party leaders focused on the importance of a

public referendum to give citizens a voice in the issue. In other words, the party

was willing to listen to the opinions of its constituents rather than imposing inde-

pendence on the population once the party came into power. As one interviewee

said, The DPP supports independence, but whether Taiwan becomes independent

is a question that must be left to the public to decide. Another participant, when

asked about the partys stance on Taiwan independence, said the following:

I think that our party platform requires [that] for Taiwan to become independent, it

has to be through a public referendum. This political party is a party that repre-

sents all the people, not a party based on a single interest. Its a peoples party, so for


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an issue so big and important as establishing a country, then of course, you have to go

through a public referendum. In fact, elections are a kind of public referendum.

This last statement suggests that besides the talk about a public referendum on in-

dependence, some organizational members considered DPP electoral victories as

signs of public support for the partys proindependence platform.

I asked one interviewee how the DPP would react if the majority of voters in a

public referendum refused to support Taiwan independence. She replied

[The] DPP isa political party thatneeds topay attention to the electorate. But, the issue is

not decided ina single public referendum; you can haveanother referendumin3 years or

in 5 years. So, before the referendum, [we] need to explain the situation. [We] shouldnot undertake thereferendum withoutany propaganda. So, theDPP still supports Taiwan

independence, but the timetable can be decided through public referendum.

This interviewee thus illustrated the DPPs conserved goal of independence for

Taiwan. By 1998, the party sought genuine dialogue about this fundamental issue

rather thanengaging in asymmetrical tactics of confrontation. Nevertheless, the or-

ganization conserved this plank in its political platform even as it engaged in sym-

metrical communication about the issue. Thus, I turn now to examine the conser-

vation behaviors of the DPP in this case study.

Conservation Behaviors

RQ2: In what ways, if at all, did the organization exhibit conservation in its

communication with external publics?

Asdiscussed, thelawof conservation describes thepersistent invarianceof some

aspectofaparticularsituationorobjectthathasundergonesomekindoftransforma-

tion. In its communication efforts, the DPP conserved its fundamentalbelief in Tai-wans right to independence.Inaddition, the DPP at the timeof this study conserved

its intent to become the ruling party on Taiwan by gaining electoral support.

Inthelate1980s,asmartiallawwasrelaxedthenlifted,Taiwanexperiencedmany

streetdemonstrationsinsupportofdemocratization.Manysuchprotestswereledby

dang waiactivists who demonstrated vociferously in support of Taiwan independ-

ence.However, by the timeof this study, the DPP had toneddownits support for Tai-

wan independence, although it did not abandon the issue in principle.

Interviewees explained that, although the DPP may have changed the manner in

which it articulated the issue of Taiwan independence, the party still conserved thisfundamental goal. For example, one participant said, [The] DPPs goals havent

changed, only [its] methods. Just because [we] dont take to the streets to scream

for independence doesnt mean that the DPP has abandoned independence for Tai-

wan. By way of illustration, this interviewee noted that the party in the past ex-

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pressed its support for Taiwan independence by organizing mass street demonstra-

tions. Today, however, the DPP chairman goes to the United States to meet with

political leaders there and solicit their support.Inaddition,thepartychangedthemannerinwhichitarticulateditsgoalofTaiwan

independence. This shift in the articulation of independence as a political goal

demonstrated the partys use of both symmetry and conservation. In its early years,

the DPP had sought independence fromChina asarticulated byboth the PRC onthe

mainland and by the ROC governed by the KMT. Asone interviewee put it, I think

that the first group, those foundingmembers, theyreallyhadonly oneideal, thatTai-

wan needed tobeindependent, tobuild a nation. However, DPP leaders in1998 had

retreated from this articulation of Taiwan independence. Rather, these leaders ar-

gued that Taiwan was a de facto independent state; consequently, a declarationofindependencewasnotnecessary.Inthewordsofoneinterviewparticipant,Thereis

no need to declare or announce that we are an independent country.

Other interviewees emphasized that the issue of Taiwan independence formed

the foundation of the DPP and that the party had not changed in its support for in-

dependence. One interviewee explained, In the DPP, there is still [a fundamen-

tally proindependence tendency]. But its just the way of doing things, the means

are different. Another participant said that the party, at its core, still supported Tai-

wan independence but that the packaging was different in that the DPP no longer

talked about independence every day.In short, the organization conserved its fundamental interest in Taiwan inde-

pendence. Supporting this suggestion, another interviewee said, The organization

is tied [ideologically and emotionally] to the requirements of our platform; there

havent been many changes. Nevertheless, interview participants recognized that

to attract electoral support, the DPP needed to change its rhetorical focus. One in-

terviewee explained: As a political party, if you are always at the extreme, it will

be very hard for you to become the ruling party.

The latter statement illustrates the other conservation aspect of the DPPs public

relations behaviorits interest in achieving and maintaining political power. Oneparticipantsaid,Inthepast,[theDPP]wasaprotestparty.Now,[theDPP]considers

itself no longer a protest party, but an out-of-power party, preparing to become the

ruling party. This is a very big change for the DPP. Operating within the political

system it once tried to overthrow, the party during this study sought to gain more

elected positions. Perhaps for this reason,one interviewee said, The politicalparty

has now become an election machine. Elections are the first priority.

The importance of attracting votes was reflected by interviewees discussing the

partys efforts to maintain relationships with local constituents. For example, one

participant said:

After the elections, [the assistants of public servants] might come to you, just to have

a conversation. Or if you contacted them on your own, they would come out and

maintain contact with you. After all, there will be elections in the future.


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Another interviewee pointed out that the party had achieved its original goal of

obtaininggreaterdemocracy for the people ofTaiwan.Thus, the DPP now neededto

decide whichspecial interests tosupportwithin the newly democraticsystem. Ashesaid, You need to decide whose interests youwant to develop and alsowhose inter-

ests, in being developed, would help you become the ruling party.

EFFECTIVENESS OF SYMMETRY CONSERVATION

Today, the DPP has accomplished its goal of becoming the ruling party on Taiwan.

This achievement came in two steps, both of which occurred after the conclusion

of primary data collection for this study in July 1998.First, in March 2000, Taiwan voters elected the DPP candidate Chen

Shui-bian to the presidency of the ROC (Pomfret, 2000b), effectively ending

more than 50 years of Nationalist rule on the island. This electoral victory came

even as the DPP conserved its party platform calling for a referendum on the is-

sue of Taiwan independence; a fact not lost on authorities in Beijing, who re-

peatedly cautioned Taiwan voters against their support for Chen, whom the

mainland viewed as a separatist (cf. Pomfret, 2000b). Yet, when Chen took of-

fice in May of that year, his inaugural address expressed symmetrical behaviors

that acknowledged the concerns of the mainland. Specifically, he promised notto declare independence unless China attacked the island and not to hold a refer-

endum on independence (cf. Pomfret, 2000a). Chens inaugural statements illus-

trated the symmetryconservation duality articulated in this article using

Noethers Theorem: He gave the appearance of change (symmetrical in the two

promises) but with the conservation of the partys stance that Taiwan is separate

from China and not part of one China.

Then, in December 2001, the DPP gained a plurality of seats in the Legislative

Yuan (or Assembly) while conserving its commitment to Taiwan independence

throughout the campaign (Pan, 2001c). Afterhis partys victory, President Chen re-assured the mainland that he planned no major changes in his policies toward

China(Pan,2001b,p.A22),meaningthathisgovernmentwouldcontinuetorefrain

fromdeclaringindependence,apositionappreciatedbytheChinese(Pan,2001a).

These electoral victories of the DPP suggest the effectiveness of symmetry and

conservation in public relations. Throughout these latest electoral campaigns, the

DPP conserved its proindependence stance, yet it expressed symmetry in its will-

ingness to engage in dialogue with mainland China.

CONCLUSIONS

Noethers Theorem offers mathematical proof that specific laws of conservation

accompany all symmetries. When applied to public relations, the theorem illus-

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trates the persistent invariance of some aspect of the organization even as it en-

gages in transformative communication with its publics.7 In this study, I found that

the DPP engaged in symmetrical behaviors, such as mediation and a willingness torespond to the concerns of its publics on certain issues. Nevertheless, the organiza-

tion conserved its goals of achieving electoral office for itself and independence

for Taiwan.

The recent success of the party in achieving its electoral goals reflects the ef-

fectiveness of using symmetrical-conserving behaviors in public relations as

well as the law of conservation suggested by the conceptual application of

Noethers Theorem. The DPP conserved its political goals because doing so was

fundamental to its existence; after all, if a political party were to stop seeking

electoral gains, there would be little reason for it to maintain itself as a party.Similarly, the DPP had been founded on the ideal of establishing an independent

Taiwan. At the time of this research, the organization showed that it would con-

serve its long-term position on this issue even as it changed the manner in which

it articulated the issue of independence.

Thus, evidence from this study supports the symmetryconservation duality ar-

ticulated using Noethers Theorem that symmetrical communication involves the

conservation of certain fundamental interests. Furthermore, these findings show

the usefulness of Noethers Theorem in extending public relations theory. On one

hand, the symmetry dimension of this theorem describes whether an organizationuses symmetrical communication behaviors such as listening, mediation, and ne-

gotiation. On the other hand, the conservation dimension underscores the reality

first articulated by Murphys (1991) mixed-motive model that neither the organi-

zation nor its publics ever completely relinquishes its own goals to satisfy those of

the other party.

IMPLICATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH

The concept of symmetry conservation, articulated using Noethers Theorem

and supported by the findings of this study, offers implications for public rela-

tions research in the areas of methodology, activism, organizational identity, and

systems theory. The application of concepts from theoretical mathematics to

public relations also offers interesting new directions for our scholarship on

symmetry.


7A stricter application of Noethers Theorem to public relations actually would entail finding spe-

cific elements that are consistently conserved in the face of specific symmetrical behaviors, rather than

the simple coexistence of something symmetrical and something conserved. Thus, the data presented

here only illustrate the latter situation, and much additional research would be required before the for-

mer could be established.

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Methodology

The findings of this study suggest that we need quantitative measures for the con-servation dimension of symmetrical communication. Although qualitative data in

this study showed that the DPP in 1997 to 1998 engaged in conserving behaviors,

quantitative items to measure this phenomenon would enable scholars to compare

such behaviors across organizations, situations, and time frames. The ability to

generate quantitative comparisons might be especially useful in the ongoing dis-

cussion over whether activist and nonactivist organizations use similar public rela-

tions models of communication (cf. Dozier & Lauzen, 2000; J. Grunig & L.

Grunig, 1997; Kovacs, 1998; Rodino & DeLuca, 1999; Sha, 1999).

Activism and Public Relations

In recent years, our field has seen a flurry of scholarship on the use of public rela-

tions by activists, and other interest groups, after Karlberg (1996) argued that pub-

lic relations scholars did not pay enough attention to the communicative needs,

constraints, [and] practices of citizen groups themselves (p. 271). The application

of Noethers Theorem to public relations, in the articulation of a symme-try-conservation duality, implies that activist groups can use symmetrical commu-

nication without compromising their fundamental goals (cf. Sha, 1999), thus ad-

dressing some scholarsconcern that symmetrical public relations is inappropriate

for activist groups (e.g., Rodino & DeLuca, 1999).

Although I believe that most activist and nonactivist organizations can benefit

from engaging in public relations in the winwin zone of symmetry conserva-

tion, I also agree with Dozier and Lauzen (2000) who pointed out that in some

cases, there may be irreconcilable differences between an organization and its ac-

tivist publics. As Dozier and Lauzen pointed out, the winwin zone articulated byJ. Grunig et al. (1996) did not address situations in which the very existence of an

organization is objectionable to the activist public.

Taking a different angle on these kinds of activist publics, I argued (cf. Sha,

1999) that one reason for their hard-line attitudes is that these militant groups or or-

ganizations usually come into being for the express purpose of achieving particular

goals that are in opposition to the goals of the target organization (cf. Kovacs,

1998) or focal organization (cf. Dozier & Lauzen, 2000). By negotiating on their

interests even a little bit, these militant activists would betray the very reasons for

their existence. In other words, the unwillingness of these activists to engage insymmetrical transformations and their insistence on the conservation of their mili-

tant views reflects a deep link between their goals and their identity.

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Group Theory and Organizational Identity

The integration of conservation into public relations scholarship also enables us toinvestigate those activist groups or organizationswhose goals must be conserved

inwhole or inpartbecause theyare critical to the groups identity. Deeperstudyof

symmetry inscience involves the use of grouptheory, which onescholar called the

mathematical language of symmetry (Rosen, 1975). In math, a group involves the

existence of identity (Rosen, 1983). Earlier, I explained that symmetry in science is

about transformationsthatgivetheappearanceof invariance.Yetallsymmetryoper-

ations also include the transformation of nontransformation in which nothing is

transformed; in the case of mytriangle, this might be rotation by 0or by360. This

operation that converts the object into its original form is called an identity opera-tionoridentity transformation(cf.Heilbronner&Dunitz,1993;Rosen,1992).

In other words, it is the action (nonaction) that gives a particular subject its iden-

tity. In mathematical terms, whereGrefers to a group, the existence of identity is

proven thus:

Gcontains an elemente,called an identity element, such that

ae=ea=a,

for every elementaofG.The characteristic property of an identity element is, there-

fore, that its composition in either way with any element ofGis just that element it-

self. (Rosen, 1983, p. 4)

The concept of symmetry as transformation, with its implicit conservation of

identity, can be extrapolated to public relations, in which symmetrical-conserving

communication is crucial to the maintenance of organizational identity.

In this way, borrowing the concepts behind Noethers Theorem also would in-

spire the linking of research on organizational identity and that on symmetri-cal-conserving public relations behaviors. For example, scholars may wish to in-

vestigate whether certain instances of symmetrical communication in fact serve to

conserve elements of an organizations identity. Also, for public relations scholar-

ship on activism, this means that the law of symmetry conservation also can be

used to better understand militant groups for whom the nontransformation of their

goals is linked critically to the invariance of their identities.

Symmetry in Systems Theory

JustasNoethersTheoremoffersinsightintothestudyoforganizationalidentity,the

symmetryconservation duality offers another wayof lookingat systems theory. In


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public relations, scholars have appliedsystems theory to view organizations as sys-

tems that must exchange inputs and outputs with the environment so as to maintain

system equilibrium (cf. Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 2000). The exchanging of inputsandoutputsbrings to mind the transformative aspect of symmetry, whereas thesys-

tems theoryemphasisonhomeostasis reflects thelawofconservation.Furthermore,

symmetries existwithinspecific systems (cf. Rosen,1975, 1983),whicharedefined

asany object[s] of interestwith regard to its symmetryproperties(Rosen,1975, p.

7). Thus, Noethers Theorem can be applied not only to scientific systems but

alsoconceptually at leastto organizational ones as well.

A New Age of Symmetries

In addition to the areas outlined previously, future public relations scholarship may

investigate such mathematical concepts as symmetry breaking (cf. Stewart &

Golubitsky, 1992), symmetrization, dissymmetry, and antisymmetry (cf. Shub-

nikov & Koptsik, 1974). The application of the science of symmetry and the law of

conservation to public relations theories might prove both fascinating and fruitful.

In conclusion, I can only echo the words of Rosen (1975):

Symmetry is like a disease. And now the disease has reached its contagious

stage. [A]n increased understanding or even a heightened awareness of symmetrycan not only be very useful, but can bring much enjoyment as well. I have at-

tempted to open your eyes to the world of symmetry and hope you find it a good

world and make the most of it. (pp. ixx; pp. 124125)

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Bey-Ling Sha is now at the School of Communication, SanDiego State University.

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APPENDIX A

Observation Guide Portion Relevant

to Symmetrical Communication

1. Do organizational members try to listen to publics and understand their

points of view? If so, how? If not, what are members doing instead?

2. Are some members of publics treated differently than others? Which ones

and how?

3. How do organizational members believe they treat their publics?

4. Do organizational members use the language of otherizing in their com-

munications?

5. Do organizational members try to bring any concerns of publics to organiza-

tional leaders?If so, whenand how?Ifnot,what isdonewith these concerns?


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APPENDIX B

Interview Protocol Portion Relevant

to Symmetrical Communication

1. If the organization and its audience have different opinions about [insert

concern], what should the organization do about this? (Question later

changed to:)Does anyone ever protest the DPP? If so, over what issues? If

so, how does the organization handle the protestors?

2. How (through what media) does the organization communicate with its

members?(Question later changed to:)How does the central headquarters

communicate with the local headquarters? With the local service centers?

3. If the organization and its members have different opinions about [insertconcern], what should the organization do about this? (Question later

changed to:)Do any members ever protest the DPP? If so, over what is-

sues? If so, how does the organization handle the protestors?

4. Please explain the organizations structure.(Question dropped midway

through overall interview process, as little new information emerged.)

5. How are decisions made in this organization? Do you find that all members

have an equal opportunity to share in the organizations decision-making

process? (Question not always asked, depending on time factor and inter-

ests of participants.)

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noether's theorem- the science of symmetry and the law of conservation

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