NigeriaSovereignty, Authority,

and Power

Presentation Outline

I. Sovereignty, Authority, and Powera) state, regimes, and nationsb) Sovereigntyc) Sources of legitimacyd) Political culture

I. a) state, regimes, and nations The Nigerian state is a

relatively new creation, established in 1960 after gaining independence from Britain

Prior to 1960 Nigeria was part of British West Africa

Prior to British rule Nigeria was composed of several kingdoms and caliphates

Regimes

British colonial period, 1885-1960

Since Independence (1960): 1) Parliamentary democracy, 1960-1966 2) Military dictatorship, 1966-1979 3) republican democracy, 1979-1985 4) return to dictatorship, 1985-1999 5) republican democracy, 1999- present

British Colonial Rule, 1885-1960Indirect rule

Legacy:discovery of oil English languageEnglish common law Christianity democracy reinforcement of ethnic and

religious divisions

Red shaded areas represent British West Africa

Nigeria today

Military Dictatorship

Nigeria experienced several military coup d'états following independence

Military rule was characterized as authoritarian and corrupt

Democracy was reintroduced again in 1999

Former Nigerian president and dictator Sani Abacha, 1993-1998

His regime was characterized as one of the most corrupt in history and noted for its extensive human rights abuses

Republican Democracy, 1999-present

Sani Abacha’s death in 1998 paved the way for a transition to democracy

1999 Constitution created a presidential system, with checks and balances, modeled on American republican democracy

Since 1999 there have been regular elections for the Presidency, House of Representatives, and Senate

Although criticized as being fraudulent at times, the elections have nevertheless ensured a relatively peaceful transition of power from one government to the next

Nations

Nigeria embodies the multi-nation state

It counts over 250 ethnic groups/nations

It is linguistically and culturally diverse

The three largest nations have tended to dominate politics in Nigeria

1) Hausa-Fulani (North- Muslim)

2) Yoruba (Southwest- Christian)

3) Igbo (Southeast- Christian)

Left: linguistic groups in Nigeria

Nigeria national identity is weak. Most Nigerians tend to identify with their own ethnic group/local nation

I. b) Sovereignty

1) Nigerian federalism 2) Rentier state3) OPEC4) ECOWAS5) Structural Adjustments(IMF)

Nigerian federalism

Nigeria is a federal state composed of 36 states

Each state has its own elected unicameral assembly and elected Governor

Key Features of Federalism Nigeria is a more centralized federal state: The President must win at least 25% in

2/3 of Nigeria’s 36 states in order to be elected

The central government in Abuja controls taxation and distributes and allocates funds to the states

All resources (oil) are under federal jurisdiction

Consultation with the states is not needed in order to amend Nigeria’s constitution

Rentier state

Like Iran, Nigeria is a rentier state Nigeria sovereignty tends to be

stronger when oil prices are higher and lower when oil prices are low

Oil generates 98% of export earning, 83% of government revenue, and constitutes 40% of Nigeria’s GDP

http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text

OPEC membership

Like Iran, Nigeria is a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and thus wields enormous economic and political influence on the world through this organization

ECOWAS

Nigeria plays a leading role in the Economic Community of West African States

It influences the region politically, economically, and has sent peacekeeping forces to states in ECOWAS experiencing instability, most notably in Cote D’Ivoire and Liberia

http://www.ecowas.int/

For further inquiry see:

Structural Adjustment (IMF)

Oil prices declined significantly in the mid 1980s; with less oil revenue coming in and mounting debt General Babangida turned to the IMF for assistance

Beginning in 1985, Nigeria accepted IMF loans and help restructuring its debt

In return Nigeria had to cede some economic sovereignty by privatizing certain state-controlled industries, eliminating price controls, and allowing foreign direct investment

I. c) Sources of Legitimacy

Nigeria’s instability rests on the fact that there are few strong sources of legitimacy

Its main claim to legitimacy rests on the 1999 Constitution

http://www.nigeriaworld.com/focus/constitution/

For further inquiry into Nigeria’s Constitution see:

1999 Constitution

The 1999 Constitution established independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches, a multi-party system with competitive elections, and a federal system

Rational legal legitimacy

Preamble to the 1999 Nigerian Constitution:

We the people of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, having firmly and solemnly resolve, to live in unity and harmony as one indivisible and indissoluble sovereign nation under God, dedicated to the promotion of inter-African solidarity, world peace, international co-operation and understanding, and to provide for a Constitution for the purpose of promoting the good government and welfare of all persons in our country, on the principles of freedom, equality and justice, and for the purpose of consolidating the unity of our people;

I. d) Political culture

1) Corruption (prebendalism)2) Ethnic and religious cleavages3) Active and engaged civil society

Prebendalism

Nigeria is not the only state which has an extensive patron-client system. Mexico, Russia, Iran, and China have one as well.

Prebendalism differs from other patron-client systems in two ways:

1) the patron always rewards clients with cash instead of land, jobs, or promotions

2) it operates almost exclusively within one’s own ethnic group/nation

Prebendalism in action

Votes and campaigns for government official

Receives government “grants” to plant crops “Patron”Hausa-Fulani government official

“Client”Hausa-Fulanifarmer

Ethnic and religious cleavages Nigeria’s two main cleavages are ethnic and

religious. Unlike other states we have examined this years

(China, Mexico, Iran, Russia, and the U.K.) relatively fewer Nigerians identify with the national state

Rather most Nigerians prefer to identify with their own ethnic group and nation; this has consequently weakened Nigerian national unity

Weak Nigerian identity

Source:Lewis, Peter (2005) Identity, Institutions, and Democracy in Nigeria. Afro Barometer, Working Paper No.68

Religion

Africa’s Muslim-Christian divide is strongly pronounced in Nigeria by virtue of Nigeria’s geography and history.

Northern Africa including the Sahel was Islamicized by Arab traders and Muslim conquest

Southern Africa, by contrast, was more affected by Christian missionaries and European colonization

Nigeria

Politicization of religion

Religion sharply divides Nigerians and has politicized the issues of national unity

http://www.pewforum.org/Politics-and-Elections/Nigerias-Presidential-Election-The-Christian-Muslim-Divide.aspx

Source:

Active and engaged civil society

Nigerians are very actively engaged in civil society

Though there is mistrust of political institutions, Nigerians overwhelmingly support democracy

http://www.pewglobal.org/2003/06/03/chapter-3-judging-democracy/

Source:

Nigerians certainly value democracy, whether they actually have obtained it is another question altogether

Discussion Questions

1) Compare and contrast Nigerian federalism with Mexican and Russian federalism.

2) What is the most unique feature of Nigeria’s political culture compared with the other states we have studied, explain.

3) Nigeria’s current regime only dates back to 1999. Are its sources of legitimacy strong enough to ensure the regime’s survival well into the 21st century?