NigeriaSovereignty, Authority, and PowerJessica ShiPeriod 1

Precolonial NigeriaVarious indigenous politiesSophisticated + influential

societiesSome major polities:

◦Hausa states of Kano, Katsina, Zaria, and Gobir

◦Yoruba states of Ife and Oyo

HausaNorthern NigeriaLoose alliances

◦Division of labor between statesLeadership based on ancestry1300s: Introduced to Islam

◦Honored traditional ways1800s: Conquered by Fulani

(Western Sudan)◦Created Sokoto Caliphate

YorubaSouthwestern NigeriaAllegiance paid to large urban center

in area◦Confederation of rulers: no centralized

authority1700s: Civil war in Oyo between

minor leaders◦Rebels called Fulani for help◦Fulani conquered all of Oyo by 1830s

1880s: Treaty signed between warring factions with help from British

Slave TradeArrival of Europeans = Slave

trade1/3 of Yoruba enslaved1/2 of Hausas enslavedBritish rule: 2 mil. to 2.5 mil.

enslavedTraded for European goods

◦Sokoto jihad and Yoruba wars: guns/gunpowder

Colonial Nigeria1807: British legislation prohibits

British subjects from participating in slave trade◦Slave ships intercepted by Royal

Navy◦Some freed slaves migrate home,

become agents to allow British trade◦Encouraged palm oil trade, but failed

to undermine slave trade

Colonial Nigeria1849: UK appointed consul over

bights of Benin and Biafra1861: UK annexed Lagos

◦To better abolish slave trade (Lagos was an export point)

◦To protect trade interests from Lagos1884: UK formed Niger Coast

Protectorate◦During Berlin Conference: “Scramble

for Africa”

Colonial Nigeria1886: Royal Niger Company established

control over Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate◦Chartered company◦Competition with state-supported

protectorates of France and Germany◦1899: Charter revoked◦1900: Transferred territories to British

government1901: Nigeria became a British

protectorate

Divisions between North and SouthSouth

◦View that Africans incapable of maintaining order

◦Mercantilist systemNorth

◦Frederick Lugard appointed High Comissioner

◦1902-1907: Period of fighting◦ Indirect rule: Throne retained by

cooperative chief with considerable power◦Budget deficit: Powerful merchants refuse to

tax trade

Divisions between North and SouthSouth

◦British created political hierarchy, rule through traditional and non-traditional leaders

◦Rapid spread of Western education and Christianity

North◦Christian missionaries resisted by

Muslim leaders◦Traditional leaders kept

Colonial Nigeria1912: Lugard becomes governor

of both northern and southern Nigeria

1914: Both regions united as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria◦For economic purposes◦Still divided administratively◦Nigerian Legislative Council

established: no legislative powers

Colonial Nigeria1922: Sir Hugh Clifford Constitution:

Elective legislative houses, but only for southern provinces

1946: Richards Constitution: Expanded Legislative Council, established three regions (Eastern, Western, Northern) to reconcile religious tensions◦East: Igbo◦West: Yoruba◦North: Hausa and Fulani

Colonial Nigeria1951: Macpherson Constitution:

Greater autonomy, central government with Council of Ministers + House of Representatives◦Separate House of Chiefs for the

North, to reflect tribal authority1954: Lyttleton Constitution:

More revisions, paved way towards independence

Colonial Nigeria1957: Internal self-government in West

+ East regions, federal prime minister1959: Internal self-government in the

North1950s: Ethnic cleavages

◦South committed to policies that would benefit the South because of wealth from export crops

◦North emirs want firm control on economics and politics, no intervention from federal government

Independence1960: British Act of Parliament,

Nigeria became independent◦First constitution as sovereign state◦Retains Queen Elizabeth II as head of

state

First Republic1963 Constitution: Federal

republic based on Westminster system

Joint Nigerian’s People’s Congress (NPC, conservative, Hausa-Fulani interests) + Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP, Yoruba interests)

Military Rule 11966: Young Majors (Igbos)

overthrew NPC-NNDP government, assassinated prime minister + premiers of West + North◦Igbos in north massacred

1966: Major General Yakubu Gowon took over leadership◦Divided regions into 12 states

Military Rule 11967: Igbo rejects the division

◦Emeka Ojukwu (Igbo officer) declares the Eastern region an independent nation: Republic of Biafra

1967-1970: Nigerian Civil War: Ethnic/political conflict over attempted secession of Republic of Biafra◦Biafra suffers the most: land-locked,

starving, surrenders

Military Rule 11973: Rise of oil prices

◦Nigerian government becomes wealthy due to large reserves of petroleum (discovered in 1950s)

1975: General Murtala Mohammed staged bloodless coup◦Accused Gowon of oil corruption +

delaying promise of civilian rule

Military Rule 11976: Mohammed assasinated1976: Chief of staff Lt. General

Olusegun Obasanjo takes over◦Oil prices plummet, economic crisis

+ political disorder

Second Republic1979 Constitution: American-

style presidential systemNational Party of Nigeria (NPN,

Hausa-Fulani interests)Subdivisions increased to 19

states

Military Rule 21983 Election: Disputes over vote

rigging, legal battle over NPN win◦Military overthrew Second Republic◦Major General Muhammadu Buhari

emerged as leader of the Supreme Military Council

1985: General Ibrahim Babngida overthrew Buhari◦Claimed misuse of power, violations of

human rights, failure to deal with economic crisis

Third Republic1993 Constitution: Return of

democratic rule, never fully implemented

Babangida promised to return to civilian rule by 1990, then 1993

1989: Two established parties: National Republic Convention (NRC), Social Democratic Party (SDP)

Third Republic1993 Presidential Election: Moshood

Abiola (Yoruba businessman) seemed to be winning a decisive victory in early votes, Babngida annulled the election

1993: Riots, >100 killed, Babangida handed over power to an interim government◦Ernest Shonekan (nonpartisan

businessman) is to rule until 1994 elections

Military Rule 31993: Defense Minister Sani Abacha

forced Shonekan’s resignation (economic problems, political tension)◦Dissolved democratic institutions◦Replaced elected governors with military

officers1994: Abiola declared himself president1995: Activist Ken Saro-Wiwa arrested

for murder of rivals at a political rally, sentenced to death◦Worldwide outcry over lack of fair trial

Military Rule 31998: Abacha died of heart

failure, replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar

Fourth Republic1999 Constitution: Restored

democratic rule, in place todayPeople’s Democratic Party (PDP,

right-leaning)1999 Election: Olusegun Obasanjo

won◦Marked improvements in human

rights + freedom of press◦Still lots of violence over ethnic +

religious differences

Fourth Republic2003: Obasanjo reelected2007: Umaru Yar’Adua elected

President (PDP), marred with electoral fraud

2010: Goodluck Jonathan (PDP) took over after Yar’Adua’s death

2011: Jonathan won reelections, current President of Nigeria

Future ProblemsRebuilding a petroleum-based

economyEthnic + religious tensionConflict over oilNot a lot of constitutionalism

(because there were so many constitutions)

Poverty: gap between upper + lower class, very small middle class

LegitimacyElection fraud (especially 2007)

◦Voting boxes vandalized/stolen◦Lack of privacy, police instructing

people who to vote for◦Underage voting

Military dependence◦Olusegun Obasanjo: former military

general◦Lack of rule of law under generals

Low levels of trust

Political CulturePatron-client system

◦“Prebendalism”: sense of entitlement to government revenues

◦Large networks based on personal loyalty

◦CorruptionVoting

◦Unreliable statistics: estimated 2/3 of eligible voters voted in 2003

MediaAll 36 states run their own radio

stations◦Radio: main source of information

>100 private + state-owned newspapers◦Reflects ethnic divisions

Illiteracy is an issueNational Broadcasting

Commission monitors broadcast media

Supranational OrgnizationsOrganization of Petroleum

Exporting Countries (OPEC) member

Received assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Participated in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)◦Ambitions similar to those of the

European Union (EU)

PresidentsFirst Republic

◦1963-1966: Nnamdi AzikiweMilitary Rule 1

◦1966-1966: Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi

◦1966-1975: General Yakubu Gowon◦1975-1976: General Murtala

Mohammed◦1976-1979: Major-General Olusegun

Obasanjo

PresidentsSecond Republic

◦1979-1983: Shehu ShagariMilitary Rule 2

◦1983-1985: Major-General Muhammadu Buhari

◦1985-1993: General Ibrahim BabangidaThird Republic

◦1993-1993: Ernest ShonekanMilitary Rule 3

◦1993-1998: General Sani Abacha◦1998-1999: General Abdulsalami Abubakar

PresidentsFourth Republic

◦1999-2007: Olusegun Obasanjo◦2007-2010: Umaru Musa Yar’Adua◦2010-present: Goodluck Jonathan

RegionsNorth: Hausa-Fulani,

predominately MuslimSouthwest: Yoruba, 40% Muslim

+ 40% ChristianSoutheast: Igbo, mostly Roman

Catholic, growing number of Protestant Christians

Map

Tic Tac Toe (sorta)