Natural Resource Usage Constraints and their Temporal Change in

Bale Eco-Region, Southeast Ethiopia

Submitted by:

Elsabet Takele

Advisor:Dr. Wolde Mokuria

Co adviser: Mr. Lema Tiki

Submitted to

School of Graduate Studies

Department of Ecotourism and Biodiversity Conservation

Madda Walabu University

January, 2016

Bale-Robe, Ethiopia

i

Declaration

I declare that this research was my own work and all sources of materials used for this

proposal have been duly acknowledged. I honestly declare that this proposal is not

submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any academic degree,

diploma or certificate.

Name: Elsabet Takele

Signature: ______________

Date: ________________________

This proposal has been submitted for examination with approval as a researcher

supervisor

Name: Wolde Mokuria(phd)

Signature: ______________

Date: ________________________

Name: Dejene Nigatu(Msc)

Signature: ______________

Date: ________________________

Name. Lema Tiki (Msc)

Signature: ______________

Date: ________________________

ii

SUMMARY

There is problem of wise use of natural resources usage and limited scientific studies on

constraints and temporal change in Bale Eco Region southeast Ethiopia.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the natural resource usage constraints and

their temporal change in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia. Both qualitative and

quantitative study designs were employed. This study was use questionnaires, depth

interview from households, focus group discussion and field observation, based cross-

sectional study. As the method of data analysis, descriptive and inferential statistics was

implemented by using SPSS software version 20. Chi-Square, frequencies and percentage

was used to compare differences among variables with respect to agro-ecology at 0.05

significance status. Qualitative data was transcribed, categorized into themes and narrate

based on the focus of the study. The information obtained from quantitative and

qualitative sources were triangulated to ensure the relevance of the results of the study.

Finally, this study was come up with identified constraints in utilization of natural

resources and possible solution that ensure sustainable utilization of natural resources in

the eco-region. The Budget required to conduct this study is 40,000 Ethiopian Birr.

Therefore, depending on the result, it is recommended that concerned bodies should

minimize natural resource usage constraints and their temporal change in Bale Eco

Region.

Key words: constraints, natural resource, temporal change and usage of natural

resource

Commented [BWM(1]: Will work on the abstract after revision.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am highly indebted to my advisor, Dr. Wolde Mokuria for his encouragement, guidance,

and professional suggestion while writing this proposal. My special appreciation also

goes to my supervisors, Mr. Dejene Nigatu and Mr. Lema Tiki for their encouragement

and support in providing valuable comments and suggestions on the proposal.

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

iv

ABRDP Arsi-Bale Rural Development Project

AR Assessment Report

BERSMP Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Programme

BER Bale Eco Region

FARM/SOS FARM Africa and SOS Sahel

FGD Focus Group Discussion

NR Natural resource

NRM Natural Resource Management

SERI Sustainable Europe Research Institute

SSI Small scale irrigation

v

TABLE OF CONTENT

Contents

Page SUMMARY ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS iiiiv

1. NTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Background of the study 1

1.2. Statement of the problem 3

1.3. Significance of the study 4

1.4. Objectives of the study 54

1.4.1. General objective 54

1.4.2. Specific objectives 54

1.5. Research questions 54

1.6. Scope of the Study 5

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1. Concept and Definition of Natural Resource 6

2.2. Type of Temporal Change 6

2.2.1. Man Made Temporal Change 6

2.2.2. Nature Cause Temporal Change 7

2.3. Definition of Constraints 7

2.4. Types of constraints 7

2.4.1. Agricultural land constraints 7

2.4.2. Physical Constraints 8

2.4.3. Biological Constraints 8

2.4.4. Financial Constraints 8

2.4.5. Human Resource Constraints 9

2.4.6. Social and Cultural Constraints 9

2.4.6.1. Governance and Institutional Constraints 10

2.6. Trends of natural resources 10

3. METHODOLOGY 11

3.1. Study area 11

3.1.1. Vegetation 12

3.1.2. Climate 12

vi

3.2. Methods 13

3.2.1. Preliminary Study 13

3.2.2. Materials 13

3.2.3. Study design 13

3.2.4. Study population and subject 13

3.2.5. Sampling technique and sample size 14

Data Analysis Method 17

3.3. Expected output 17

3.4. Ethical consideration 1817

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 18

4.1. Description of study participants 18

4.1.1. Education status and occupation 19

4.1.2. Livelihood mechanisms 2019

4.2. Major natural resources in Bale Eco-region 20

4.3. Temporal Trends of natural resource status in Bale Eco-region 21

4.4. Natural resource utilization in bale eco region 26

4.5. Natural resources use constraints in Bale Eco-Region. 26

4.5.1. Constraints to use Land 27

4.5.2. Constraints to use Water 3031

4.5.3. Constraints to use Forest 3435

4.5.4. Constraints to use Wildlife 3637

4.5.5. Constraints to use Soil 3637

4.5.6. Common constraints to show in the three agro ecology of bale eco region 3839

4.5.7. Different constraints to show in the three agro-ecologies 3940

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4041

5.1. CONCLUSION 4041

5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS 42

REFERENCE 4344

APPENDIXS- I 4849

vii

List of Figures

page

Figure 1: Map of the study area----------------------------------------------------------------------

-16

Figure 12: Sampling procedure for the study -----------------------------------------------------

--22

Fig 2. Degraded area at lowland---------------------------------------------------------------------

--22

Fig 3. During key informant interview -------------------------------------------------------------

-23

Fig, 4. During focus Group Discussion -------------------------------------------------------------

-34

List of Tables

Table 1, al population number of each wareda-----------------------------------------------------

-14

Table 2, Sex, age, family size Education status of HH and occupation ------------------------

-18

Table 3. Major natural resources of Bale Eco-region --------------------------------------------

--20

Table 4. Trends of natural resource status in Bale Eco-region ---------------------------------

--21

Table 5. Biophysical Constraints of land resources utilization by agro ecology --------------

-27

Table 6. Economic Constraints of land resources utilization by agro ecology ----------------

-28

viii

Table 7. Lack of technology and input Constraints of land resources utilization by agro

ecology --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-29

Table 8. Lack of knowledge and law implementation Constraints of land resources

utilization by agro ecology ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------30

Table 9, Biophysical Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology -----------

--30

Table 10, Economic Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology ------------

-31

Table 11, Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology -------------------------

-33

Table 12, Constraints of forest resources utilization by agro ecology -------------------------

--35

Table 13, Constraints of forest resources utilization----------------------------------------------

-36

Table 14, iophysical Constraints --------------------------------------------------------------------

37

Tables 15, Constraints of Soil utilization-----------------------------------------------------------

-38

1

1. NTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the study

Natural Rresources are described as resources or inputs to production (Peteraf, 1993). People’s

livelihood is based on natural resources. Without the constant use of natural resources, neither

our economy nor our society could function. Nature provides humans with all resources

necessary for life including: energy for heat, electricity and mobility; wood for furniture and

paper products; cotton for clothing; construction materials for our roads and houses; food and

pure water for a healthy diet (SERI, 2000).

In Africa, natural resources were effectively nationalized. Much land was set aside for

conservation; move and marginalizing local people and alienate them from traditional resource

areas (Colchester, 1994). For rain-fed agriculture are considered severely constrained for crop

production (Mugagga et al., 2011). In most of the African countries, land use/cover change is

the main deriver of land degradation; and its effect even Most African region show that land use

changes result in high levels of land degradation by suggest that these landscape

transformations account for the exponential increase in slope failures. Land use and cover

change are more pronounced in highland and mountainous landscapes (Mohammad and Adam,

2010). Lack of finance and capacity constrained the ability of local government to manage the

changing pressure and reverse the degradation of natural resources caused by human activities ,

natural resources transport about by new roads, increased logging and mining, designed oil

palm plantations, high in-migration rates, many new economic opportunities, and shifts in the

center of power (Campbell et al., 2003).

Constraints to execute proper natural resources management may could be physical,

technological, economic, institutional, legal, cultural, or environmental in nature. For example,

challenges of natural resources management such as urbanization and pollution can influence

systems directly and indirectly through their effects on climate variables such as albino and soil-

moisture regimemoisture regime.

Socio-economic processes, including land-use change (e.g., forestry to agriculture; agriculture

to urban area) and land-cover modification (e.g., ecosystem degradation or restoration) can also

result on temporal change. Due to the strong influence of non-climate factors on agriculture

and, to a lesser extent, on forestry, especially management practices and technological changes,

as well as market prices and policies related to subsidy result in change in species composition

Commented [BWM(2]: General comment: Need improvement: see the specific comments given.

Commented [BWM(3]: This sentence looks incomplete. Please put proper definition of NR

Commented [BWM(4]: Not related with the above sentence. Please delete it.

Commented [BWM(5]: Not clear, not linked

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specious canges (Easterling,

2003). Land use and land cover plays an important role in global environmental change and

sustainability, including response to climate change, effects on ecosystem structure and function, species

and genetic diversity, water and energy balance, and agro-ecological potential are also change (Codjoe,

2007). Constraints may limit the range of available adaptation options creating the potential for

residual damages for actors, species, or ecosystems associated with specific regions or sectors.

Under some circumstances, the risk of residual damage may be viewed as an aunacceptable or

acceptable exchange (Stern et al., 2006).

Besides climate affecting species, there are many different types of non-climate driving forces,

such as invasive species, natural disturbances (e.g., wildfires), pests, diseases and pollution

(e.g., soluble-nitrogen deposition). Influencing the changes exhibited by species, animal and

plant populations have been under pressure from agricultural intensification and land-use

change in the past 50 years, causing many species to be in decline (Warren et al., 2001).

Non-climate drivers such as urbanization and pollution can influence systems directly and

indirectly through their effects on climate variables such as albino and soil-moisture regime.

Socio-economic processes, including land-use change (e.g., forestry to agriculture; agriculture

to urban area) and land-cover modification (e.g., ecosystem degradation or restoration) can also

result on temporal change. Due to the strong influence of non-climate factors on agriculture

and, to a lesser extent, on forestry, especially management practices and technological changes,

as well as market prices and policies related to subsidy result specious canges (Easterling,

2003). Land use and land cover plays an important role in global environmental change and

sustainability, including response to climate change, effects on ecosystem structure and function, species

and genetic diversity, water and energy balance, and agro-ecological potential are also change (Codjoe,

2007).

Natural resource use changes have been linked to changes in air quality and pollution that affect

the greenhouse process itself (Pielke et al., 2002). Forests covered about 50% of the earth’s land

area 8000 years ago, as opposed to 30% today. Agriculture has expanded into forests, savannas,

and steppes in all parts of the world to meet the demand for food and fiber (Lambin et al.,

2003).

The change of natural resource can be expected to modify the ecosystem services provided by

natural and managed ecosystems to rural people, such as the amount of food produced, the

availability of water supplies, or the climatic, disease and nutrient regulation functions of

Commented [BWM(6]: Repetition! … if you can merge with the above paragraph.

3

ecosystems. Whether these changes will be positive or negative for human well-being is thus far

difficult to foresee, particularly because different regions are expected to experience

dramatically different impacts. With respect to agriculture, for example, yield and productivity

impacts in many temperate regions are expected to be increasepositive, while those in many

tropical regions will be decreasednegative, although there is still considerable uncertainty about

how projected changes will play out (IPCC, 2007).

The Bale eco-region, southeast Ethiopia, is a priority area for the conservation of ecosystems.

forest area. In the centre is the Bale mountain national park, the largest area of Afro alpine in

Africa. The Harrana forest covering the southern part of the mountain is the second largest

moist tropical forest in Ethiopia. However, the Harrana forest is degrading due to land

conversion processes related to the internal population growth and povertychanging livelihood

strategies and socioeconomic expectations of the resident population. This section of the Bale

eco-region presents the key changes in terms of land cover that have taken place over the past

two decades for each of the two woredas, focusing on the integrity and connectivity of the

Harenna Forest, and the area’s key natural resource and conservation values. In Harenna Buluk,

significant temporal changes have taken place over the past two decades in terms of land cover

(UNESCO, 1984).

1.2. Statement of the problem

In Ethiopia, clearing of forests due to , over-grazing and expansion of agricultural land other

reductions in the vegetation of the country has increased considerably during recent years. This

has led to Iincreased silt and nutrient load of the watercourses and due to increasing populations

and the above-stated negative environmental products have posed serious socio-economic and

environmental problems. The episodes that encourage soil erosion (depleted forest, inadequate

plant cover, poor soils, improper farming methods etc.), and inappropriate management systems

of water resources (at micro-level) have alarmingly taken place and most of the water systems

and the environment have suffered from the consequences of the linked processes (Zinabu,

1998).

The livelihood of the people in Bale-Eco region, in the study area, is directly or indirectly

dependent on natural resources. Using natural resources to meet the demands of human has an

impact on the global environment. The problem of population growth coupled with economic

Commented [BWM(7]: After this paragraph, you need to give brief description on how the different challenges affecting NR resources management in Ethiopia. Then you proceed to the description of the situation in bale eco-region.

Commented [BWM(8]: Which Weredas that you are mentioning. Before this sentence you did not mention anything about wereda. So it is not well linked.

Commented [BWM(9]: This quite old reference. You are discussing about the situation in the last two decades, but the citation does not reflect that. Please update your reference.

Commented [BWM(10]: This section should end by highlighting the objectives of the study. Please add here the overall objective of the study.

Commented [BWM(11]: General comment Need improvement: see the specific comments given below.

Commented [BWM(12]: Cite a reference.

Commented [BWM(13]: Cite a reference

Commented [BWM(14]: Please update this reference. It is too old.

4

pressure has resulted in a high rate of natural resource degradation. Due to the small land area

owned by most farmers in forest areas, they have encroached forest reserves for agricultural

activities which may result in excessive destruction of tree cover or vegetation. Warren et al.,

(2001) also confirmed that temporal change in land uses result in effects on natural resources.

Lack of environmental awareness concerning the linkage between environment and

development in general, weak participation of the people and community based organization in

environmental management activities are some of the environmental challenges that the Bale

eco-region and Ethiopia facing now days (Girma, 2001). Lack of professionalism and technical

standards: Another very important constraint, not only among policy makers but also among

many experts, is that construction of physical soil and water conservation measures is

considered as the main solution to halt land degradation (Geta et al., 2010).

As a result, even though the researcher expects lots of research on this related problem, to the

investigator knowledge, there was scarcity of research conducted related to the natural resource

usage constraints and their temporal change in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia, especially

in the study area of Bale Eco Region. Therefore, the purpose of this research will be to fill a gap

that is observed on the stated problem.

1.3. Significance of the study

The findings of this study serves as further intervention/development indicator for

SHAREAFRICA for designing the next phase of the project for sustainable utilization and

management of natural resources in the Eco-region about the factors that limit/hinder utilization

of natural resources by local communities, the similarities and differences of limiting factors in

the three agro-ecologies in the Eco-region and natural resource conditions vary over time in the

study area. The study will also illustrate natural resource usage constraints that limit the

inhabitants to increase productivity of their livelihood mechanisms. It also comes up with

possible solution that minimizes the effect of constraints in the Eco-region. Moreover, the result

of this study will serve as source of information and reference for scholars who are conducting

researches in the area.

Commented [BWM(15]: Not linked, not clear. Please revise this sentence.

Commented [BWM(16]: This section should be concluded by discussing how the existing challenges/constraints are affecting the management of natural resources. Then in the next section, you discuss how you support to address those changes through your research. The other option is stamen of the problem and significance of the study/justification can be merged and presented in one section.

Commented [BWM(17]: See the above comment and try to revise this section.

5

1.4. Objectives of the study

1.4.1. General objective

The aim of this study was to investigate the natural resource usage constraints and their

temporal changes in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia.

1.4.2. Specific objectives

To identify factors those limit/hinder utilization of natural resources by local communities.

To investigate the similarities and differences of limiting factors in the three agro-ecologies in

the Eco-region.

To assess how natural resource conditions vary over time in the study area.

1.5. Research questions

What are the factors those that limit/hinder utilization of natural resources by local

communities?

What are the similarities and differences of limiting factors in the three agro-ecologies in the

Eco-region?

How natural resource conditions vary over time in the study area?

1.6. Scope of the Study

The study was limited to Dinsho and Adaba Wereda from high land areas, Harena Buluk

Wereda from mid-land areas and Berbere & Dello Mena Weredas from low land areas. The

study was delimited to investigate natural resource usage constraints with their temporal change

in the indicated area starting from the commencement of FARM AFRICA still the present day.

6

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Concept and Definition of Natural Resource

Natural resources vary in the degree to which they are naturally available versus being altered

by human actions. Resource quality and quantity are heavily influenced by human behavior and

the sustainability – or lack of sustainability – of management practices. Current concerns about

global climate change address some of the most basic aspects of ecosystem processes and

regulation and thus are of particular concern. Land quality is affected by degradation, or

enhancement, as a function of prior use and current management patterns. Water availability is

highly influenced by irrigation infrastructure and management in many regions, while water

quality is affected by human actions which may lead to soil erosion and sedimentation, and

pollution by agricultural, industrial and human waste. Agricultural genetic resources have been

influenced by genetic selection and manipulation by both farmers and scientists over many

generations (David, 2009).

Natural resources are things that come from nature, such as plants, animals, soil, minerals,

energy sources (e.g., sunlight, fossil fuels), air, and water. These natural resources are used to

meet the needs of all living things, including people. The term natural resources can include

agricultural and mineral assets, as well as resources associated with water and forests. Among

these, certain types of natural resources such as oil and minerals have a tendency to lead to

production and revenue patterns that are concentrated, while revenue flows from other types of

resources such as agriculture are more diffused throughout the economy (Auty, 1997).

2.2. Type of Temporal Change

2.2.1. Man Made Temporal Change

Habitat destruction and fragmentation from farming and deforestation is the root cause of most

biodiversity loss in northern and central Sudan (UNEP, 2007). Vast areas of savannah and dry

land pasture have been replaced with agricultural land, leaving only limited shelter belts or

other forms of wildlife refuge. The intensity of mechanized agricultural development has forced

pastoralists to use smaller grazing areas and less suitable land, leading to the degradation of the

rangelands and increased competition between livestock and wildlife. The result is that most

7

forests have essentially disappeared from most of northern and central Sudan, and can cause

change the area and leading to remote desert regions (UNEP, 2006).

The felling of a tree, for example, is a disturbance event similar to the natural fall of senescent

trees. A distinction can be made, however, between the immediate removal of the felled tree

from the habitat, and the remaining of the fall tree. While tree fall is a changeable event that

allows for natural resource to takes place (Grime, 1979).

2.2.2. Nature Cause Temporal Change

The internal microclimate near forest edges, particularly where they meet non-forest vegetation,

is frequently hotter, drier and brighter these changes negatively affect typical forest species and

can lead to increased tree mortality forest (Turner and Corlett, 1996). The loss of certain

species within fragments may have knock-on effects on other species. The widespread

decimation of seed dispersers by over-hunting or habitat degradation can have devastating long-

term consequences on the plant species that depend on them (Howe, 1990).

2.3. Definition of Constraints

Constraints are defined as factors that make it harder to plan and implement adaptation actions

a number of factors constrain planning and implementation of adaptation options very (Adger et

al., 2007). More recent studies have documented an expanded range of constraints in a diverse

array of contexts (Biesbroek et al., 2013). Note that there is no consensus definition of

constraints or a consistent framework for their assessment. Although constraints are often

discussed in the literature as discrete determinants of adaptive capacity, they rarely act in

isolation (Smith et al., 2008). Rather actors are challenged to navigate multiple, interacting

constraints in order to achieve a given adaptation objective (Dryden et al., 2007).

2.4. Types of constraints

2.4.1. Agricultural land constraints

Limited land area and quality, lack of agricultural techniques, lack of irrigation water, low

yielding crop varieties, pests and diseases), and lack of market access. From the farmers’

perspective, lack of capital is the major constraint they have little access to credit and therefore

have to continue using limited production techniques (GoV, 2001). The establishment of new

reclamation areas for agriculture from the 1960s to 1980s has led to a serious decline in natural

forest and an increase in land degradation (Vien et al., 2005).

8

2.4.2. Physical Constraints

The capacity of human and natural systems to adapt to a changing climate is linked to

characteristics of the physical environment including the climate itself. Recent studies have

suggested that the effort required to adapt to an increase in global mean temperature of 4°C by

2010 may be significantly greater than adapting to lower magnitudes of change (Fung et al.,

2011). A variety of non-climatic physical factors also can constrain adaptation efforts of natural

systems. For example, migration can be constrained by geographical features such as lack of

sufficient altitude to migrate vertically or barriers posed by coastlines or rivers (Clark et al.,

2011 ) water quality and soil quality can constrain agricultural activities and therefore the

capacity of agricultural systems to adapt to a changing climate (Delgado et al., 2011).

2.4.3. Biological Constraints

Biological factors can constrain the adaptation options for humans, nonhuman species, and

ecological systems more broadly. In particular, biological characteristics influence the capacity

of organisms to cope with increasing climate stress in situ through acclimation, adaptation, or

behavior (Jensen, 2009). The biological capacity for migration among nonhuman species is

linked to characteristics such as fecundity, phenotypic and genotypic variation,

dispersal rates, and inter specific interactions (Aitken et al.,2008). The degradation of

environmental quality is another source of constraints with multiple studies including natural

capital as a foundation for sustainable livelihoods (Paavola, 2008).

Soil degradation and desertification can reduce crop yields and the resilience of agricultural

and pastoral livelihoods to climate stress (Iglesias, 2011). Ecosystem constraints can also arise

from non-native species, including pests and disease, which compete with endemic species and

reduce the effectiveness of current control mechanisms for invasive species (Hellman et al.,

2012).

2.4.4. Financial Constraints

In addition to broader macroeconomic constraints on adaptation existing livelihoods, economic

structures, and economic mobility the implementation of specific adaptation strategies and

options can be constrained by access to financial capital. Financial capital can manifest in a

variety of forms including credit, insurance, and tax revenues, as well as earnings of individual

households or private entities. The AR concluded that the global costs of adaptation could be

quite substantial over the next several decades (Adger et al., 2007).

9

Pricing constrains consumer choices in use natural resource and products in several ways. First,

is the cost to generating more sustainable power at a residential level; second, is the cost of

purchasing “green power” and how that is explained to consumers; lastly, is the difficult

choices consumers make in purchasing new products (Melea and Eric ,2009).

2.4.5. Human Resource Constraints

Human resources are one of the factors influencing adaptive capacity (Adger et al., 2007).

There has been little attention given specifically to human resources as a constraint on

adaptation by adaptation researchers. Rather the literature mentions human resources in two

principal contexts. First, it highlights the linkages between the development of human resources

and adaptive capacity more broadly (Ebi and Semenza, 2008). Treat human resources as part of

the portfolio of resources that can be harnessed to facilitate adaptation in the public health arena

(Nelson et al., 2010).

Use human capital as one indicator of the capacity of rural communities to cope with climate

impacts. In addition, a number of recent studies call attention to the role of leadership in

enabling or constraining organizational adaptation (Termeer et al., 2012). The emergence of

institutions: to build human resources in the climate change arena, including expanded higher

education opportunities to build climate expertise as well as professional societies (Murphy et

al., 2009). The literature highlights the finite nature of human resources as a need to prioritize

adaptation efforts including the extent of engagement in participatory processes (van Aalst et

al., 2008).

2.4.6. Social and Cultural Constraints

Support Adaptation can be constrained by social and cultural factors that are linked to societal

Social norms, identity, place attachment, beliefs, worldviews, values, awareness, education,

social justice, and social values, world views, and cultural norms and behaviors (Moser and

Ekstrom, 2010; Nichols, 2011). These social and cultural factors can influence perceptions of

risk, what adaptation options are considered useful and by whom, as well as the distribution of

vulnerability and adaptive capacity among different elements of society (Grossmann and Patt,

2005; Kuruppu, 2009). Social and cultural constraints on adaptation have not been well

researched; more recent literature has significantly expanded their understanding. As a case in

point, the erosion of traditional knowledge among the Arctic Inuit is the consequence of a long-

term process of changing livelihoods, technology, and sources of knowledge (Pearce et al.,

2011).

10

2.4.6.1. Governance and Institutional Constraints

Institutions & Policy: existing laws, regulations, procedural requirements, governance scope,

effectiveness, institutional arrangements, adaptive capacity, and absorption capacity;

Constraints associated with governance, institutional arrangements, and legal and regulatory

issues. Adaptation to climate change will necessitate the mobilization of resources, decision

making, and the implementation of specific policies by societal institutions (Huang et al.,

2011). Yet, these processes may be most effective when they are aligned to the given context

and group of actors (Berkhout, 2012; Garschagen, 2013). The adaptation literature provides

extensive evidence that institutional capacity is a key factor that can potentially constrain the

adaptation process very high confidence (Lesnikowski et al., 2013). Policy and regulation

constraints come in four main forms. The first is a lack of oversight in the sale of alternative

power; the second is related to the interplay between regional and national policy; the third is

national energy policy; and, the fourth is environmental policy issues (Ebi and Smenza, 2009).

2.6. Trends of natural resources

To gain an impression of the changes and environmental impacts of resource use in the

Netherlands we must first identify three trends, Volume changes in the consumption of goods in

the Netherlands, · Environmental efficiency of Dutch production · Environmental efficiency of

Dutch imports and other sustainability aspects. Trends are still the wrong way, reflecting

continuing growth in consumption. The improvements in environmental efficiency per unit of

production are mainly being made within the Netherlands. The environmental efficiency and

the social and economic conditions of foreign production for consumption in the Netherlands –

of great significance for timber, meat and metals production – have hardly improved at all

(Vringer, 2000).

There is no reliable figure on the trends of forest cover in Ethiopia. However, as some historical

sources indicate high forests might have once covered about 35–40% of the total land area of

the country. Deforestation accelerated towards the beginning of the 20th century and in 1960,

closed natural forest was estimated to cover only about 3.37%. It is believed that, in Ethiopia,

agricultural activities must have started about 5000 years ago and wide spread deforestation

started about 2500 years ago (Hurni, 1988).

11

3. METHODOLOGYMaterials and Method

3.1. Study area

1The Bale Mountains Eco-region was one of the two highland divisions in Ethiopia, separated

from the larger called western plateau of the Ethiopian highlands by the Great African Rift

Valley, one of the longest and most profound chasms in Africa and the world. The main central

area of the Bale Eco-region is a high plateau, much of which is over 3000 m a.s.l with several

peaks rising from it. The highest peak in the eco-region is Tullu Dimtu (43 77m), the second

highest point in Ethiopia. South of the plateau, the land falls steeply to the Harenna Escarpment

and further into the Somali and Borana lowland plains, and further into the Indian Ocean. The

northern area was composed of high ridges and broad valleys that gradually descend to the

extensive Arsi-Bale plateaus and further into the Central Rift Valley lowlands. The mountains

chain and topography with its broad flat plateau has given the Bale eco region spectacular

scenery. The diversity of the Bale eco region spectacular scenery hence diverse ecosystems and

rich flora and fauna diversity. Moreover, the mountains massive of the eco-region play a vital

role in climate control of the region by attracting large amount of aerographic rainfalls

(BERSMP, 2006).

The Bale Mountains Eco-Region covers fourteen politically defined zones (called woredas) in the

Oromia state of south-eastern Ethiopia and covers a land area of contains 576,856 hectares (ha) of

tropical dry and moist forest (Figure 1). The moist forest comprises the second largest stand in

Ethiopia, a quarter of which is found within the Bale Mountains National Park. Both moist and dry

forests are threatened by the largely unregulated subsistence livelihood needs of the population,

with forest being cleared to procure land for crops and livestock grazing, as well as for timber and

firewood (BERSMP, 2006). Between 2001 and 2009 the average annual deforestation rate in the

eco-region ranged from 1 to 8% with a mean value of was 3.44% , ranging from 1 to 8% (Dupuy,

2009). To address the decline in forest area, the Oromia Regional State Forest and Wildlife

Enterprise (OFWE) has been implementing are developing a Reduced Emission from Deforestation

and Forest degradation (REDD) project in the Bale Mountains Eco-Region. A semi-autonomous

agency, OFWE is supported in REDD project development by BERSMP; a joint NGO programme

between FARM-Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia. Covering more than 900,000 ha, the project area

consists of the dry and moist tropical forest as well as the southern woodlands. Of this area, only

area change in the tropical dry and moist forest will generate emission reductions with area changes

in woodland set-aside to account for emissions that may be relocated rather than reduced. This risk

that emission generating activities will move to other areas, termed ‘leakage’, must be taken into

Commented [BWM(18]: Organize this section like this: 3. Material and Methods 3.1 Study area 3.2 Research design (here you can discuss how you delineated the total population and target population 3.3 Sampling (discuss the sampling for household survey, key informant interviews and FGDs) 3.4 data collection (discuss how you collected data: discuss about the questionnaires, content of questionnaires, etc .. 3.5 data analyses

Commented [BWM(19]: Please write this in full.

Commented [BWM(20]: Please check this figure. Compare with the figure above.

12

consideration. If emission generating activities are dislocated rather than reduced there will be

fewer, or even no, net emission reductions resulting from REDD project activities (Sohngen and

Brown, 2004).

3.1.1. Vegetation

Bale eco region possesses one of the highest incidences of animal and plant endemicity of any

terrestrial habitat in the world afro alpine areas of altitude >3400 m. a.s.l. It has a vegetation

composition of Erica arborea, Helichrysum spp., Alchemilla spp., and giant Lobelia (Lobelia

rhyncopetalum). The mountains are one of the centers of faunal diversity and endemicity, which

generate numerous natural processes vital to human existence and support an important

reservoir of genetic resources (Fishpool and Evans, 2001).

Figure 1.Map of the study area

3.1.2. Climate

13

Ethiopia's climate in general was extremely varied and despite its location within the tropical

region and being close to the equator the country doesn't follow the typical tropical climate

pattern. Its local climates were modified by its landforms, i.e. altitude-induced climatic

conditions prevail over the, country, which is typical also for the Bale eco-region. The vast

highland plateau and associated mountains of the eco-region was characterized by a cool

temperature and high rainfall, and the high peaks like the Sanetti plateau and Tullu- Dimtu

could experience snowfalls in winter. Further south of the mountains and down in the lowlands

a tropical warm and dry climate prevails (OFWE, 2014).

3.2. Methods

3.2.1. Preliminary StudyReconnaissance survey

A reconnaissance preliminary survey was in the study area was carried out before starting actual

data collection to gather relevant information about the area from concerned government

authorities and local communityies and thereby support the design of the research. of the area.

This helped to identify the boundaries of the areas and to identify the parts/kebeles. Very

important data for this research will be collected from secondary and primary sources from

January 2016 to February 2016.

Materials

GPS, bags, Digital photo Camera, Rain coat, Flash disk and CD and Stationery (papers, pens,

slides, etc) will were be used.

3.2.2. Study design

Cross sectional household survey was used in BER to collect relevant information that

addresses specific objectives. Among qualitative research approach, Focus Group Discussion

(FGD), field observation and in-depth interview were used.

3.2.3. Study population and subject

The populations of this study were all household heads in Bale eco- region. , house hold heads

in the study kebeles in the eco-region. Target population was those households which were

living in the study kebeles during the study period and whose livelihood was dependent on

natural resources in the study area.

Commented [BWM(21]: In this section, you should provide rainfall amount, minimum and maximum temperature and discuss about rainfall pattern.

Commented [BWM(22]: Put this under the section: data collection.

Commented [BWM(23]: Please describe the type of data that you collected during the reconnaissance survey.

Commented [BWM(24]: Put this at the end

Commented [BWM(25]: The information included in this section is methods of data collection.

Commented [BWM(26]: Please select one of the two … not clear

14

3.2.4. Sampling technique and sample size

In this study, multi-stage random sampling technique was employed (Figure 2). Firstly, the

woredas in BER that were pilot areas for SHARE project were stratified into highland, midland

and lowland agro-ecologies. Out of the total highland and lowland woredas of BER, five

weredas (two from highland weredas, two from lowland weredas and one from midland) were

selected by simple random sampling technique using lottery method from their strata.

Accordingly, Adaba and Dinsho from highland weredas, and Dello Menna and Berbere from

lowland weredas were selected. As Harena-Buluk weredas was the only middle altitude

weredas, it was considering in the study purposely. Secondly, from each wereda two kebeles

that best represents agro-ecology were selected purposively. The criteria used to select kebeles

from each wereda was being the kebele under intervention of share and kebeles in which natural

resource and livelihoods of inhabitants are strongly linked. Lastly, the sample households from

the kebeles were drawn by systematic random sampling techniques (i.e. using complete

household lists) after the sample size had been proportionally allocated to each kebele based on

the household number.

TABLE. 1. Total population number of each wareda

Adaba Dinsho HarenaBulk

Dolo mena Berbere Total

M 68,775 19,252 41,382

44100 46,445 222314

F 69,942 f 19,872 40,115

45570 44,197 218969

T 138,717 39,124m 81,497 89,670 90,642 441283

Sample

size

121 35 71 78 79 384

15

\The sample size is calculated using a standard formula of (Freund and Williams, 1983):

=

Where: n is sample size, z is statistical certainty usually chosen at 95% confidence level (z =

1.96), p is proportion of population are using natural resources in the study area (p = 0.5), q=

(1- natural resource conditions vary over time in the study area p-0.5) and d is error accepted by

researcher (5%). The sample computed by the above formula is 384.

Figure: 12. sampling procedure for the study

Purposive sample

Dinsho

Adaba

aa

adaba

16

NB: from 10 Kebeles 423 number of household were selected for Questionnaires by systematic random

sampling techniques and 60 key informants were purposefully was selected for in-depth interview. The

composition of the key informants include by purposive sample including kebele leaders, natural

resource expert, and elders. because, the researcher expects they know about trends of natural

resource .

3.2.1. Data Collection Tools

Socio-economic data were gathered using household survey, key informants interview and

focus group discussions. For the household survey, a total of …households (.. men headed; …

women headed households were selected.

Six FGDs (two FGD of male-headed households and female-headed households from each

agro-ecology) was conducted to supplement data obtained through quantitative study. In each

FGD 8-12 participants were involved. The participants of the in-depth interview were 60 key

informants (6 individuals from each kebele) in the three agro ecology. From each agro ecology:

kebele leaders, natural resource expert, elders were considered.

To get reliable information from the research participants the following instruments were used:-

Questionnaires

Observation checklist

In-depth Interview checklist

Focus group discussion checklist

The detail of each data collection instrument discussed as follows:

Questionnaires, closed and open-ended semi structured questionnaires were used to collect the

data for this respondent. The quantitative data were gathered by using closed ended

questionnaires and open ended questionnaires were gathered through qualitative approach. Part

one will be constructed purposely to provide background information about the respondents

such as sex, age, experience. The questionnaire was originally constructed in English by the

researcher and then was translated into Afaan Oromo to enhance the comfort of every

respondent and after data collected from respondents then translated back to English with help

of experts (see Appendix I).

Commented [BWM(27]: After this, please revise this section following this: For household survey: we used open and close ended questionnaires …continue the discussion … move the discussion under questionnaire here. Then you discuss about key informant interview. Describe the type of questions and other Finally discuss about FGD.

Commented [BWM(28]: This has been already discussed under sampling section. Repetition

17

Focus group discussions (FGD) are formally being organized, groups of individuals brought

together to discuss on the natural resource usage constraint and temporal change in Bale eco

region. The discussion took place among, kebele leaders, natural resource experts, youth, elders

and Agricultural extension workers will be considered for 1 hour (see Appendix II).

In-depth Interview, face-to-face semi-structured interview were conducted with the

respondents of the study. The interview items (Appendix III) are about natural resource usage

constraint and temporal change in Bale eco region southeast Ethiopia. The discussion took place

among, kebele leaders, natural resource experts, youth elders and Agricultural extension

workers will be considered.

Observation, with regard to the practical session, observation was made by the researcher in

the study area for about 10 days. Observation checklist (see Appendix V) was prepared

containing items that check the current status of the natural resources. .

Data Analysis Method

Descriptive and inferential statistics were implemented using SPSS software version 20. Chi-

Square was used to compare differences of agro- ecology at 0.05 significance level.

Qualitative data gathered through FGD, Key-informant interview and, observations were

transcribed, categorized into themes and narrated. Quantitative data collected through

household survey, analyzed and summarized using mean and percentages.

The information obtained from quantitative and qualitative sources was triangulated to detect

consistency of information gathered through different techniques.ensure the relevance of the

results of the study.

3.3. Expected output

The expected outputs of this study was come up with identified constraints in utilization of

natural resources and possible solution that ensure sustainable utilization of natural resources in

the eco-region and constraints that limit the inhabitants to increase productivity of their

livelihood mechanisms. Commented [BWM(29]: This section is not important in thesis. Because you have results and discussion section. Please delete this.

18

3.4.3.3. Ethical consideration

Ethical clearance and permission was obtained from Madda Walabu University. Oral consent to

participate in the study was secured before conducting the interview. For this a consent letter

will be attach to cover page of each questionnaire stating about the general purpose of the

study and issues of confidentiality to be discuss by interviewers before proceeding the

interview. Additionally, participants will be informed that they had a full right to refuse or

discontinue participant.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Description of study participants

Majority (91.8%) of the respondents were male headed households (Table 2). This is due to

local culture that forces women who lost their husbands marry their husband relatives (usually

brother), even in polygamy style. The majority of the respondents were relatively young or are

at middle age (Table 2). This might affect to understand the dynamics of natural resources

beyond two decades. Hence family size per individual farmers was 96(26.2%), 1-4, 169 (46%)

5-8, 66(9-12%) and 36 (9.8%) had family. The increasing population number and high number

of family size were also forced to encroach natural forest for agricultural expansion. On the

other hand, the respondents mentioned that they have been benefited from this increasing family

size for labor availability.

Table 2. Basic characteristics of the respondents , Sex, age, family size Education status of HH

and occupation

Variable Frequency Percent

Sex

Male 337 91.8

Female 30 8.2

Total 367 100

Age category

18-28 41 11.2

29-38 91 24.8

39-48 151 41.1

Above 49 84 22.9

Total 367 100

Education status of HH

0 (illiterate) 205 55.9

1-4 107 29.2

5-8 55 14.9

9-12 0 0

Commented [BWM(30]: I don’t think that this is important. Please remove this.

Commented [BWM(31]: Always put text description before you present tables. You should first refer tables in text before presenting them. Follow this throughout the document.

Commented [BWM(32]: This is not clear

19

Above 12 0 0

Total 367 100

Occupation government employed 10 2.7

Farmer 234 63.8

Pastoralist 120 32.7

Others 3 5

Total 367 100

Livelihood mechanisms Crop production 220 59.9

Animal husbandry 138 37.6

Beekeeping 6 1.6

Others 3 0 .8

Total 367 100

As shown in table 2, about of the total respondents, the majority 337(91.8%) were males while

30(8.2) % was females. This is due to local culture that forces women who lost husbands by

death to marry the brother of her late husband even in polygamy style.

Moreover, as the respondents said that 41(11.2%) belong to the age group of 18-28, 91(24.8%)

belong to the age group of 29-38,151(41.1%) belong to the age group 39-48 and 84(22.9%)

belong to the age group of 49 and above. The maturity age of the respondents might have more

information about trends of natural resource.

Hence family size per individual farmers was 96(26.2%), 1-4, 169 (46%) 5-8, 66(9-12%) and

36 (9.8%) had family. The increasing population number and high number of family were also

forced to encroach natural forest for agricultural expansion. On the other hand, the respondents

mentioned as they have been benefited from this increasing family size for labor availability.

4.1.1. Education status and occupation

The educational level of majority of respondents 205(55.9%) of household heads were illiterate

or unable to read and write, While 107(29.2) % was at the grade level 1- 4 whereas the

remaining small proportion 55(14.9%) were at the 5 -8 grade level and none were at level of

grade 9-12. The educational level of the respondents were illiterate and at the primary school

level due to this reason it might had increase the level of constraints and trends of natural

resources.

As well as 10(2.7%) were government employed 234(63.8%) were farmer 120(32.7%)

pastoralist 3(5%) were others. The majorities of the respondent’s occupations were farmer so

that these might more have increase the natural resource utilization of constraints and the fast

rate of trend.

Commented [BWM(33]: This should not be a separate section. It is about basic characteristics and should be revised under one sub-section: in this case under 4.1.

Commented [BWM(34]: Please see how I improved the presentation of the above paragraph and revise this following the same style.

20

4.1.2. Livelihood mechanisms

The results of this study showed that mixed farming is the major source of livelihood and

income for local community in the study area which includes: crop production, animal

production, and forest related activities such as extraction of NTFPs and on and off farm

activities. Mixed crop-livestock farming is the main economic activity in study area with cattle

kept as the most important livestock for traction and milk production.

The study findings showed that among the sampled households crop production, animal

husbandry, beekeeping and others were ranked as 1 st (59.9%), 2nd.(37.6%),3 rd (1.6%) and 4th

0.8% ) main sources of livelihood activities respectively.

4.2 Major natural resources in Bale Eco-region

Major natural resources in Bale eco-region were land, water, forest, and soil (Table 3). The

importance of the different natural resources varied among agro-ecologies. For example, local

communities’ dependency on forest was higher at mid and low-land when compared to the level

of decency at highland (Table 3). Local communities As it was show in Table1, based on

highland agro ecology 40(28.78%), 49(35,25%), 10(7.19%) and 40(28.78%), of respondents

has indicated that their livelihood mainly depend on land, water, forest, and soil resources,

respectively. 20(28.17%), 15(2113%), 20(28.17%) and 16(22.53%) based on midland agro

ecology as well as, based on lowland agro ecology 40(25,48%), 38(24.20%), 45(28.66%) and

34(21,66%) of respondents has indicated that their livelihood mainly depend on land, water,

forest, and soil resources, respectively. The result of Focus group discussion also indicated that

the importance of these natural resources vary based on their livelihood mechanisms. Similarly

study conducted by BBB (2009) also confirmed that the livelihood of local community near

natural forest/ forest dwellers was mainly depend on the above mentioned natural resources.

Table 3. Major natural resources of Bale Eco-region

Major Natural

resources

%age of respondents who depend on the different

natural resources based on agro ecology

Total

Highland Midland Lowland

Commented [BWM(35]: Same comment as above.

Commented [BWM(36]: Same comment as above: improve this paragraph following the style of the first paragraph.

Commented [BWM(37]: You don’t have to repeat everything in table. You should choose one way of presenting your result. If you summarized in table, you only highlight the important result and refer the table. This also applies for figures. Please delete the shaded part.

Commented [BWM(38]: Always present the text before tables. See the above comment as well.

Commented [BWM(39]: This has to be revised. The figures show the percentage dependency of respondents on different natural resources

21

Land 40 28.78% 20 28.17% 40 25.48% 100

Water 49 35.25% 15 21.13% 38 24.20% 102

Forest 10 7.19% 20 28.17% 45 28.66% 75

Soil 40 28.78% 16 22.53% 34 21.66% 90

Total 139 100 71 100 157 100 367

4.2.4.1. Temporal Trends of natural resource status in Bale Eco-region

Table 4. Trends of natural resource status in Bale Eco-region

NATURAL

RESOURCE

Trends

No change Decreasing Increasing Total X2, df p value

Land holding 9.3% 84.2 6.5 100 36.517,4 0.00

Land use productivity 6.3% 66.8 27 100 63.464,4 0.00

soil fertility 2.7% 91.6 5.7 100 25.09 ,4 0.00

soil erosion 8.2 24.3 67.6 100 7.97, 4 0.93

forest coverage 9.8 80.1 10.1 100 9.58, 4 0.048

forest fragment 4.4 43.1 52.3 100 16.34,4 0.12

specious diversity 5.4 84.5 10.1 100 32.66, 4 0.000

no of wildlife 5.7 78.5 15.8 100 7.87, 4 0.096

habitat distraction 4.6 40.9 54.5 100 70.48,4 0.000

wildlife specious 2.5 90.7 6.8 100 6.62,4 0.16

stream flow 1.9 94 4.1 100 3.94, 4 0.69

water accesses 2.2 94.6 3.3 100 5.59, 4 0.23

water quality 1.9 96.5 1.6 100 11.17,4 0.025

Majority of respondents (Table 4) mentioned that the status of natural resources are

deteriorating. For example, majority (66-92%) of respondents demonstrated a decreasing land

holdings, land productivity, soil fertility, and forest coverage, while they mentioned an

increasing soil erosion, forest fragmentation and habitat destruction (Table 4). As study

revealed that in table 4, 84.2 % were decrease land holding, 66.8 % were decrease land use

Commented [BWM(40]: Not clear what two variables that you have compared?

22

productivity, 91.6 % were decrease soil fertility. 67.6 % were increase soil erosion at X2=7.97,

df=4 , p= 0.93 there is significance difference, 80.1% were decrease forest coverage at

X2=9.58, df=4 at p= 0.048 there is small significance difference, 52.3% were increase forest

fragment at X2=16.34, df=4 at p= 0.12 there is significance difference, 84.5% were decrease

specious diversity. 78.5% were decrease number of wildlife at X2=7.87, df=4, p= 0.096 there

is significance difference, 54.5% were increase habitat distraction, 90.7% were decrease

wildlife specious at X2=6.62, df=4 at p= 0.16 there is significance difference, 94 were decrease

stream flow X2=3.94, df=4 at p= 0.69 there is significance difference, 94.6% were decrease

water accesses X2=16, df=4 at p= 0.12 and 96.5% were decrease water quality and the others

there is no significance difference. Hence, Temporal Trends of natural resource status in Bale

Eco-region result that was most of the natural resource status highly decrease.

Trends of natural resource in highland Eco-region 97.8% of soil fertility was highly decreased,

93.5% were specious diversity 90% of wildlife specious, 94.2% were water accesses and 97.1%

were water quality was highly decreased, respectively. Trends of natural resource in midland

Eco-region 78.9% soil fertility highly decreasing, 90.1% wildlife specious, 91.5% stream flow,

90.1% water accesses and 91.5 water quality highly decreasing respectively.

Therefore, the reduction of natural resource were caused by the effect of overpopulation of the

community that is already fragile (steep and mountainous) and mismanagement of the land

itself, decline in soil fertility causes continuous cropping ,decline in manure application, little

or no agronomic management, particularly cropping systems decline in inorganic fertilizer use.

Trends of natural resource lowland Eco-region 91.7% soil fertility, 81.5% specious diversity,

88.5% wildlife specious, 94.3% stream flow, 96.8% water accesses and 98.1% water quality

were highly decreasing respectively.

Therefore, the reduction of natural resource was caused by the effect of overpopulation of the

livestock, less use of fertilizer, degradation, no implementations of management.

Commented [BWM(41]: Please move this above Table 4.

Commented [BWM(42]: This is not how you highlight information summarized in table. You just indicate major ones and refer the table. Please the first four sentences in this paragraph as an example and revise the results and discussion section.

Commented [BWM(43]: Please revise this based on the above example. You should refer Table 5 here.

23

Fig 2. Degraded area at lowland

Human demand for food and energy plays a key role in driving many environmental change,

especially through conversion of natural ecosystems to farming and overexploitation of natural

resources due to population growth . The pressure from human food and economic demand on

biodiversity resources is intimately link with climate change. Demographic change, land use

change, in particular deforestation of forest ,lack of water management and water pollution in

dry regions lead to land degradation. Loss of biodiversity and ultimately cause temporal change.

The study revealed that the major trends in the bale eco region during the key informant

interview and formal household survey people confirmed that vegetation cover changes have

happened through time. In the previous time the vegetation cover of the area was dense and had

large land coverage. These large and dense vegetation covers had been declining with time and

were gradually reduced to only scattered trees on the farm land and disturbed natural forest.

One of the key informants who is which are living in low land (Berbere woreda serima kebele)

mentioned that had to say this about the vegetation cover change of the area as in the following

context:

“I was borne during the end of Hilesilase regime and I have been living here for more

than 35 years. It is not only of the information that I have heard about the dense

vegetation cover of the area from my parents, but during the Derg regime I myself used

to collect fuel wood from Olea africana tree and make beehives from Polyscias

ferruginea tree species at the nearby site of our residence. This time, however, it is not

easy to get remnants of Olea africana in the farm and I should travel 6 hours to get

Polyscias ferruginea for mounting beehives”.

Commented [BWM(44]: Not referred in the text.

Commented [BWM(45]: Pleas cite a reference

Commented [BWM(46]: Mention the date and year at the end.

Commented [BWM(47]: This is good.

24

Fig 3. During key informant interview

Other key informant informants who are living in high land (Dinsho woreda 02 kebele)

discussed the vegetation cover changes of the area by comparing the past and the recent years as

in the following:

“I have lived over the past two government regimes and am living in the third one.

During these times I have observed vegetation cover changing from wide and dense

coverage to only scattered trees on the farm land and a few patches of remnant natural

forest. During the period of Hayilesilase land was under the control of land lords.

Because of this reason cutting a single tree for any purpose and forest encroachment for

agricultural expansion as well as use of forest products was strictly forbidden. As a

result of this, there was no serious deforestation and vegetation cover was better than

recent times. During the Derg regime land was taken from the land lords and

distributed to the farming community following the proclamattillage. Consequently, the

land distribution opened the loophole and a way for forest encroachment and

agricultural expansion. The event guaranteed the start of the destruction of vegetation.

During the period of the downfall of the Derg govern`ment, people used the opportunity

of the weak law enforcement as to fasten the clearance of vegetation for different

purpose. Similar trend has been continued on the remnant natural forest until now”

weak law enforcement as to fasten the clearance of vegetation for different purpose.

Similar trend has been continued on the remnant natural forest until now”

Similar to the evidence about the evolution of reduction in vegetation cover over time was

given from the key informants, The major cause of reduction in vegetation cover through these

periods was agricultural expansion due to population growth followed by fire, expansion of

coffee management and seasonal grazing in the natural forest.

Commented [BWM(48]: Not referred in the text

Commented [BWM(49]: Repetition

Formatted: Font: Italic

Formatted: Font: Italic

25

Table 5, Trends of natural resources by agro ecology

Natural resource

trend indicators

Highland Midland Lowland

No

ch

an

ge

Dec

rea

sin

g

Incr

easi

ng

To

tal

No

ch

an

ge

Dec

rea

sin

g

Incr

easi

ng

To

tal

No

ch

an

ge

Dec

rea

sin

g

Incr

eain

c

rea

sin

g

T

To

tal

Land holding 7.9 85.6 6.5 100 7 71.8 21.1 100 11.5 88.5 0 100

Land use

productivity 10.1 51.8 38.1 100 2.8 49.3 47.9 100 4.5 87.9 47.9 100

soil fertility 1.4 97.8 0.7 100 4.2 78.9 16.9 100 1.4 91.7 5.1 100

soil erosion 4.2 97.8 0.07 100 2.8 29.6 67.6 100 7 26.1 66.9 100

forest coverage 14.4 77 8.6 100 7 76.1 16.9 100 7 84.7 8.3 100

forest fragment 1.4 52.2 46 100 4.2 29.6 62.2 100 7 40.8 52.2 100

specious diversity 3.6 93.5 2.9 100 1.4 73.2 25.4 100 8.9 81.5 9.6 100

no of wildlife 3.6 82 14.4 100 2.8 74.6 22.5 100 8.9 77.1 14 100

habitat distraction 6.5 79.9 13.7 100 5.6 42.3 52.1 100 2.5 37.6 59.9 100

wildlife specious 3.6 93.5 2.9 100 1.4 90.1 8.5 100 1.9 88.5 9.6 100

strem flow 1.4 90 3.6 100 4.2 91.5 4.2 100 1.3 94.3 4.4 100

water accesses 1.4 94.2 4.3 100 4.2 90.1 5.6 100 1.9 96.8 1.3 100

water quality 2.9 97.1 0 100 4.2 91.5 4.2 100 0 98.1 1.9 100

Table 5, generally, as the study revealed that the following different trend to show in the three

agro ecology was as follows:

On the highland agro ecology, the trends of natural resource observed that was lack soil

fertility, soil erosion, Forest specious diversity wildlife specious, stream flow, water accesses

and water quality (97.8%,97.8%, 93.5%, 93.5%,90.0%, 94.2% and 97.1%) respectively. On the

midland agro ecology, the trends of natural resource observed that was wildlife specious,

stream flow, water accesses and water quality (93.5%, 90.0%, 94.2% and 97.1%) respectively.

Even though, on the lowland agro ecology the trends of natural resource observed that was soil

fertility, stream flow, water accesses and water quality (91.7%, 94.3%, 96.8%, and 98.1%)

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

26

respectively in addition to this forest fragment was 94.3% of lowland agro ecology highly

increases.

4.3.4.2. Natural resource utilization in bale eco region

During the key informant interview and as the researcher observed livelihoods in the midland

woredas are closely joined to forest resources. Traditionally, livelihoods across the case study

area largely depended on a pastoralist transhumance system known as godantu. The system

revolves around seasonal forest grazing, with some members of pastoralist communities in the

lowland areas south of Harenna Forest moving into the forest with their livestock cattle in

particular—during the dry season (January to March) in search of shade and livestock fodder.

Today, considerable amounts of semi-wild coffee are harvested in the Harenna Forest,

providing a significant source of income for the local community.

People in the lowland area do extract timber and non-timber forest products from

the forest. Construction wood, fuel wood, medicinal plants and softwoods for traditional

beehives are some of the forest products that are usually collected from the wild and in some

area water are used as irrigation.

4.4.4.3. Natural resources use constraints in Bale Eco-Region.

The major natural resource constraints are predominantly primitive nature of the

overall existing production systems, shortage of agricultural inputs and credit systems, limited

access to improved irrigation technologies and inadequate research support, lack of trained

manpower and frequent staff turnover, and unstable institutional set up and inadequate

extension services and limited availability of capital. Social factors such as demographic

pressure, land shortage, and social and cultural aspirations affect the utilization of natural

resources. These socially driven forces lead to several activities with major changes in

utilization NR and environmental characteristics such as deforestation, and new land

development. Some may argue that trees increase evapotranspiration during the dry season

thereby reducing the amount of water received by the soil, but in a steeping slope like in many

parts of the Ethiopian highlands, trees can reduce the velocity and increase infiltration

contributing to the more ground water recharge.

Limited land area and quality, lack of agricultural techniques, lack of irrigation water, low

yielding crop varieties, pests and diseases), and lack of market access.. The reduction of natural

resource was caused by the effect of overpopulation of the livestock, less use of fertilizer,

degradation, no implementations of management.

Commented [BWM(50]: You have started discussing on this above. Please merge and revise & avoid repetition.

27

4.4.1.4.3.1. Constraints to use Land

Table 5. Biophysical Constraints of land resources utilization by agro ecology

Biophysical factors

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total

Scarcity of rain 53.5% 46.5% 100 7.6% 92.4% 100 20.0% 80.0% 100

Climate variability 78.8% 21.2% 100 77.1% 46.9% 100 76.4% 23.6% 100

Soil fertility 36.6% 63.4% 100 83.4% 16.6% 100 52.1% 47.9% 100

Limited land area 33.8% 62.2% 100 15.3% 84.7% 100 79.2% 20.79% 100

Low productivity land 36.6% 66.4% 100 76.4% 23.6% 100 35.0% 65.0% 100

Crops /livestock

damage by Wildlife

26.8% 72.2% 100 87.9% 12.1% 100 80.6% 19.4% 100

Drought 50.7% 49.3% 100 89.2% 10.8% 100 36.4% 63.6% 100

Shortage of gazing

land

64.8% 35.2% 100 28.7% 71.3% 100 98.6% 1.4% 100

Lack of water sources 35.2% 64.8% 100 63.1% 36.9% 100 15.0% 85.0% 100

Topography 38.8% 66.2% 100 35.0% 65.0% 100 32.9% 67.1% 100

As shown in the above table 56, on the midland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization

of land revealed that 78.8% of climate variability and 64.8% of Shortage of gazing land as well

as, the lowland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization of land revealed that Climate

variability, Soil fertility, Low productivity land, Crops /livestock damage by Wildlife, Drought

and Lack of – water sources of (77.1%, 83.4%, 76.4%, 87.9%, 89.2% and 63.1%) respectively.

On the other hand on the highland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization of land

observed that Climate variability, Limited land area, Crops /livestock damage by Wildlife and

Shortage of gazing land of (76.4%, 79.2%, 80.6% and 98.6%) respectively.

Commented [BWM(51]: Table 6?

Commented [BWM(52]: Please revise this paragraph based on the above comments and example revisions

28

Table 6. Economic Constraints of land resources utilization by agro ecology

Economic factor

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total

Lack of

infrastructures

49.3% 50.7% 100 87.9% 12.1% 100 10.7% 89.3% 100

Education about NR 43.7% 56.3% 100 87.9% 12.1% 100 39.3% 60.7% 100

Inaccessibility of

market

67.6% 32.4% 100 80.9% 19.1% 100 56.4% 43.6% 100

Table 6 above also indicates that, on the midland agro ecology more constraint depend on

economic factors was 67.6% of Inaccessibility of market. Even though on the lowland agro

ecology more constraint depend on economic factors was Lack of infrastructures, Education

about NR and Inaccessibility of market (87.9%, 87.9% and 80.9%) respectively.

Table 7. Lack of technology and input Constraints of land resources utilization by agro

ecology

Lack of technology and

input

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total

Agricultural machinery 74.9% 23.1% 100 94.9% 5.1% 100 14.3% 83.7% 100

Lack of inputs (Seed, 40.8% 59.2% 100 98.1% 1.9% 100 45.7% 54.3% 100

Commented [BWM(53]: Table 7?

Commented [BWM(54]: Same comment; revise it based on the above comments.

Commented [BWM(55]: Table 8?

29

Fertilizer and pesticide)

Shortage of irrigation 87.6% 12.4% 100 49.0% 51.0% 100 24.3% 75.7% 100

Lack of information 38.0% 62.0% 100 89.2% 10.8% 100 33.6% 64.4% 100

Table 7 above also indicates that, on the midland agro ecology more constraint depend on Lack

of technology and input, 74.9% of Agricultural machinery and 87.6% Shortage of irrigation. In

other way, Agricultural machinery, Lack of inputs (Seed, Fertilizer and pesticide) and Lack of

information were (94.9%, 98.1% and 82.2%) respectively.

Table 8. Lack of knowledge and law implementation Constraints of land resources utilization

by agro ecology

Lack of knowledge and

law implementation

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Tot

al

Yes No Tota

l

Yes No Total

Lack of scientific

knowledge

56.3

5%

43.7% 100 98.7% 1.3% 100 21.1% 72.9% 100

Governance and

Institutional

Constraints

62.0

%

38.0% 100 77.1% 22.9

%

100 2.1% 97.9% 100

NR use limiting laws and

Regulations

26.8

%

73.2% 100 61.8% 38.2

%

100 89.3% 10.7% 100

Table 8 above also indicates that, on the midland agro ecology more constraint depends on

Lack of knowledge and law implementation, 56.35% lack of scientific knowledge and 62.0%

Commented [BWM(56]: Please revise table numbers and refer in text.

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

30

of Governance and Institutional Constraints . Whereas, on the lowland agro ecology more

constraint depends on Lack of knowledge and law implementation, 98.7% lack of scientific

knowledge, 77.1% of Governance and Institutional Constraints and 61.8% NR use limiting

laws and Regulations. In small manner, on the highland agro ecology more constraint depends

on Lack of knowledge and law implementation was 89.3% of NR use limiting laws and

Regulations.

In general, Problems of technology generation, manufacturing and multiplication are among

the constraints identified to use Land. As a result, very often many inputs such as improved

seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation systems, etc. The main inputs for distribution are: micro-

irrigation equipment. With reference to credit, though essential for irrigated crop production, it

is either totally absent or used in only limited number of schemes. The problem is the

reluctance of most farmers to use any credit for irrigation. This results in a much slower rate of

production increase from an area than is economically desirable from the institutional

viewpoint. Overall, the input supply and credit systems are not designed for the irrigation and it

is being managed through the existing system established for rain fed farming.

4.4.2.4.3.2. Constraints to use Water

Table 9, Biophysical Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology

Biophysical factors

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total

Scarcity of rain 47.9%

52.1% 100 90.4 9.6 100 18.0% 82.0% 100

Climate variability 46.5% 53.5% 100 70.7% 29.3 100 76.3% 18.0% 100

Drought 54.9% 45.1% 100 79.1% 27.4% 100 23.0% 43.2% 100

Shortage of gazing land 45.1% 54.9% 100 29.3% 70.7% 100 37.4% 68.9% 100

Lack of – water sources 47.9% 52.1% 100 72.0% 28.0% 100 84.2% 62.6% 100

Topography 47.7% 52.3% 100 29.9% 70.1% 100 66.0% 34.0% 100

31

As shown in the above table 9, on the lowland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization

of water revealed that scarcity of rain, Climate variability, Drought and Lack of – water sources

of (90.4%, 70.7%, 79.1% and 72.0%) respectively. on the highland agro ecology more

constraint of the utilization of water revealed that 76.3% of climate variability, 84.2% lack of –

water sources and 66.0% of Topography.

Table 10, Economic Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology

Economic factor

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No To

tal

Lack of infrastructures 63.4% 36.6% 100 31.2% 68.8% 100 49.4% 50.

6%

100

Education about NR 53.5% 46.5% 100 78.3% 21.7% 100 41.7% 58.

3%

100

Table10 above also indicates that, on the midland agro ecology more constraint the utilization

of water was 63.4% of Lack of infrastructures. Even though on the lowland agro ecology more

constraint depends on economic factors 78.3% of Education about NR.

Commented [BWM(57]: Revise based on the above examples/comments

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

32

Table 11, Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology

Constraints

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total

Agricultural

machinery

54.9% 45.3% 100 82.8% 16.6% 100 56.4% 43.6% 100

Lack of inputs (Seed,

Fertilizer and

pesticide)

58.9% 41.1% 100 25.5% 74.5% 100 10.8% 3.6% 100

Shortage of irrigation 77.6% 22.4% 100 51.0% 49.0% 100 74.8% 25.2% 100

Lack of information 38.0% 62.0% 100 94.1% 8.3% 100 35.3% 64.7% 100

Lack of scientific

knowledge

56.3% 43.7% 100 91.7% 8.3% 100 67.6% 32.4% 100

33

Table 11 above also indicates that, on the midland agro ecology more constraint depend on

Lack of technology and input, 54.9% of Agricultural machinery and 77.6 % Shortage of

irrigation. In other way, Agricultural machinery, 58.9% of Lack of inputs (Seed, Fertilizer and

pesticide) whereas, on the lowland agro ecology more constraint depend on Lack of technology

and input, 82.8% of Agricultural machinery, 94.1% Lack of information and 56.4%

Agricultural machinery and 74.8% Shortage of irrigation on the highland agro ecology more

constraint depend on Lack of technology and input.

In other ways, on the three agro ecology more constraint depend on Lack of knowledge at

midland, lowland and highland show that (56.3%, 91.7%, and 67.6%) respectively.

Fig, 4. During focus Group Discussion

similarly, from FGD and in-depth interview result revealed that, Technologies for water

pumping and lifting devices are not available on time and at reasonable prices. It is very rare to

observe an organized input distribution system or estimation of input requirement. The SSI

users do not have market structure for their productions. Prices are fixed by traders while

Commented [BWM(58]: Not referred in text

34

farmers have little or no power to bargain on. Storage of farm products and quality control

systems are not available that have significantly and negatively affect farmers as a result of

high post-harvest losses. The farmers do not know how to build proper furrows or how to

properly control water flows in the skilled and motivated Development Agent’s (DA) and in

others, not so much so. The skill of development agents in general is low in the area of on-farm

water and crop management practices and they are not in a position to effectively assist

farmers. Poor linkages and limited capacities were identified to exist in agricultural research

centers and water users’ associations. The need to improve the human resources is also

highlighted. Limitations in budget to expand SSI are also indicated as one of the main

constraints.

4.4.3.4.3.3. Constraints to use Forest

Table 12, Constraints of forest resources utilization by agro ecology

As shown in the above table 12, on the lowland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization

of forest revealed that scarcity of rain, Climate variability, Soil fertility, Drought and Lack of –

water sources of (88.5%, 99.7%, 75.8% ,52.9% and 75.8%) respectively.

Biophysical factors

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total

Scarcity of rain 45.1% 54.9% 100 88.5% 11.5% 100 68.3% 31.7% 100

Climate variability 47.9% 52.1% 100 99.7% 30.6% 100 64.7% 35.3% 100

Soil fertility 22.5% 77.5% 100 75.8% 24.8% 100 2.9% 97.1% 100

Drought 54.9% 45.1% 100 52.9% 47.1% 100 97.8% 87.1% 100

Lack of – water sources 28.2% 71.8% 100 75.8% 24.2% 100 26.6% 73.4% 100

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.5"

35

Table 13, Constraints of forest resources utilization

Constraints

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total

Education about NR 50.0% %50.0 100 80.9% 19.1% 100 25.

2%

74.

8$

100

Lack of information 35.2% 64.8% 100 91.7% 8.3% 100 35.

3%

64.

7%

100

Lack of scientific

knowledge

69.0% 31.0% 100 96.2% 3.8% 100 66.

2%

33.

8%

100

Governance and

Institutional

Constraints

53.5% 11.8% 100 87.3% 12.7% 100 94.

2%

5.8

%

100

NR use limiting laws and

Regulations

67.6% 32.4% 100 87.3% 20.1% 100 97.

1%

2.9

%

100

36

Table 13 above also indicates that, on the lowland agro ecology more constraint the utilization

of forest was 80.9% of Education about NR depends on economic factors, 91.7% of Lack of

information depend on Lack of technology and input, depend up on Lack of knowledge and

law implementation respectively, midland, lowland and highland agro ecology more constraint

the utilization of forest were (69.0%, 96.2% and 66.2%) revealed that Lack of scientific

knowledge. on the lowland and highland agro ecology more constraint respectively, 87.3%

and 94.2%of Governance and Institutional Constraints . whereas, (67.6%,87.3% and 97.1% ) of

NR use limiting laws and Regulations on the midland, lowland and highland agro ecology

more constraint the utilization of forest were respectively.

4.4.4.4.3.4. Constraints to use Wildlife

From FGD and in-depth interview respondents revealed that the fast rate of logging or loss of

tree cover is relatively high. The current use of logging practices is often unsound and

unnecessarily destructive. Forest areas are cleared for farming. Consequently, there is

increasing soil erosion. In the study area especially lowland where the forest resources are

already fragile, the destruction of forests is serious. There is little sound forest development or

reforestation Habitat distractions, specious of wildlife are also decline.

4.4.5.4.3.5. Constraints to use Soil

Table 14, Biophysical Constraints

Biophysical factors

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total

Scarcity of rain 43.7% 56.3% 100 77.7% 23.3% 100 65.7% 36.7% 100

Climate variability 43.7% 56.3% 100 66.9% 33.1% 100 61.2% 38.8% 100

Soil fertility 43.7% 56.3% 100 77.7% 56.3% 100 64.7% 35.3% 100

Crops /livestock

damage by

Wildlife

36.65% 28.2% 100 66.9% 33.1% 100 66.9% 33.1% 100

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.5"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.5"

37

Drought 71.8% 28.2% 100 72.6% 27.4% 100 39.4% 60.6% 100

Lack of – water

sources

40.8% 60.6% 100 89.2% 10.8% 100 44.6% 55.4% 100

Topography 39.4% 83.1% 100 10.2% 89.8% 100 79.9% 20.1% 100

As table 14 above depicts, on the midland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization of

soil revealed that 71, 8% of Drought. While on the lowland agro ecology more constraint of the

utilization of soil revealed that scarcity of rain, Climate variability, Soil fertility, and Crops

/livestock damage by Wildlife, Drought and Lack of – water sources of (77.7%, 66.9%, 77.7%,

66.9%, 72.6% and 89.2%) respectively. while on the highland agro ecology more constraint of

the utilization of soil revealed that scarcity of rain, Climate variability and Soil fertility sources

of (65.7%, 61.2%, 64.7% and 79.9%) respectively.

Tables 15, Constraints of Soil utilization

Constraints

Agro ecology

Midland Lowland Highland

Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total

Education about NR 15.5% 84.5% 100 77.1% 22.9% 100 25.9% 74.1% 100

Lack of inputs (Seed,

Fertilizer and pesticide)

36.6% 59.0% 100 86.3% 13.7% 100 77.7% 22.3% 100

Shortage of irrigation 62.0% 46.5% 100 50.0% 50.0% 100 65.0% 35.0% 100

Lack of scientific

knowledge

53.5% 81.7% 100 89.8% 10.2% 100 59.7% 40.3% 100

Governance and

Institutional

18.3% 94.4% 100 11.5% 88.5% 100 65.0% 35.0% 100

Commented [BWM(59]: Don’t list all figures in text. Please revise according to the above comments.

38

Table 15 above also indicates that, on the lowland agro ecology more constraint the utilization

of soil was 77.1% of Education about NR depends on economic factors, from Lack of

technology and input respectively, 86.3% and 77.7% of Lack of inputs (Seed, Fertilizer and

pesticide) on the lowland and highland agro ecology more constraints. Even though, 62.0% and

65.0% Shortage of irrigation on midland and highland. depend up on Lack of knowledge and

law implementation respectively, midland, lowland and highland agro ecology more constraint

the utilization of soil were (53.5%, 89.8% and 59.7% in that order revealed that Lack of

scientific knowledge.

From FGD and in-depth interview respondents revealed that The unique topography, type of

soil, deforestation, intensive rainfall and low level of land management and the land use type

practiced have resulted in heavy runoff that induced soil erosion particularly in the lowland

and highlands. Soil erosion and lack of soil fertility is taking place all over the country but

because of the effect of overpopulation on land that is already fragile (steep and mountainous),

and mismanagement of the land itself, decline in soil fertility causes continuous cropping,

decline in manure application, little or no agronomic management, particularly cropping

systems decline in inorganic fertilizer use and, soil erosion. Diversity in the social,

topographic, agro-ecological and watershed setups adoption rate is slow. Erosion negatively

affects soil resources, lowers soil fertility and aggravates siltation of reservoirs, while

mechanisms for upland erosion are generally well understood (Haile et al., 2006).

.

4.4.6.4.3.6. Common constraints to show in the three agro ecology of bale eco region

Generally, as the study revealed that the following similar constraints to show in the three agro

ecology were as follows:

Poor market structure and information

Constraints

Commented [BWM(60]: Same comment. Revise.

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.5"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"

39

The lack of access to market in close proximity has greatly reduced the income that farmers

could have gained otherwise. Price information is random, some farmers get it from neighbors

or friends visiting the markets and some do not get it at all.

Lack of scientific knowledge

Limited knowledge of marketing to produce high value crops production facilities; inadequate

knowledge on utilization of natural resource, Inadequate knowledge base and low level of

knowhow of technical personnel on irrigation technologies (irrigation pumps, drip irrigation

system, fertilizer, post- harvest technologies, market opportunities and constraints, etc);

Inadequate baseline data and information on the development of water resources; Lack of

experience in design, construction and supervision of construction activities of constraints of

natural resource.

Governance and Institutional Constraints

The gaps identified in this regard include: lack of clarity in mandates, poor collaboration and

networking and poor handing over of irrigation systems. At all levels, there exists low

institutional capacity which is critical to enhance development of SSI with respect to

development planning, design, implementation and operation and maintenance including

irrigation advisory services.

4.4.7.4.3.7. Different constraints to show in the three agro-ecologies

Generally, as the study revealed that the following different constraints to show in the three

agro ecology were as follows:

On the midland agro ecology, about utilizing of land resource constraints was lack of

irrigation system observed and also at the lowland agro ecology, about utilizing of land

resource constraints was lack of knowledge and input where as at the highland agro ecology,

about utilizing of land resource constraints was lack of infrastructure and crops/livestock

damage by wild animal. Whereas, On the midland agro ecology; about utilizing of water and

forest resource constraints was lack of irrigation and NR use limiting law and regulation

implementations respectively. While, on the lowland and highland agro ecology; about

utilizing of water resource constraints was scarcity of rain and lack of irrigation. In other way,

on the midland and highland agro ecology; about utilizing of forest resource constraints was

NR use limiting law and regulation implementations respectively. Even though, on the

lowland agro ecology; about utilizing of soil resource constraints were drought or degradation,

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.38"

40

lack of soil fertility and erosion. As well as on the highland agro ecology was erosion and step

mountain farming was the main constraints.

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This Chapter is devoted to make short Conclusion and recommendation based on the

findings of this Study. As has been said to collect the required data, Questionnaires ,

Observation, In-depth Interview and Focus group discussion were used .The data Obtained

were organized analyzed and interpreted using total mean score and variance .

5.1. CONCLUSION

The main objective of this study was to investigate the natural resource usage constraints and

their temporal change in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia. Besides this, the target

populations of the study were all household heads in Bale eco- region, house hold heads in the

study kebeles in the eco-region. Target population is those households which are living in the

study kebeles during the study period and whose livelihood was dependent on natural resources

in the study area. . The cross sectional design was used, however, it is worth mentioning that

these findings might limit because of over a short period data collection. Despite these

limitations, the study came up with the following important findings.

The results support that natural resources such as forest, water and soil in the Bale Eco-region

are degrading. study revealed that the major trends in the bale eco region during the key

informant interview and formal household survey people confirmed that vegetation cover

changes have happened through time. In the previous time the vegetation cover of the area was

Commented [BWM(61]: Not important. Delete it

Commented [BWM(62]: This is not a conclusion but a repetition of what you discussed in the above section.

41

dense and had large land coverage. These large and dense vegetation covers had been declining

with time and were gradually reduced to only scattered trees on the farm land and disturbed

natural forest.

As study revealed that the Trends of natural resources over time in bale eco region were land

holding, soil fertility, erosion land use productivity, forest coverage , specious diversity,

number of wildlife, wildlife specious, stream flow, water quality and water accesses as study

revealed that there was significance difference or change. Whereas, trends of natural resources

like forest fragment and habitat distraction had been small significance difference.

Natural resource utilization in bale eco region

Compared to the low- and highland agro-ecologies, Llivelihoods in the mid agro-ecology of

the Bale eco-region land woredas strongly dependent on forest products. This indicates that

forest degradation has a strong negative effect on the livelihood of local communities living at

mid-altitude. Similarly, the decline in land productivity and soil fertility strongly influence

communities living in the highland areas. are closely joined to forest resources. Traditionally,

livelihoods across the case study area largely depended on a pastoralist transhumance system

known as godantu. The system revolves around seasonal forest grazing, with some members of

pastoralist communities in the lowland areas south of Harenna Forest moving into the forest

with their livestock cattle in particular—during the dry season (January to March) in search of

shade and livestock fodder. Today, considerable amounts of semi-wild coffee are harvested in

the Harenna Forest, providing a significant source of income for the local community. as well

as, Livelihoods in the highland woreda classily joined with farming or crop production.

The major natural resources utilization constraints in the three agro ecology

The major natural resource constraints are predominantly primitive nature of the overall

existing production systems, shortage of agricultural inputs and saving and credit systems,

limited access to improved irrigation technologies and inadequate research support, lack of

trained manpower and frequent staff turnover, and unstable institutional set up and inadequate

extension services and limited availability of capital. Social factors such as demographic

pressure, land shortage, and social and cultural aspirations affect the utilization of natural

resources. These socially driven forces lead to several activities with major changes in

Commented [BWM(63]: All these are already mentioned in the above section. In the conclusion section, you just mention major finding and the implication for natural resources management and livelihood. All these can be summarized in one sentence (see the example).

Commented [BWM(64]: Please see the example: how I summarized the key results and implication. Follow that example and revise the whole conclusion section. No sub-section under conclusion. The conclusion should be summarized as one paragraph (10-15 sentences maximum).

42

utilization NR and environmental characteristics such as deforestation, and new land

development. Some may argue that trees increase evapotranspiration during the dry season

thereby reducing the amount of water received by the soil, but in a steeping slope like in many

parts of the Ethiopian highlands, trees can reduce the velocity and increase infiltration

contributing to the more ground water recharge.

Limited land area and quality, lack of agricultural techniques, lack of irrigation water, low

yielding crop varieties, pests and diseases), and lack of market access. From the farmers’

perspective

The reduction of natural resource was caused by the effect of overpopulation of the livestock,

less use of fertilizer, degradation, no implementations of management.

5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the finding of the natural resource usage constraints and their temporal change in

Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia, the following possible solutions are suggested in hopes

that the problems would be resolved.

The management system that has been employed to protect natural resource from threat could not

prevent the NR from community interference. Therefore, revision on natural resource management plan

has to be considered.

Demands on natural forest are not only from the communities living around the forest but also

from pastoralist in the low lands of adjacent districts. Therefore, integrated rural development

intervention like, appropriate range land management, access to water etc should be carried

out.

Natural resource expert/ stakeholders have to encourage and facilitate the implementation wise

usage of natural resource to concerned community.

Finally, detailed research is necessary to identify the natural resource usage constraints and

their temporal change in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia.

Commented [BWM(65]: Revise this following the above example and merge and present in one paragraph.

Commented [BWM(66]: I think it is difficult to state these kinds of recommendations based on your study. Please look at your results, understand their implication. Then, you can suggest recommendations that can be supported by evidence generated by your study. In sum, your recommendations need revision.

43

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\

APPENDIXS- I

The purpose of this study is designed to gather data on the natural resource usage constraints

and their temporal change in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia. Since the success of the

study depends upon the responses that you provide, I will ask your genuine and accurate

response to each of the items. I would like to assure you that your response and answers remain

strictly confidential.

Thank you in advance!

Questionnaires HH

Please, don’t write your name

PART ONE: Background information of the household.

Instruction: - Please respond to the following questions by circling the number of your choice

Sex: 1. Female 2. Male

49

Age: 1. 18-28 2. 29-38 3. 39-48 4. 49 and above

Family Size: 1. 1-4 2. 5-8 3. 4. 9-12 5. 12 and above

Occupation: 1. government employed 2. Farmer 3. Pastoralist 4. Others

Education level: 1. 0 (illiterate) 2. 1-4 3. 5-8 4. 9-12 5. 12 and above

Livelihood mechanisms: 1. Crop production 2. Animal husbandry 3. Beekeeping 4. others

Instruction two: - Please respond to the following questions

1. What are the natural resources used to diversify your livelihood mechanisms?

2. Do you have the right to utilize NR?

3. What limits you to utilize the natural resources to increase your income?

Instruction three: Indicate your consensus by ticking √ mark on factors limiting you to

diversify your livelihood mechanisms. Make tick mark, if there is no level writes 0 in front of

the constraints.

Table1. Constraints in natural resource utilization

1. Biophysical

constraints

Level of effect of constraints on natural resources utilization

Land Water Forest wildlife Soil

Yes

No

Tota

l

Yes

No

Tota

l

Yes

No

Tota

l

Yes

No

Tota

l

Yes

No

Tota

l

.Scarcity of /heavy

rainfall

Climatic

condition(high/low

temperature)

Soil fertility

Limited land area

Low productivity land

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

50

Crops /livestock

damage by Wildlife

Drought

Shortage of gazing

land

Lack of – water

sources

Topography

2. Economic factors

Lack of

infrastructures

Education about NR

Lack of credit and

saving facilities

Inaccessibility of

market

3. lack of technologies

and inputs

Lack of technologies

Agricultural machinery

Lack of inputs

Shortage of irrigation

. Lack of information

Shortage of labor

4. Lack of knowledge

and law

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"

Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"

51

implementation

Lack of scientific

knowledge

Governance and

Institutional

Constraints

NR use limiting laws

and

Regulations

2 . How do you observe the temporal trend of natural resources in the Ecoregion?

Natural

resourc

es

Parameters of

trends

During SHARE intervention (Current Situation

)

Decrease No change Increasing

Land Holdings

Land use

change

Soil Fertility

Erosion

Forest Coverage

Fragmentation

Species

diversity

Wildlife Population

Habitat

destruction

Species

Wa

ter Stream flow

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"

52

Accessibility

Quality