Disaster Management

A PROJECT ON

Kinds and effects of disaster management

Submitted To:

Dr. Nuzhat Parveen Khan

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BY: Name: Ayush Bansal; Roll No: 07; B.A. LLB.(Hons.), 9th semester

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Dr. Nuzhat Parveen Khan , our professor, for providing the

help and guidance required during the entire stage of the project.

She helped form the research methodology till the end of this project. She inspired

us at every step of the way and I am very grateful for the help and support she

showed us for it would not have been possible to complete this project without it.

AYUSH BANSAL

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LIST OF CONTENTS:

Acknowledgment Methodology

1) INTRODUCTION

2) Definition and Meaning of Disaster

Definition Meaning

3) Some Important Term

What is Vulnerability What is Capacity What is Risk

4) Distinction Between Various Correlated Termonolgies

Emergence of Disaster Catastrophes & Disaster Accident & Disaster

5) Meaning of Disaster Management

Disaster Management Cycle

6) Kinds of Disaster

Natural Disaster Man-made Disaster Third kind of Disaster

7) Disaster: Causes

8) Effects and Impacts of Disaster

Physical & Biological Impact Economic Impact

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Social Impact Impact on Health & Nutritions Ecological/Environmental Impact

INTRODUCTION

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‘Disaster is a crisis situation that far exceeds the capabilities’.

                                                                                                             - Quarentelly, 1985.

The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology defines disaster as "sudden or great calamity". Similarly, the Collins Dictionary describes disaster as “an occurrence that causes great distress or destruction" .There is considerable disagreement over one single definition of 'disaster'. Whereas some people consider disaster as 'a grave emergency', others describe it as catastrophe, while still others as a major incident with a large number of casualties'. However, a disaster is commonly understood by the general public as a great misfortune or calamity. A simple definition of disaster would be 'a situation where the normal services have been overwhelmed and can no longer cope'. In the context of emergency planning, therefore, a useful working definition of a disaster is any event happening with or without warning causing and threatening death or injury, damage to property or the environment or disruption to the community which, because of the scale of its effects, cannot be dealt with by the emergency services and local authorities as part of their day-to-day activities.

Mother Nature is prone to disasters. Occurrence of disasters, in one form or another, can be treated to the very beginning of the Universe. History unfolds myriad instances of disasters that caused extensive loss of life and property, extreme human suffering, irreparable devastation, permanent changes in the environment and long- term displacement of lakhs of individuals. Its effects are not only immediate, affecting the present generation but also ongoing, multilating the future generations.

Disasters are frequently described in quantitative and statistical terms -the number of dead and injured, the extent of damage to buildings and other physical resources, the number of homeless, the ultimate economic costs. Yet for both victims and helpers it is the suffering the disaster brings -the human terror, anguish and despair that is most vital and people suffer not only physical damage, but also considerable psychological damage in disasters. The Police, who perform the central role in dealing with the problem, are therefore required to perform the role sympathetically, sensitively and with kindness. In addition, there is the potential for more casualties of the disaster to occur amongst members of the Police Service dealing with the event. The welfare,

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morale and stress issues of the Police force have to be attended to by the senior managers of the Police force in order to achieve best possible results.

India is one of the most disaster prone countries of the world. It has had some of the world's most severe droughts, famines, cyclones, earthquakes, chemical disasters, midair headon air collisions, rail accidents, and road accidents. India is also one of the most terrorist prone countries.

India was, until recently, reactive and only responded to disasters and provided relief from calamity. It was a relief driven disaster management system. India also has world's oldest famine relief codes. In recent times, there has been a paradigm shift and India has become or is becoming more proactive with emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness.

India traditionally accepted international help in responding to disasters. However, after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, India refused to accept international response assistance from foreign governments. Not only that, India deployed its defense personnel, medical teams, disaster experts, ships, helicopters, and other type of human, material, and equipment resources to help Sri Lanka, Mauritius, and Indonesia. It may be noted that India itself suffered from the tsunami and was internally responding at the same time. India is also lower income group country, while Indonesia is middle-income group country.

As the tsunami experience illustrates, disasters do not recognize or respect national geographic boundaries. In the increasingly globalized world, more disasters will be spread over many countries and will be regional in nature. India has set up an example of responding internally and simultaneously in neighboring countries for the other countries to follow.

In the academic year 2003-2004, India took a pioneering step of starting disaster management education as part of social sciences in class VIII. In the subsequent academic year 2004-2005 disaster management, was added to class IX. In the following academic years disaster management was progressively added to classes XI and XII. This was done by the Central Board of Secondary Education. Along with disaster management education in schools, India is also implementing community based disaster management program with the help of United Nations Development Program in all-hazard vulnerable districts. Some of the catastrophic disasters in recent times have led to changes in disaster policy and creation of new organizations. Policy changes include the enactment of Disaster Management Act, 2005 and development of the national disaster management response framework. The National Disaster

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Management Authority was established to spearhead in creation of culture of disaster resilience. The National Institute of Disaster Management itself and along with Disaster Management Cells in the states is providing training opportunities in disaster management.

Most major disasters occur largely as unforeseen events. Any reasonable prediction or anticipation of a catastrophic event usually results in action intended to reduce the 'probable' to at least the 'possible' and ideally to the 'most likely'. The obviousness of the point that disasters are unforeseeable is often overlooked during the process of post-incident enquiry when the clarity provided by hindsight reveals , the specific factors which could/should have been spotted and resolved in order to avoid the onset of the disaster. Given the relative infrequency of major disasters it is unrealistic to expect Police forces to have the necessary resources, skills and logistics to manage a major disaster. Although Police provides the initial response to an incident and, together with the other emergency services, conducts rescue and first aid activities, the sheer scale of a major disaster means that most of the core management functions involved in the post rescue phase are beyond the experience of most Police forces. This inexperience places high levels of strains on officers in management roles. An efficient management can do much to assist officers to cope with the onerous experiences associated with major disasters by way of planning in respect of predictable/foreseeable disasters and training, in general, for all types of disasters.

2. DEFINITION AND MEANING OF “DISASTER”

The term “disaster” has its genesis in the Greek word ‘astron’ meaning ‘bad star’. The word’s root denotes that when the stars are in a bad position, a disaster is about to happen. Hence, it was believed that great misfortunes were caused by an unfavourable position of the planets. The word descended to English language in the 16th century through French “désastre” and Italian “disastro” from Latin “dis astrum”. 1

2.1 DEFINITION:

1 The Latin pejorative dis denotes ‘against’ and astrum denotes ‘star’ which together means “star against”.

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According to Section 2 (d) of The Disaster Management Act, 2005 disaster means “a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence, affecting any area, arising from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area.”

In The Public Health Consequences Of Disaster, Dr. Eric. K Noji 2delineates disaster as a result of a vast ecological breakdown in the relation between humans and their environment, a serious or sudden event on such a scale that the stricken community needs extraordinary efforts to cope with it, often with outside help or international aid.

According to Smith K, “a disaster generally results from the interaction, in time and space, between the physical exposure to a hazardous process and a vulnerable human population”.

2.2 MEANING:

As per Chamber’s 20th Century Dictionary & Oxford Concise Dictionary disaster means ‘an adverse or unfortunate event’ and ‘a sudden or great misfortune’ respectively.

WHO defines Disaster as "any occurrence, that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community or area"

Etymologically three meanings are attributed to the term disaster:

1. A state of extreme and usually irremediable ruin. The term is used in this sense when there is a great and sudden calamity.

2. An event that brings terrible loss resulting in lasting distress, severe affliction and injury to life.

3. An act that has disastrous consequences. The term is used in this sense when there is total destruction or devastation

3. SOME IMPORTANT TERMS

2 Paper presented in Second Annual John C. Cutler Global Health Lecture at University of Pittsburgh on 29 th Sept. 2005.

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3.1 WHAT IS VULNERABILITY?

Vulnerability may be defined as “The extent to which a community, structure, services or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrains or a disaster prone area.”

Vulnerabilities can be categorized into physical and socio-economic vulnerability.

3.1.1 Physical Vulnerability: It includes notions of who and what may be damaged or destroyed by natural hazard such as earthquakes or floods. It is based on the physical condition of people and elements at risk, such as buildings, infrastructure etc; and their proximity, location and nature of the hazard.

It also relates to the technical capability of building and structures to resist the forces acting upon them during a hazard event.

3.1.2 Socio-economic Vulnerability: The degree to which a population is affected by a hazard will not merely lie in the physical components of vulnerability but also on the socioeconomic conditions. The socio-economic condition of the people also determines the intensity of the impact. For example, people who are poor and living in the sea coast don’t have the money to construct strong concrete houses. They are generally at risk and loose their shelters when ever there is strong wind or cyclone. Because of their poverty they too are not able to rebuild their houses.

3.2. WHAT IS CAPACITY?

Capacity can be defined as “resources, means and strengths which exist in households and communities and which enable them to cope with, withstand, prepare for, prevent, mitigate or quickly recover from a disaster”. People’s capacity can also be taken into account. Capacities could be:

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3.2.1 Physical Capacity: People whose houses have been destroyed by the cyclone or crops have been destroyed by the flood can salvage things from their homes and from their farms. Some family members have skills, which enable them to find employment if they migrate, either temporarily or permanently.

3.2.2 Socio-economic Capacity: In most of the disasters, people suffer their greatest lossesin the physical and material realm. Rich people have the capacity to recover soon because of their wealth. In fact, they are seldom hit by disasters because they live in safe areas and their houses are built with stronger materials. However, even when everything is destroyed they have the capacity to cope up with it.

Hazards are always prevalent, but the hazard becomes a disaster only when there is greater vulnerability and less of capacity to cope with it. In other words the frequency or likelihood of a hazard and the vulnerability of the community increases the risk of being severely affected.

3.3. WHAT IS RISK ?

Risk is a “measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a given area over a specific time period. Risk is a function of the probability of particular hazardous event and the losses each would cause.”

The level of risk depends upon:

Nature of the hazard

Vulnerability of the elements which are affected

Economic value of those elements

A community/locality is said to be at ‘risk’ when it is exposed to hazards and is likely to be adversely affected by its impact. Whenever we discuss ‘disaster management’ it is basically ‘disaster risk management’. Disaster risk management includes all measures which reduce disaster related losses of life, property or assets by either reducing the hazard or vulnerability of the elements at risk.

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Disaster Risk Reduction can take place in the following ways:

3.3.1. PREPAREDNESS

This protective process embraces measures which enable governments, communities and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively. Preparedness includes the formulation of viable emergency plans, the development of warning systems, the maintenance of inventories and the training of personnel. It may also embrace search and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for areas that may be at risk from a recurring disaster.

Preparedness therefore encompasses those measures taken before a disaster event which are aimed at minimizing loss of life, disruption of critical services, and damage when the disaster occurs.

3.3.2. MITIGATION

Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard and the vulnerable conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Therefore mitigation activities can be focused on the hazard itself or the elements exposed to the threat. Examples of mitigation measures which are hazard specific include water management in drought prone areas, relocating people away from the hazard prone areas and by strengthening structures to reduce damage when a hazard occurs.

In addition to these physical measures, mitigation should also aim at reducing the economic and social vulnerabilities of potential disasters.

4. DISTINCTION BETWEEN VARIOUS CORRELATED TERMINOLOGIES

There are distinguishable conceptual differences between various terms such as emergency, catastrophe, accident and disaster even though these terms are commonly used interchangeably. It would be worth mentioning these distinctions to understand the complexity of the concept of disaster.

4.1 EMERGENCIES AND DISASTERS

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Emergency is an unforeseen combination of circumstances that calls for immediate action or a serious occurrence that happens unexpectedly and demands immediate action. Emergency can be managed locally without the need of added response measures or changes to procedure. In comparison with an emergency, a disaster is an event that:

a) involves more groups which normally cannot interact in order to manage emergencies

b) quickly related to more and unfamiliar groups

c) requires involved parties to give up the usual autonomy to special response measures

d) changes the usual performance measures and

e) requires closer operations between public and private organizations.

In most of the cases, an emergency occurs when an immediate response is required consequent to a disaster and when local capacity is insufficient to address and manage any traumatic events. In such situation emergencies may involve deaths, injuries, displacement of people, disease, disability, food insecurity, damage or loss of infrastructure, weakened or destroyed public administration and reduced public safety and security. In disaster-affected countries, these situations often occur simultaneously, straining domestic capacity and disrupting economic and social activity.

4.2 CATASTROPHES AND DISASTERS

Catastrophes may be differentiated from disasters in the following lines. A Catastrophe is an event that,

a) prevents local officials performing their duties3

b) causes most community functions to cease and

c) prevents adjacent communities from providing aid.

For instance, Hurricane Katrina4 seriously damaged more than 90% of all homes in the affected areas in the United States. This made it unworkable for displaced victims to seek out shelter with close relatives and friends, as they

3 This is because most of the local officials may either be dead or be injured or be unable to communicate with or be contacted by the people or be unable to provide whatever information, skills etc. they used to provide.4 Hurricane Katrina, the eleventh named tropical storm which occurred from 25 th August 2005 was the most destructive and costliest natural disaster in the history of the United States.

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normally do in disaster situations. In contrast, only parts of a community are usually impacted even in major disasters. Though there exists these theoretical differences, both the terms are generally used interchangeably.

4.3 ACCIDENTS AND DISASTERS

It is essential to make distinctions between disasters and accidents for the reason that all accidents are not disasters. There are quantitative and qualitative differences between routine accidents and disasters. A disaster is not a big accident. The number of affected people and the magnitude differentiate an accident from a disaster. An air crash is unquestionably harsh and expensive, but the number of victims is relatively undersized; hence it is not a disaster although a big accident. In accidents the immediate victims are individuals, while in disasters, the community. In case of accident, there is neither substantial across-the board disruption of community life nor the devastation of neighborhoods. Life in the society would rather go on almost normally. It is only the victims and their family who would be directly affected by the reminiscences of accident. An accident may become a disaster if the number of victims is relatively great or if it directly affects the nearby localities.5

5. MEANING OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The consequences of disasters remind us about the inevitable need to have an effective and strong strategy for disaster management. The expression 'disaster management' encompasses various connotations with different perspectives.

Definitions of yesteryears concentrated only on post-disaster actions of calamity relief and rehabilitation. But the term covers still more broader scope. Modern disaster managers emphasis more on pre-disaster activities including mitigation and prevention than on post-disaster response.6 The contemporary definition on disaster management encompasses the complete sphere of disaster-related activities, covering situations that occur prior to, during, and 5 For instance, a train mishap that spreads fire to the nearby localities causing loss and injury to life and properties.6 For example housing specialists, setting-up a low-income housing project in a disaster-susceptible area, have the responsibility to mitigate the impact of a future disaster if the project incorporates disaster-resistant construction technologies. Likewise, agricultural development projects need to be planned and implemented in such a way as to prevent the environmental degradation and thus to lessen the farmer's vulnerability to losses from droughts, floods, cyclones etc. Further information is available at {http://dmc.engr.wisc.edu/courses/ aimscope/AA02-Ol.html}.

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after the disaster. It includes structural and non-structural measures to prevent or to limit the negative effects of disasters.

According to Section 2 (e) of The Disaster Management Act, 2005 Disaster Management means “a continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for:

i. prevention of disaster or threat of any disaster;

ii. mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences;

iii. capacity- building;

iv. preparedness to deal with any disaster;

v. prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster;

vi. assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster;

vii. evacuation, rescue and relief;

viii. rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Disaster Management means all aspects of planning, coordinating and implementing all measures which are necessary or desirable to prevent, minimize, overcome or to stop the spread of a disaster upon the people or any property and includes all stages of rescue and immediate relief.

United Nations Development Programme on Disaster Management defines disaster management as a body of policy, administrative decisions and operational activities required to prepare for, mitigate, respond to, and repair the effects of natural or man-made disasters.

Disaster management includes the range of activities designed to maintain control over disaster and emergency situations and to provide a framework for helping persons at risk to avoid or recover from the impact of the disaster.

Speaking on this point, the Supreme Court of India observed:

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"Disaster Management" means all aspects of planning, coordinating and implementing all measures which are necessary or desirable to prevent, minimize, overcome or to stop the spread of a disaster upon the people or any property and includes all stages of rescue and immediate relief. It is a proven fact that a lot of human suffering and misery from a large number of disasters can be mitigated by taking timely action, planning and preventive measures. It is possible only through well-functioning disaster-management framework. This will enable minimization, control and limit the effects of disasters and will streamline the disaster management exercises. The present relief-centered reactive approach after the striking of disaster needs to be changed into preparedness-oriented proactive attitude. This is the aim of pre-disaster preparations. Disaster-management plans have to play an integral role in this exercise. They are blueprints for the management of disasters. The disaster-management plans should contain the aspects of disaster prevention and of ways for its management in the untoward occurrence of a disaster. A proper plan will place the disaster-management exercise on a more firm foundation. Disaster-management activities should be integrated with the developmental activities. Incidentally, this is also the resolve of the Yokohama Strategy of the United Nations International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction, to which India is a party. There is an affirmative obligation on the part of the State to preserve and protect human life and property. This obligation is an integral element in fulfilling developmental endeavours. Therefore, disaster management cannot be separated from sustainable development.7

5.1 Disaster management cycle

Disaster management cycle includes the following stages/ phases

1. Disaster phase

2. Response phase

3. Recovery/ Rehabilitation phase

4. Risk Reduction/ Mitigation phase

5. Preparedness phase

Disaster phase – The phase during which the event of the disaster takes place. This phase is characterized by profound damage to the human society. This damage / loss may be that of human life, loss of property, loss of

7. N. D. Jayal v. Union of India 2004 (9) SCC 362 at 393.

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environment, loss of health or anything else. In this phase, the population is taken by profound shock.

Response phase – This is the period that immediately follows the occurrence of the disaster. In a way, all individuals respond to the disaster, but in their own ways. The ambulances and medical personnel arrive, remove the injured for transportation to medical camps or hospitals and provide first aid and life support. The public also take part in relief work. One can even find injured victims help other injured ones. Almost everyone is willing to help. The needs of the population during this phase are immediate medical help, food – ‘roti’, clothing – ‘kapda’ and shelter – ‘clothing’.

RECOVERY PHASE – When the immediate needs of the population are met, when all medical help has arrived and people have settled from the hustle – bustle of the event, they begin to enter the next phase, the recovery phase which is the most significant, in terms of long term outcome. It is during this time that the victims actually realize the impact of disaster. It is now that they perceive the meaning of the loss that they have suffered. They are often housed in a camp or in some place which is often not their house, along with other victims. During this time, they need intensive mental support so as to facilitate recovery. When the victims have recovered from the trauma both physically and mentally, they realize the need to return back to normal routine. That is, to pre-disaster life. During this phase, they need resources and facilities so as to enable them to return back to their own homes, pursue their occupation, so that they can sustain their life on their own, as the help from the government and other non governmental organizations is bound to taper in due course. Thus, they are provided with a whole new environment, adequate enough to pursue a normal or at least near normal life. This is called Rehabilitation.

RISK REDUCTION PHASE – During this phase, the population has returned to predisaster standards of living. But, they recognize the need for certain measures which may be needed to reduce the extent or impact of damage during the next similar disaster. For example, after an earthquake which caused a lot of damages to improperly built houses, the population begins to rebuild stronger houses and buildings that give away less easily to earthquakes. Or, in the case of tsunami, to avoid housings very close to the shore and the development of a ‘green belt’- a thick stretch of trees adjacent to the coast line in order to reduce the impact of the tsunami waves on the land. This process of making the impact less severe is called Mitigation.

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PREPAREDNESS PHASE – This phase involves the development of awareness among the population on the general aspects of disaster and on how to behave in the face of a future disaster. This includes education on warning signs of disasters, methods of safe and successful evacuation and first aid measures.

It is worth to note that the time period for each phase may depend on the type and severity of the disaster.

6. KINDS OF DISASTERS

When one talk about disasters, the first thing that comes to the mind is the destructive forces of nature. The instances where the equilibrium of the nature is disturbed by unforeseen and uncontrollable events are often treated as disasters. They may be termed as act of God which are literally speaking, events beyond the control of humans. At the same time disaster may be the result of a reckless or intentional human act. Such manmade disasters have far reaching ill-effects and are more severe in terms of Josses than natural disasters many a times. Whether it be natural or manmade, disaster brings about alarming catastrophe since it is a tragic event negatively affecting the life under earth in toto. Hence it becomes significant to study its varying forms, nature and causes.

6.1 NATURAL DISASTERS

A Natural phenomenon can easily turn into a natural disaster. Appearing to arise without direct human involvement, natural disasters or vis major are always a hard reality. A natural disaster may become more severe because of human actions prior, during or after the disaster itself. A specific disaster may spawn different types of events and may reduce the survivability of the initial event. A classic example is an earthquake that collapses homes, trapping people and breaking gas mines there and then to ignite, and burn people alive while trapped under debris. Human activity in risk areas may cause natural disasters. The following are some of the major kinds of natural disasters:

Earthquake

An earthquake is a sudden shift or movement in the tectonic plate in the Earth's crust. On the surface, this is manifested by a moving and shaking of the ground, and can be massively damaging to poorly built structures. The most powerful earthquakes can destroy even the best built of structures. In addition,

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they can trigger secondary disasters, such as tsunamis and volcanic eruptions. Earthquakes occur along fault lines, and are unpredictable. They are capable of killing hundreds of thousands of people which is evident from the recent mishaps in Gujarat, East Pakistan and Kashmir.

Earthquakes are caused by the motion of tectonic plates - individual sections that make up the Earth's surface like panels on a football. Immense strain accumulates along fault lines where adjacent plates meet. When the rock separating the plates gives way, sudden seismic ground-shaking movement occurs.

The Earth is made up of three main layers:

the core is at the centre of the Earth

the mantle is a mobile semi-molten layer around the core

the outer-shell of the Earth is called the crust. Scientists call this the lithosphere.

The crust is made up of 12 individual tectonic plates. Below the sea, they can measure three to six miles (4-9.6km) thick and under land this increases to 20-44 miles (32-70.8km). Below the crust, radiation from the Earth's core heats the semi-molten mantle to temperatures of over 5000°C. All fluids when heated - even molten rock - are affected by a process called convection. This makes hot liquid rise to displace cooler liquid, creating a current. Tectonic plates effectively float on the mantle, like crouton in a bowl of super-heated soup. But these plates are constantly moving due to the convection current.

The effects can be devastating since the combined annual force of earthquakes is equal to 100,000 times the power of the atomic bombs that flattened Hiroshima. The point where the seismic activity occurs is the epicentre, where the earthquake is strongest. But it doesn't always end there; seismic waves travel out from the epicentre, sometimes creating widespread destruction as they pass.

Tsunami

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A tsunami is a giant sea wave which rolls into the shore with a height of over 15 m (50 ft). It comes from Japanese words meaning tidal wave. A tidal wave is a large sea wave caused by a submarine earthquake or volcanic explosion. When the ocean floor is tilted or offset during an earthquake, a set of waves is created. These waves are similar to the concentric waves generated by an object dropped into the water. Tsunamis can be caused by undersea earthquakes as in the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake, or by landslides such as the one which occurred at Lituya Bay, Alaska.8 The tsunami generated by the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake currently ranks as the deadliest tsunami in recorded history.9

Usually tsunamis move entirely across an ocean to the shore. A tsunami can have wavelengths of 60 to 120 miles and may reach speeds of 800 km/h. When the wave enters shallow waters, the wave, which may have been half a meter high out at sea, grows rapidly. When the wave reaches the shore, it may be 50 ft. high or more. Tsunamis have incredible energy because of the great volume of water affected. They bring waves of destruction capable of killing thousands of residents along the coast. Towering walls of water have struck populated coastlines with such fury that entire towns have been destroyed.

Avalanche

An avalanche is a slippage of built-up snow down an incline, possibly mixed with ice, rock, soil or plant life in what is called a debris avalanche. Avalanches are categorized as either slab or powder avalanches. Avalanches are a major danger in the mountains during the winter as a large one can run for miles, and can create massive destruction of the lower forest and anything else in its path. For example, in Montroc, France in 1999; 300,000 cubic metres of snow slid on a 30 degree slope, achieving a speed of 100 km/h. It killed 12 people in their chalets under 100,000 tons of snow and 5 meters deep. The Mayor of Chamonix was charged with manslaughter.10

Cold

Extreme cold snaps are hazardous to humans and their livestock. When the temperature drops, caloric intake must increase to maintain body heat to help

8 On July 9,1958 a huge earthquake triggered a huge landslide at the board of Lituya Bay. The first and biggest wave was an incredible l,720ft/h.9 The morning of 26th December 2004 witnessed the largest Tsunami striking Indian Ocean.10 During World War I, over 60,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the mountain campaign in the Alps, many of which were caused by artillery fire. Source: {http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Avalanche}.

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shivering. In a 2003 Mongolian cold snap, almost 30,000 livestock animals perished due to excessive snow and cold.

Disease

Disease becomes a disaster when it spreads in a pandemic or epidemic as a massive outbreak of an infectious agent. Disease is historically the most dangerous of all natural disasters. Different epidemics are caused by different diseases, including the Black Death, smallpox, and AIDS. The Spanish flu of 1918 was the deadliest epidemic, it killed 25-40 million people.The Black Death which occurred in the 14th Century, killed over 20 million people, one third of Europe's population.11 Plant and animal life may also be affected by diseases, epidemics and pandemics.

Drought

Drought is a long-lasting weather pattern consisting of dry conditions with very little or no precipitation during this period, food and water supplies can run low, and other conditions, such as famine, can result. Droughts can last for several years and are particularly damaging in areas in which the residents depend on agriculture for survival. The Dust Bowl is a famous example of a severe drought.

Famine

Famine is a natural disaster characterized by a widespread lack of food in a region, and can be characterized as a lack of agriculture, foodstuffs, a lack of livestock, or a general lack of all foodstuffs required for basic nutrition and survival. Famine is always caused by pre-existing conditions, such as drought but its effects may be exacerbated by social factors, such as war. Particularly devastating examples include the Ethiopian famine12 and the Irish Potato famine.13

11 Black death is thought to have returned to Europe every generation with varying degrees of intensity and fatality until the 1700's. A series of plague epidemics also occurred in large portions of Asia and the Middle East during the same period, indicating that the European outbreak was actually part of a worldwide pandemic.12 Traditionally the Economy of Ethiopia was based on subsistence agriculture, with an aristocracy that consumed the surplus. Due to a number of causes, the peasants did not have incentives to either improve production or to store their excess harvest; as a result, they lived from harvest to harvest. Despite the extensive modernization ofEthiopia in the last 120 years, as of 2005 the overwhelming majority of the population are still peasants who live from harvest to harvest, and are vulnerable to crop failures.13 The Great Famine or the Great Hunger (Irish: An Gorta M6r or An Drochshaot), known more commonly outside of Ireland as the Irish Potato Famine, is the name given to a famine in Ireland between 1845 and 1849. The Famine was at least fifty years in the making, due to the disastrous interaction of British economic policy, destructive farming methods, and the unfortunate appearance of "the Blight" —the potato fungus that almost instantly destroyed the primary food source for the majority population. The immediate after-effects of the famine

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Fire

Fire is a natural disaster that may destroy ecosystems like grasslands or forests causing great loss of life, property, livestock and wildlife. Bush fires, forest fires and mine fires are generally started not only by lightning, but also by human negligence or arson and can burn thousands of square kilometers. An example of a severe forest fire is the Oakland Hills firestorm.14 A mine fire started in Centralia, Pennsylvania in 1962 decimated the town and continues to burn. Some of the biggest city fires are The Great Chicago Fire,15 The Great Fire of London16 and The San Francisco Fire.17

Flood

Flood is a natural disaster caused by too much rain or water in a location, and could be caused by many different sets of conditions. Floods can be caused by prolonged rainfall from a storm, including thunderstorms, rapid melting of large amounts of snow or rivers which swell from excess precipitation upstream and cause widespread damage to areas downstream, or less frequently the bursting of man-made dams. A river which floods particularly often is the Huang He in China and a particularly damaging flood was the Great Flood of 1993.18 The recent floods struck Tamil Nadu destroyed its agriculture produces and disturbed the normal life of several thousands of people.19

continued until 1851. The number of deaths is unrecorded, and various estimates suggest totals between 500,000 and more than one million in the five years from 1846.14 The Oakland Hills Firestorm occurred on Sunday October 20, 1991. The fire is often referred to as the East Bay Hills fire, since it struck the hills in both Oakland and Berkeley, California. The fire killed 25 people and injured 150, as well as destroyed 2,449 single-family dwellings and 437 apartment and condominium units. The economic loss has been estimated at $1.5 billion. The fire also threatened to destroy the historic Claremont Resort hotel. 15 The Great Chicago Fire was a conflagration that burned from October 8 to October 10, 1871, killing hundreds and destroying several square miles in Chicago, Illinois. Though the fire was one of the largest U.S. disasters of the nineteenth century, the rebuilding that began almost immediately spurred Chicago's development into one of the United States's most populous and economically important cities.16 The Great Fire of london was a major confligration that swept through the city of London from September 2 to September 5, 1666, and resulted more or less in the destruction of the city. Source : {http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Fire_of_ London}.17 San Francisco's great fire occurred as a result of a tremendous earthquake that took place in the morning of April 18, 1906. Fires began from stoves and lamps that were overturned from the earthquake. The earthquake destroyed the city's water mains, making it nearly impossible for firefighters to fight the blaze. As a result, the fire lasted for three days until firefighters decided to dynamite entire blocks to prevent the spread of the fire. This disaster took its toll, killing 3,000 people and destroying close to 300,000 structures. Source: {http://www.fire-extinguisherl01.com/biggest-fires.html}.18 The Great Flood of 1993 was a huge, costly, and devastating flood that occurred in the American Midwest from April to October of 1993. It was the worst such U.S. disaster since the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, as measured by duration, square miles inundated, persons displaced, crop and property damage, and number of record river levels. In some categories, it surpassed even the 1927 flood.Uniquely extreme weather and hydrologic conditions led to the flood of 1993.19 The Hindu, 5th December, 2005.

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Hail

Hailstorm is the natural disaster where a thunderstorm produces a numerous amount of hailstones which damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorms can be especially devastating to farm fields, ruining crops and damaging equipment. A particularly damaging hailstorm hit Munich, Germany on August 31, 1986, felling thousands of trees and causing millions of dollars in insurance claims. Skeleton Lake was named so after 300-600 people were killed by a hailstorm.20

Heat

Heat wave is a disaster characterized by heat which is considered extreme and unusual in the area in which it occurs. Heat waves are rare and require specific combinations of weather events to take place, and may include temperature inversions, katabatic winds, or other phenomena.The worst heat wave in recent history was the European Heat Wave of 2003.21

Hurricane

Hurricane is the low-pressure cyclonic storm system which forms over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated water which comes off the ocean and becomes a storm. The Coriolis Effect22 causes the storms to spin, and a

20 Skeleton Lake is a Himalayan lake in Roopkund in Uttaranchal (itself formerly part of LIttar Pradesh ), India the location of about three to six hundred skeletons. The location is uninhabited and is at an altitude of about 5,029 metres (16,500 ft.). The skeletons were discovered in 1942 when stumbled upon by a park ranger. At that time it was believed that the people died from an epidemic, landslides or a blizzard The carbon dating from samples collected at that time in the 1960s vaguely indicated that the people were from the 12th century to the 15th century. In 2004 a team of Indian and European scientists set off to the location to gain more information on the skeletons. Braving bitter cold weather and thin air, the team uncovered vital clues including jewelry, skulls, bones and a preserved body. DNA tests on the bodies revealed that there were two groups of people, a short group (probably local porters) and a taller group who were closely related. Though the numbers were not ascertained, it is believed that three hundred to six hundred people perished. Radio carbon dating of the bones also accurately pinpointed the time period to be in the 9th century predating the earlier inaccurate tests. After studying fractures in the skulls, the scientists in Hyderabad and London concluded that the people died not of disease but of a sudden hailstorm. The hail stones were as large as cricket balls, and with no shelter in the open Himalayas all of them perished.Furthermore with the rarefied air and icy conditions, many bodies were well preserved. With landslides in the area, some of the bodies made their way into the lake. Source: {http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleton_Lake}.21 The summer of 2003 was one of the hottest ever in Europe; this led to a health crisis in certain countries such as France, Italy,United Kingdom, Portugal, Switzerland etc. along with considerable impact on crops.22 The Coriolis effect is an apparent deflection of a moving object in a rotating frame of reference. The effect is named after Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, a French scientist, who discussed it in 1835, though the mathematics appeared in the tidal equations of Laplace in 1778.

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hurricane is declared when this spinning mass of storms attains a wind speed greater than 74mph. In different parts of the world hurricanes are known as cyclones or typhoons. The former occur in the Indian Ocean, while the latter occur in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. The most damaging hurricane in the United States was Hurricane Katrina, which hit the United States Gulf Coast in 2005.23

Impact event

Impact events are caused by the collision of large meteoroids, asteroids or comets (generically: bolides) with earth and may sometimes be followed by mass extinctions of life.24 The magnitude of the disaster is inversely proportional to its rate of occurrence, because small impactors are much more numerous than large ones.

Thunderstorm

Thunderstorm is a form of severe weather characterized by the presence of lightning and its attendant thunder, often accompanied by copious rainfall, hail and occasional snow fall and tornadoes. The coastal areas of India and low altitude planes are more vulnerable to thunder storms than a high altitude plane.

Tornado

A tornado is a natural disaster resulting from a thunderstorm.25 Tornadoes are violent currents of wind which can blow at up to 318mph. Tornados can occur one at a time, or can occur in large tornado outbreaks along a squall line. The worst tornado ever recorded in terms of wind speed was the tornado which swept through Moore, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999. This tornado had wind speeds of 318mph and was the strongest ever recorded.26

23 Hurricane, Katrina is the 200 years storm that hit the United States from August 2005 for the next four days.24 An extinction event (also extinction-level event, ELE) occurs when a large number of species die out in a relatively short period of time. Based on the fossil record , the background rate of extinctions on Earth is about two to five taxonomic families of marine invertebrates and vertebrates every million years.25 A tornado is defined as a violently rotating column extending from a thunderstorm to the ground. The most violent tornadoes are capable of tremendous destruction with wind speeds of two hundred and fifty miles per hour or more. Damage paths can be more than one mile wide and fifty miles long.26 Moore is a rapidly growing suburb located in Cleveland County, Oklahoma and is part of the Oklahoma City.The city was severely damaged by tornadoes on October 4, 1998 May 3, 1999, and May 8, 2003. The May 3 tornado was rated as the strongest and most destructive tornado to hit Earth.

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Volcanic eruption

The Volcano is the vent in the earth through which hot gases and molten rock rise to the surface. A cone shaped mountain of erupted material around such a vent is also called a volcano. The name is taken from Vulcano, an island north of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea. The island was given its name by the ancient Romans because it spewed smoke like vapour, and was thought be the home of Vulcan, their God of fire.

A Volcano consists of a fissure in the earth's crust, above which a cone of volcanic material has accumulated. At the top of the cone is a bowl-shaped vent called a crater. The cone is formed by the deposition of molten or solid matter that flows or is ejected through the vent from the interior of the earth. The study of volcanoes and volcanic phenomena is called volcanology. Most volcanoes are composite landforms built up partly of lava flows and partly of fragmental materials.27 Natural disaster may be caused by the eruption of a volcano, and eruptions come in many forms. They range from daily small eruptions which occur in places or extremely infrequent super volcano eruptions. Volcanos are particularly prone to causing other events like fires, lahars, mudflows, landslides, earthquakes, and tsunami.28

Waterspout

Waterspout is the tornadic weather phenomenon normally occurring over tropical waters in light rain conditions. They form at the base of cumulus-type clouds and extend to the water surface where winds pick up water spray. Waterspouts are dangerous to boats, planes and land structures. Many waterspounts occur in the Bermuda Triangle29 and are suspected of being the cause of the many missing ships and planes in that region.

Snowstorm

27 Italy's Mount Etna, in Sicily is an example of a composite cone.28 In successive eruptions, the solid materials fall around the vent on the slopes of the cone, while lava streams issue from the vent and from fissures on the flanks of the cone. Thus, the cone is built up of layers of fragmental materials and flows of lava, all inclined outward away from the vent. Some enormous, crater like basins, called calderas, at the top of long-dormant or extinct volcanoes, are eventually occupied by deep lakes, such as Crater Lake in Oregon. Some calderas are the result of cataclysmic explosions that destroy the erupting volcano. Others form when the subterranean magma chamber, emptied by repeated eruptions, can no longer support the weight of the volcanic pile above it. Therefore it collapses.29 The Bermuda Triangle (sometimes known as Devil's Triangle) is a 1.5-million-square-mile (4,000,000 km 2) area of ocean roughly defined by Bermuda, Puerto Rico, and the southern tip of Florida.

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Snowstorm is the winter storm in which the primary form of precipitation is snow. When such a storm is accompanied by winds above 32 mph that severely reduce visibility, it becomes a blizzard.30 Hazards from snowstorms and blizzards include traffic-related accidents, hypothermia for those unable to find shelter, as well as major disruptions to transportation, fuel and power distribution systems.

6.2 MAN-MADE DISASTERS

Disasters having an element of human intent, negligence, error or involving a failure of a system are called man-made disasters. Man-made disasters like power or telecommunication outages may be caused by thunderstorms, tornados or earthquakes and though the root cause is a natural phenomenon, they are considered to be man-made disasters. The following are the major kinds of manmade disasters.

Aviation

An 'aviation accident' is an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraf with the intention of flight and all such persons have disembarked, and ir. which any person suffers death or serious injury or in which the aircraft receives substantial damage while an 'aviation incident' is an occurrence other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft, which affects or could affect the safety of operations.31

This concept is more or less same for all the countries except as to minor variations, such as to the extent of aviation-related operations on the ground covered, as well as with respect to the thresholds beyond which an injury is considered serious or the damage is considered substantial.

Arson

Arson is the criminal intent of setting a fire with intent to cause damage. The definition of arson was originally limited to setting fire to buildings, but was later expanded to include other objects, such as bridges, vehicles, and private property. Arson is the greatest cause of fires in data repositories.

30 A blizzard is a severe weather condition characterized by low temperatures and strong winds (greater than 35 mph) bearing a great amount of snow, either falling or blowing.31 Definition as per the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board.

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CBRNs

A catch-all initialism meaning Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear. The term is used to describe a non-conventional terror or threat that, if used by a nation, would be considered as use of a weapon of mass destruction. This term is used primarily in the United Kingdom. Planning for a CBRN event may be appropriate for certain high-risk or high-value facilities and governments.

Civil disorder

Civil disorder is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe one or more forms of disturbance. Examples of disastrous civil disorder include, but are not necessarily limited to: riots, sabotage and other forms of crime. Although civil disorder does not necessarily escalate to a disaster in all cases, the event may escalate into general chaos. The riots of Bombay32 and Gujarat33are the best examples of the devastating effects of communal riots in India. The root causes of riots may be attributed to differences on the grounds of caste, creed, colour and sex.

Though we claim ourselves as a secular and welfare country, often it happens so that public tranquillity is being distrbed on account of external elements such as interest of political parties, aggressive executive actions and dominance of a majority religious group over minorities.

Power outage

A power outage is an interruption of normal sources of electrical power. Short-term power outages (up to a few hours) are common and have minor adverse effect, since most businesses and health facilities are prepared to deal with them. Extended power outages, however, can disrupt personal and business activities as well as medical and rescue services, leading to business losses and medical emergencies. Extended loss of power also interferes with law enforcement, creating opportunities for crime, including vandalism, looting, arson and violent crime, even leading to civil disorder, as in the New York City blackout of 1977.34 Only very rarely do power outages escalate to disaster

32 The riot of December 1992 had shaken Bombay and virtually the whole of the nation.33 February 27, 2002 is one date Gujarat and the rest of India would like to forget for this day sparked off unprecedented communal terror in Godhra and went on to envelope the rest of Gujarat. The world watched stunned as more than 1,000 people were killed in the ensuing bloodbath.34 The New York City Blackout of 1977 was a blackout that affected New York City on July 13-14, 1977. Unlike other blackouts that affected the region, namely the Northeast Blackout of 1965 and the 2003 North America blackout, the" 1977 blackout was localized to New York City alone and resulted in city-wide looting and other disorder, including arson.

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proportions, however, they often accompany other types of disasters, such as hurricanes and floods, which hamper relief efforts.

Public relations crisis

A public relation crisis may threaten the long term survival of an organization. For this reason, many organization's business continuity planning include PR crisis responses to control the delivery of bad news, the initial statements made to media and thereby control first impressions. A successfully managed PR crisis may actually improve public opinion about an organization. A poorly managed PR crisis may eventually bankrupt an organization.35 ,

Radiation Contamination

When nuclear weapons are detonated or nuclear containment systems are otherwise compromised, airborne radioactive particles (fallout) can scatter and irradiate large areas. Ionizing radiation is hazardous to living things, and in such a case much of the affected area could be unsafe for human habitation. The former Soviet Republic of Belarus was part of a scenario like this in 1986 after a reactor at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant suffered a meltdown. Often they are associated with industrial hazards resulting in mass killing.36

Space Disasters

A telecommunications outage is not immediately a disaster, however, an extended telecommunications outage can strain a company's ability to stay solvent by cutting them off from their clients, vendors and business partners. For this reason, business continuity planning normally addresses the possibility of an outage on the organization's core functions. A telecommunication outage at the same time as another disaster may exacerbate the serverity of the incident by hampering disaster response teams. It may also iinclude the failure in the functions of space objects ,thus culminating in the destruction of man power and resources. The recent space crash in USA killing seven astronauts including India's Kalpana Chawla is one among such shocking mishaps.

Terrorism

35 Even the attack by Terrorist group Al-Quieda on the United States on September 11, 2001 may be attributed towards a public relation crisis resulting from lack of business continuity planning.36Another disaster that shocked the conscience of humanity was the Bhopal Gas Leak Tragedy on 3 rd December 1984, where the leakage of Methyl Isocyanate in the Union Carbide plant killed thosands of innocent lives.

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Terrorism is a controversial term with multiple definitions. One definition means a violent action targeting civilians exclusively. Another definition is the use or threatened use of violence for the purpose of creating fear in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological goal. Under the second definition, the targets of terrorist acts can be anyone, including civilians, government officials, military personnel, or people serving the interests of governments. Whatever may be the ulterior motive of the terrorists, mostly the victims are innocent civilians and what to be noted here is that terrorist attacks always ends up with a threat to the national sovereignty and as a consequence people loosing faith in their Government. The attack on USA in 2001 by the infamous AL-Quieda group gives us the clear idea of the strength and power of those terrorist groups daring to fight even against the biggest capitalist nation. The recent bomb blasts took place in the capital Delhi (on 23 October, 2005) reminds us that even we are not free from the terror of an attack challenging our sovereignty.

War

War is a conflict, between relatively large groups of people, which involves physical force inflicted by the use of weapons. Warfare has destroyed entire cultures, countries, economies and inflicted great suffering on humanity. Other terms for war can include armed conflict, hostilities, and policeaction. Acts of war are normally excluded from insurance contracts and disaster planning. War negatively affects the human rights of masses often violating the principles of humanitarian law.There is a great need to include such warfare within the purview of disaster management on account of India's commitments in the international level to implement human rights and humanitarian law.37

6.3 THIRD KIND OF DISASTERS

Apart from these two categories of disasters, there is a third kind of disasters, may be the most dangerous one with respect to natural environment and human security. This is mainly the resultant of the developmental activities of the state as part of its triumph to keep in pace with the standards set out by globalisation. India being a developing country will have to face many consequences in establishing the global standard in the light of its current economic policies.

Globalisation has been defined as the process by which increasing integration of the national economies into expanding international markets takes place. 37 See The Geneva Conventions, 1948 to which India is a party.

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The most important international economic characteristic of the last two decades has been the emergence of a single integrated global economy, which is forcing all the national economies to restructure. Hence globolisation means the shift in the global distribution of industrial capacity from developed to developing countries because manufacturing will thrive where there are lower costs of labour, no significant decline in labour productivity, less restrictive conditions of production, lower land and other facility costs, tax advantages etc.

Developmental Activities of State

Of the many causes that will contribute to environmental degradation, the four most critical are,

1. Construction of dams affecting the right to life of poor rural population

2. Deforestation to accelerate planning of developmental projects

3. Depletion of Ozone layer in the atmosphere due to the reckless activities of industrialists

4. Issues of global warming.

Though there are international documents and conventions to which India is also a party to fight against the evils of environmental degradation,38

inadequate infrastrucutral services and poor organizational base to guide, regulate and foster development is the main reason for the disproportionate use of natural resources by Indian population.

7. DISASTER : CAUSES

Todays world witness a large number of disasters of different gravity and amplitude. Time and again the nature of calamities and the forces behind the vast destruction so changes that the proper management of this worst situation becomes very difficult. While looking in to the causes of disasters it is seen that most of the catastrophes are related more to the negligent and reckless activities of man than its close connection with the indivisible forces of nature. These are the important causes of disasters from the point of view of its link with intentional human acts. The major causative factors may be examined under the following headings:

38 The Stocsholm Declaration, 1972; The Rio Conference, 1992 etc.

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Industrialization

Disaster whether it be natural or manmade, brings out casualities of far reaching consequences. Due to the advent of new technologies as means of economic development new avenues of technological disasters are bound to occur. Industrialization has brought out developments on the one side and catastrophes on the other side as is evident from the tragedies happened at Chernobyl Plant in Russia and Union Carbide Plant in Bhopal. These major industrial disaster tragedies causing death and serious injury to several thousands of helpless people had generated wide spread public concern and brought to the notice of the public the need for a comprehensive disaster management plan.

Corruption

It is a common knowledge that power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Often the authorities who are assigned the task of proper management of the situation, show a tendency to meddle with the money and as a result the needy do not get the benefit to the fullest extent. The bureaucrats and the high level politicians eat out the funds and the general public are devoid of the opportunity to have any information rather adequate knowledge of the situation. This shows the issues of lack of proper management or inherent administrative failures requiring an indepth study about the problem and the issues coming out of that.

8. EFFECTS AND IMPACTS OF DISASTERS

Natural and man-made disasters cause enormous loss of life and property every year in India. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, and landslides have become recurrent phenomena and also strikes, bandhs, and civil commotion. Disasters have several physical, economic, social, and environmental effects and impacts and cause immense misery to people and animals living in the hazard-prone areas.

Calamities or catastrophes, the result will be the substantial loss of lives and property. Natural disasters have the extent of destructing the entire population and other resources whereas manmade disasters do result in irreparable damages for leaving its hazardous effect even for the future generations. Industrial disasters such as Bhopal gas leak tragedy and Chernobyl accident or atom bomb attacks in Hiroshima and Nagasaki have sown the poisonous seeds

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to such a huge maximum that children born to the inhabitants even now are becoming the victims of physical as well as mental disabilities.

Disasters happening in one country need not be limited to the frontiers of that country alone. Often the disasters have trans-boundary effect and issues such as environmental degradation, destruction and disruptions in basic amenities i.e. food, shelter and scarcity of potable water. Eruption of diseases and lack of communicative facilities bring down the chances of curbing the ill effects of disastrous forces within and outside the country. A proper and adequate disaster mitigation plan is important to meet the requirements in this regard.

Some of the major effects and impacts of disasters are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs:

8.1. Physical and Biological Impacts

Droughts evoke scenes of men and women with worn faces, dying animals, wilting crops, parched fields and dried up rivers and lakes, and floods cause water-logging of crops in low lying areas, collapse of buildings and bridges, disruption of road and rail traffic, breaches in dams and canals, pollution of water bodies, and the consequent water-borne diseases. In the decade, 1990-2000, on average, 4,344 people lost their lives and 30 million people were affected by disasters in India every year .

The Orissa Cyclone (1999) and Bihar floods (2004) affected almost all the coastal districts of Orissa and a few inland areas also. It is estimated that some 166.69 lakh people were affected by the cyclone. Similarly, in the 2001 Gujarat Earthquake, more than 14,000 lives were lost, 10 lakh houses were damaged and the assets worth Rs. 15,000 crore were damaged / lost (GOI, 2004:33). The Bhopal gas leakage in 1984 - a chemical disaster- took away 16,000 lives, and affected almost two lakh people. 9 The Committee was set up in August 1999 by the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi, with the approval of the Prime Minister of India. In its Interim Reports I and II, it has proposed, inter alia, the draft of a National Act, and a model State Disaster Management Act.

In droughts, water bodies including tanks and wells dry up, causing acute scarcity of water. Consequently, the problem of drinking water gets accentuated. For example, as a result of drought of the year 2000 in Gujarat, 25 million people in 9500 villages, four metros, and 79 towns were hit by

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drinking water scarcity39. The animals were the worst affected. In the drought conditions, it is almost impossible to get fodder and water for them. In the recent droughts, for example, thousands of cattle perished in many states because of the deficiency of fodder and drinking water.

India's rural and urban infrastructure including roads has been badly damaged due to disasters over the years and is degrading further with each flood or cyclone. Huge investments in infrastructure are envisaged in the Union Budgets year after year, but there is no provision made for the replacement of the damaged infrastructure.

8.2. Economic Impacts

Natural and man-made disasters cause immense loss of life, property and livelihoods every year. For example, according to an estimate made by the Ahmedabad-based Disaster Management Institute (DMI), India has suffered direct disaster losses of US $ 30 billion over the last 35 years, that is, almost US $ 1 billion a year. On average, almost two per cent of India's GDP is lost in disasters every year (TOI, 2004). A disaster like the Gujarat Earthquake of 2001 or Orissa Super Cyclone of 1999 can slow done the growth rate to up to two percent in the year immediately following the disaster. In droughts, due to the lack of water for irrigation, crops in the field perish, resulting in the fall of the crop production and consequent loss of income to farmers. For example, in Gujarat, an estimated loss of agricultural production worth Rs. 40,000 million during the drought of 2000 was reported (IRMA - UNICEF, 2000:5). There is a large scale destabilization of economy because of the loss of agricultural production and incomes, resulting in the overall fall in other rural economic activities allied to agriculture. The plight of daily wage labourers becomes distressing.

According to an estimate made by the DMI based on micro-studies, up to 10 per cent of rural poor suffer the loss of work and employment or assets due to disasters every year in India. And yet, the current employment generation programmes do not directly target the 100 days of employment guarantee to those vulnerable to cyclones, floods or droughts. In the absence of work, they become incapable of even hand to mouth existence. This is evidenced by reports of starvation deaths in print and electronic media from parts of the country hit by droughts. They deserve the highest priority as the target group for provision of employment and institutional credit.39 IRMA - UNICEF, 2000

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8.3. Impact on Health and Nutrition

In Gujarat, nearly half of the children aged less than five years are malnourished. The problem is, however, not inadequate food, but inadequate feeding, which is critically linked to drought. Droughts can affect feeding adversely in many ways, e.g., reduced food availability, less time available for food preparation as well as for child feeding, or adult care-providers being away for wage earning. Anemia and Vitamin A deficiency in the children and women are the major micronutrient deficiencies that are precipitated in situations of water scarcity. As these nutrients are found in green leafy vegetables and other protective foods, water shortage limits their availability. While anemia results from the deficiency of iron, it causes serious health problems. It is directly responsible for predisposing to mortality in women and children. Similarly, Vitamin A deficiency leads to permanent loss of eyesight in children and predisposes them to infections. Vitamin A deficiency, iron deficiency and Iodine Deficiency Disorders are three common micronutrient-related problems in Gujarat, which have critical associations with drought.

Besides irreversible blindness in children, Vitamin A deficiency increases the risk of death due to common childhood illnesses, particularly measles. Prevalence of Vitamin A deficiency ranges from 1.1 % in Surat to 8.6 % in Panchmahals. Children between 6 months and 3 years of age are most vulnerable to it. Foods rich in Vitamin A like green leafy vegetables and yellow fruits (papaya, mango etc) become most scarce during droughts, which may precipitate severe deficiency of this nutrient among children.

During periods of drought, there are greater chances of gastro-intestinal infections. These range from diarrhea, which is often fatal due to consequent dehydration in children, to infections such as typhoid and hepatitis that have serious impact on adult populations as well. Epidemics are a threat during droughts unless meticulous care is taken to ensure that drinking water supply is safe.

To supplement family income during periods of droughts, women engage in wage earning activities that require a lot of physical labour. This puts additional physical strain on women, particularly if they are pregnant. Such women give birth to babies with low birth weight. It is estimated that about one-third of the babies in Gujarat are less than optimum birth weight of 2.5 kg. They are at a greater risk of death in infancy. Thus drought can potentially worsen the situation and thwart efforts to bring down IMR.

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CONCLUSION

Identifying and mapping of potential risk zones, conserving natural resources, utilizing renewable energy and regulating migration are some of the important steps to be taken in formulating an adaptive mechanism. Devising rehabilitation programmes by relocating people, formulating policies for insurance, rehabilitation and compensation with the help of the State and Central Government bodies and International agencies are essential for the vulnerable community. Long-term plans may be linked up with short-term disaster management plans and separate fund may be generated to achieve the objective. Seeking national and international support for both areas from and to which migration has taken place is necessary to protect the natural environment and thus to mitigate the effects of disasters.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRIMARY SOURCES

THE DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT,2005

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SECONDARY SOURCES

BOOKS

Disaster Management Law ,The Indian Law Institute New Delhi. Edited By Vishnu Konoorayar Jaya V.S.

Environmental Law By P.S.Jaswal and Nishta Jaswal

Gupta, Kailash. Forthcoming. “Bhopal Chemical Disaster” in Encyclopedia of Disaster Relief, edited by K. Bradley Penuel, Matthew Statler, and J. Geoffrey Golson. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Kapur Anu, Neeti, Meeta, Deeptima, Roshani, and Debanjali. 2005. Disasters in India: Studies of Grim Reality. Jaipur, India: Rawat Publications

Legal Aspects Of Disaster Management & Rehabilitation: Indian Scenario – Dr. Francis Julian.

Scanlon, Joseph T. 2005. “Forward” in What is a Disaster? New Answers to Old Questions edited by Ronald W Perry, and E. L. Quarantelli. New York, N.Y.: Xlibris Corporation. p 15

Disaster Management in India - Dr. K.N. Chandrashekharan Pillai.

Waste Management vis a vis Disaster Management – Dr.V.Sudesh

NEWSPAPER

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THE TIMES OF INDIA

THE HINDUSTAN TIMES

THE HINDU

INTERNET SOURCES

http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/chapt1.html

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/ICT_for_Disaster_Management/Introduction

http://ndmindia.nic.in/EQProjects/Disaster%20Management%20in %20India%20-%20A%20Status%20Report%20-%20August%202004.pdf

http://www.unisdr.org/eng/country-inform/reports/India-report.pdf

http://www.karmayog.com/disastermgt/dosdontsdisastermgt.htm

http://www.gisdevelopment.net/aars/acrs/2000/ts8/hami0001b.asp

http://amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA20/015/2004/en

http://www.mp.gov.in/bgtrrdmp/default.html

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