module 2 leading small teams

8/11/2019 Module 2 Leading Small Teams

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MODULE 2

ASIAN ACADEMY OF BUSINESS AND COMPUTER

ENG 111. ENGLISH COMMUNICATION SKILLS

COMPTENCY-BASED LEARNING MODULE ON

LEADING

SMALL TEAMS

By:

RIZZA R. RENOMERONNational Assessor for VG NC IIICA-VGD0313140909003

SHERYL R. MORALESNational Assessor for BKP NC III

CA-BKP0313140911226


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MODULE 2

.

LEADING SMALL

TEAMS

Information Sheet 1 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Information Sheet 2 TEAM STRUCTURE

Information Sheet 3 TEAM ROLES

Information Sheet 4 GROUP PLANNING &

DECISION MAKING

ASIAN ACADEMY OF BUSINESS AND COMPUTERS


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MODULE TITLE LEADING SMALLL TEAMS

DESCRIPTION:

This module covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes requiredto lead in the dissemination and discussion of ideas, information

and issues in the workplace

Language is the most commonly used medium of self-expresssionin all spheres of human life - personal, social and professional.

COURSE OBJECTIVE: Students completing this module will be able to: Communicate informaiton

about workplace processes; Identify team structure and team roles;and Participate in group planning and decision making.

CONTENTS: Information Sheet 1 Communication Process

* Effective communication* Communication process and key elements* Barriers in communication

Information Sheet 1.1 Types of Communication

* One-Way communication* Two-Way communication* Transaction* Forms of Oral communication

Information Sheet 2 Team Structures

* Team* Stages of Team Development

Self-Check 1

Self-Check 1.1

Self-Check 2

Information Sheet 3 Team Roles

* Team Mision and Vision* Team Operating Process* Team Task Roles* Team Building

Self-Check 3

Information Sheet 4 Group Planning and Decision Making

* Group Planning Process* Planning for Decision Making* Decision Levels* Some Techniques for Decision Making

Self-Check 4



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LEARNING GUIDE

Learning Steps Resources

1. Read Information Sheet 1 onCommunication process

2. Answer Self-Check

3. Read Information Sheet 2 on TeamStructures


5. Read Information Sheet 3 on TeamRoles


7. Read Information Sheet 4 Group

Planning and Decision-making8. Answer Self-Check

Information Sheet 1

Self-Check 1

Information Sheet 2

Self-Check 2

Information Sheet 3

Self-Check 3

Information Sheet 4

Self-Check 4

MODULE 2

LEAD SMALL TEAMS

Module 2. Lead small te



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Communication is defined as a process by which we assign and conveymeaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a

vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening,

observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. Use of these

processes is developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home, school,

community, work, and beyond. It is through communication that collaboration

and cooperation occur.

Communication maybe verbal or non-verbal, depending on the medium used.

Verbal communication uses either the written or spoken language. Non-verbal

communication makes use of non-linguistic symbols such as sign language,

facial expressions, and body language.

Effective Communication

A good working definition for effective communication is to share meaning and

understanding between the person sending the message and the person receiving

the message. The key element is understanding. So in order to be an effective

communicator, we must first and foremost be understood in our various

communications.

INFORMATION SHEET 1

COMMUNICATION PROCESS




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COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND KEY ELEMENTS

The communication process is a simple model that demonstrates all the factors that

can affect communication. Communication is effective if the message that is

received is the same one that is sent.

A. Sender The communicator or sender is the person who is sending the

message. There are two factors that will determine how effective the

communicator will be. The first factor is the communicators attitude. It must bepositive. The second factor is the communicators selection of meaningful

symbols, or selecting the right symbols depending on your audience and the right

environment.

B. Message A communication in writing, in speech, or by signals

C. Receiver The receiver is simply the person receiving the message, making

sense of it, or understanding and translating it into meaning. Now think about this

for a moment: the receiver is also a communicator. How can that be? (When

receiver responds, he is then the communicator.) Communication is only

successful when the reaction of the receiver is that which the communicator

intended. Effective communication takes place with shared meaning and

understanding.




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D. Channel It is a medium through which a message is transmitted to itsintended audience, such as print media or broadcast (electronic) media.

If the wrong channel is used for the content and intent of the message they might

get lost. For example, when a supervisor asks one of his employees to come and

see him in his office, the message might not be perceived the same if ommunicated

in person or through a note left on the employees desk.

E. Feedback Feedback can be a verbal or nonverbal reaction or response. It can

be external feedback (something we see) or internal feedback (something we cantsee), like self-examination. Its the feedback that allows the communicator to

adjust his message and be more effective. Without feedback, there would be no

way of knowing if meaning had been shared or if understanding had taken place.

Discuss that communication is a two-way process. The information goes out to a

person on the other end. There is a sender and a receiver. Simply put, effective

communication is getting your message across to the receiver. It is the senders

responsibility to make sure that the receiver gets the message and that the message

received is the one sent.

Communicating is not an isolated series of one skill, it involves several skills. For

example, speaking involves not only getting your message across but also being

able to listen and understand what others are saying (active listening) and

observing the verbal and nonverbal clues in order to monitor the effectiveness of

your message.

BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION

Have you ever been talking to someone and they misunderstand what you weresaying? Why do you think that happens. At any point in the communication

process a barrier can occur. Barriers keep us from understanding others ideas and

thoughts. Barriers can appear at any point of the communication loop. There are

two types of barriersinternal and external.




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Examples of internal barriers are: Fatigue

poor listening skills

attitude toward the sender or the information

lack of interest in the message

fear

mistrust

past experiences

negative attitude

problems at home lack of common experiences

emotions.

Examples of external barriers include:

noise

distractions

e-mail not working

bad phone connections

time of day sender used too many technical words for the audience

environment.

Barriers keep the message from getting through. When communicating, watch out

for barriers. Monitor the actions of the receiver. Watch her body language; check

to make sure the message the receiver received is the one sentask questions and

listen.




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A. Directions: The illustration below represents the process of communication.Each part is labeled with letters A-H. Following the illustration are seven

statements that give a communication situation. Choose the part from the

illustrated precess that best represents the underlined wordsin the situation given.

Note: Be sure that your choice matches the underlined portion of the statement

rather than the statement as a whole.

_____ 1. The State of the Union Address by the president is being broadcast on

public television.

_____ 2. Paul cannot quite hear Janas speech because there is a fire truckwailing outside the window.

_____ 3. Christyis giving a speech on air pollution.

_____ 4. Frank listens intentlyand seems to understand Sams speech about the

Civil War.

_____ 5. Pam nods her head in agreementas she listens to Jenny speak.

_____ 6. Juan tells Bob about the football gamehe watched on TV last night.

_____ 7. Joe uses the telephoneto order the pasta pot after watching an

infomercial on TV

_____ 8. Marys cell phone drops the signalwhen she is talking to her friend.

SELF-CHECK 1




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B.Multiple Choice

_____ 1. The receivers response to a message is what part of the communication

process?

A.Channel B. Feedback C. Noise

_____ 2. What is something that interferes with a message and is usually

temporary?

A.Intensity B. Noise C. Channel

_____ 3. This keeps the message from getting through. One example is noise.

A. Barrier B. Message C. Channel

_____ 4. A barrier can be external or internal in nature. True or False

A. True B. False

_____ 5. Its the feedback that allows the communicator to adjust his messageand be more effective.

A. True B. False




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Types of Communication

A. Self-Action or One-Way Communication

It is focused on getting the message to the receiver. Self-action treats

communication as a manipulation of others. It is very message centered. There is

no way to know if the meaning is shared between the sender and the receiver.

B. Interaction or Two-Way Communication.

This approach recognizes the role of the receiver as a communicator through

feedback. It is message centered and is a very simplistic view of the

communication process. Feedback allows senders to see if their message got

across.

C. Transaction

This approach focuses on meaning and sharing by accounting for all other factorsin the communication process. It is concerned with the barriers that might affect

the communication. Transaction is best described as effective communication. This

is when the communication process is applied and carried out completely. The

sender gives a message that is passed on to the receiver. In return, the receiver can

give clear feedback that allows the sender to know whether or not the message was

perceived as intended. If the message wasnt received as intended, then the sender

will continue the communication process again in order to ensure effective

communication.

Now that you know all three types of communication, we can reflect and evaluate

our own communication approaches in different roles and situations. Knowing the

three approaches to communication will help us to

be aware of our types, when they occur, and how to improve our communication

and create clear transactions.

INFORMATION SHEET 1.1

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION




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FORMS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

a. Dyadic Communication

Dyadic or two-person communication is the basic form of oral

communication. I t involves the sharing of ideas or information between two

persons who alternate as speaker and listener. Examples of this form are chit-

chat between two friends, and an interview between a job applicant and a personal

officer.

b. Small-Group Communication

Small-group communication is a collaborative and systematic sharing of

ideas and information among three to eight persons in order to reach a consensus

or a common solution to a problem, or to obtain facts. Examples of this form are

committee or board meeting, panel discussion, and symposium.

c. Large-Group Communication

This consists of a speaker who addresses a considerably large audience. Itrequires thorough preparation on the part of the speaker.

d. Mass Communication

This form of communication may be done through either printed or oral

medium. If it is oral, it utilizes the airwaves. Through the electronic media such as

radio and television, the message reaches a very large audience (nationwide or

worldwide) instantaneously and simultaneously.




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A. Multiple Choice.

_____ 1. Two friends passing notes during classwould be an example of what

kind of communication?

A. Large Group communicationB. Small Group CommunicationC. Dyadic Communication

_____ 2. What would the Top 9 at 9 countdown on KGNC radio stationbe an

example of?

A.Large Group communicationB.Small Group CommunicationC. Mass Communication

_____ 3. A candidate making a campaign speech before a large audience in

the community center would be an example of what kind of

communication?

A.Large Group communicationB.Small Group Communication

C.Mass Communication

_____ 4. Small group communication involves three to eight people that share a

common goal.

A.TrueB.False

_____ 5. It is focused on getting the message to the receiver. Self-action treats

communication as a manipulation of others. There is no way to know

if the meaning is shared between the sender and the receiver.

A.Self-Action or One-Way CommunicationB.Interaction or Two-Way Communication.C.Transaction

SELF-CHECK 1.1




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Teamcomprises a group of people or animals linked in a common purpose. Teamsare especially appropriate for conducting tasks that are high in complexity and

have many interdependent subtasks.

A group in itself does not necessarily constitute a team. Teams normally have

members with complementary skills and generate synergy through a coordinated

effort which allows each member to maximize his or her strengths and minimize

his or her weaknesses.

Today we find all kinds of teams in society, and they generally fall into one of twoprimary groups: permanent teams and temporary teams. Here are some of the

common types:

1. Task Force- a temporary team assembled to investigate a specific issue or

problem.

2. Problem Solving Team- a temporary team assembled to solve a specific

problem. They are typically of 5 to 12 people from the same

field/ department who meet for a few hours each week todiscuss ways of improving quality, efficiency and the work

environment.

3. Product Design Team- a temporary team assembled to design a new product or

service.

INFORMATION SHEET 2

TEAM STRUCTURES




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4. Committee- a temporary or permanent group of people assembled to act uponsome matter.

5. Work Group- a permanent group of workers who receive direction from a

designated leader.

6. Work Team(also called Self-Directed Work Team or Self-Managed Work

Team) - an ongoing group of workers who share a common

mission who collectively manage their own affairs within

predetermined boundaries.

7. Quality Circle (today also under various other names) - a group of workers

from the same functional area who meet regularly to uncover and solve work-

related problems and seek work improvement opportunities.

The name of the group or team type is less important than the purpose for which it

exists. These names simply give us a common language to help us define team

types.

8. Virtual Teams As the way we work changes radically, the evolution of teams is

also undertaking a radical leap. The virtual team is the current reality in the

emergence of new team structures. Such teams are formed where people are no

longer co-located, or necessarily operating in the same time or in a shared process

(i.e. telework, collaborative teams, virtual teams, etc). With the event of the World

Wide Web and emergence more recently of interactive satellite networks, the

virtual team has taken on many shapes. Like conventional teams, this form of team

exists to serve a real purpose.




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The reason for their existence can abound. Some of the core reasons for virtualteams include:

Global operations make it impossible for team members to meet in a

physical sense;

Teams involve members from multiple organizations as organizations

increasingly work outside their own operational boundaries;

Virtual can be quicker;

Virtual meetings have evolved with the technology and now some advanced

technology and applications operates better in a cyber environment than a

meeting room;

The virtual network is harnessing emerging technology (wireless

applications, high speed two-way satellite connection) to form new ways to

organise work and people;

The right people can be sourced when they are available, wherever they are

available.

Stages of Team Development

Understanding these stages is a good point to begin our journey in understanding

team problems.

1. Orientation (Forming) - This is simply the bringing together of a group of

individuals. At this stage, members are:

moderately eager

have generally positive expectations

have some anxiety about why they are there and what it all means

have some anxiety about other members such as who they are and what theyare like




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During orientation, the work outputis generally low as members are focused ondefining the goals and task, how to approach it, and what skills are needed. The

length of this stagewill depend on how clearly the task is defined. Groups with

simple tasks will move through orientation quickly, but groups with complex goals

and tasks may spend much longer in this stage.

This is an important stage because it serves to clarify the team's mission and bond

team members. Teams that pay attention to building the relationships as well as

focusing on the task tend to do better than those that skip over relationship

building. Teams, after all, are made up of people who must work cooperatively for

a successful outcome.

2. Dissatisfaction (Storming)

This stage is characterized by:

argument

conflict

a dip in morale

It results from differences between initial expectations and the reality of the

situation as perceived by the members. Members may havevarying opinions ofwhat the group was to do and how to accomplish it. Members are also beginning to

confront the differences in their personalities and values, a condition that is

present anytime strangers meet. Members may feel anger or frustration with the

task or with other members or may even resent the presence of formal leadership.

Generally, the dissatisfaction stage is relatively short. Some groups, however, may

become stuck in this stage and continue to be both demoralized and relatively

unproductive. In the worst cases, some groups never emerge from this stage and, if

possible, disband in frustration.




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3. Resolution (Norming) -This stage in the group's development involves the: resolving of issues

setting up group processes

setting of group policies, procedures, and values

increasing production

Members are now resolving differences and clarifying the mission and roles.

Members are less dissatisfiedas in the previous stage because they are now

learning more about each other and how they will work together. They are

making progress toward their goals. They are developing tools to help them workbetter together such as a problem solving process, a code of conduct, a set of team

values, and measurement indicators.

Member attitudes are characterized by decreasing animosities toward other

members; feelings of cohesion, mutual respect, harmony, and trust; and a

feeling of pleasure in accomplishing tasks.The work is characterized by slowly

increasing production as skills develop. The group is developing into a team.

4. Production (Performing) -The team is accomplishing work effectively.

Production is high and the climate is positive.Member attitudes are

characterized by positive feelings and eagerness to be part of the team. Members

are confident about the outcome, enjoy open communication, exhibit high energy,

and disagreement is welcome and handled without emotional conflict.

Although work is being accomplished through all the stages, this stage reflects the

work being accomplished most effectively.




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5. Termination -In the case of temporary teams such as task forces, design teams,and problem solving teams, a fifth stage reflects the ending of the process.

Depending on the team's success in accomplishing its task and how strongly the

members have bonded, this stage may reflect either a sense of loss or relief.

When a team ends, time should be spent addressing how it should be done to

properly recognize the team's accomplishments.




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1. This team is temporary assembled for a specific issue or problemA.Task forceB.Problem-solving teamC.Product design team

2. This team is also called Work Team where an on-going group of workers who

share a common mission who collectively manage their own affairs within

predetermined boundaries

A.Self-Directed work teamB.Problem-solving teamC.Virtual Team

3. Arrange the following stages of team development by putting numbers 1 to 5 in

the space provided.

__________Production (Performing)

__________Orientation (Forming)

__________ Termination

__________ Dissatisfaction (Storming)__________ Resolution (Norming)

4. Understanding stages of team development is a good point to begin our journey

in understanding team problems. True or False

a. trueb. False

5. A ________normally have members with complementary skills and generate

synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to

maximize his or her strengths and minimize his or her weaknesses.

a. groupb. teamc. organization

SELF-CHECK 2




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Almost all team activity falls under two main topics: task accomplishment andteam building. Task accomplishmentis any activity that accomplishes work and

moves the team toward its mission. Team buildingis any activity that builds and

strengthens the team as a team. The experts agree that teams that focus on both sets

of activities tend to be stronger and more successful over time.

Team Mission and Vision

The driving force behind every team is a clear mission and vision. A mission is the

task at handwhat the team doesits purpose for existing. A vision is a mental

image of a possible and desirable future state for the team that is better than what

now exists.

The best teams have members who share a common understanding of the mission

and vision, and have great clarity of how their mission and vision support those of

the larger organization. Teams that perform poorly are frequently found to lack this

common understanding.

Team Operating Processes

To accomplish tasks effectively and efficiently, good teams develop operating

processes. These are agreed-upon ways, such as sequential steps, to perform work,

communicate, meet, arrive at decisions, problem-solve, resolve differences,

apportion work, schedule activities, and more. For clarity, and to aid

understanding, a team operating process is usually written or displayed.

One example of a team operating process might be a step-by-step method forsolving problems as shown below:

Define

Problem

Collect

Data

Analyze

Problem

Develop

Solutions

Trial

Implementation

Full

Implementation

INFORMATION SHEET 3

TEAM ROLES




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14 Team Task Roles

Team task roles are those roles that members assume, either consciously or

unconsciously, that move the team forward in accomplishing its tasks and mission.

These roles are of vital importance in good team functioning.

1. Initiator - suggests new ideas to the group

2. formation Seeker- seeks clarification of issues in terms of their factual

adequacy

3. Opinion Seeker- seeks clarification of the values pertinent to the issue,

rather than facts

4. Information Giver- offers facts or other "authoritative" information

5. Opinion Giver- offers beliefs or other value-based ideas

6. Elaborator- spells out suggestions in terms of examples or developed

meanings

7. Summarizer- pulls together ideas, concepts, and group decisions to

help the group identify where it is in its thinking

8. Coordinator-Integrator- clarifies and integrates relationships between

various ideas, suggestions, and people

9. Orienter - defines the position of the group with respect to its goals

10. Disagreer - takes a different point of view, argues against, and implies

error in fact or reasoning




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11. Evaluator-Critic- subjects the accomplishment of the group to someset of standards. Questions the "practicality," the "logic,"

the "facts," or the "procedure"

12. Energizer- prods the group to action

13. Procedural Technician- performs routine tasks related to group

functioning

14. Recorder- keeps a written record of the groups work

TEAM BUILDING

Team building is any activity that builds and strengthens the team as a team. For

teams to function optimally over the long term, building team spirit, enthusiasm,

cohesiveness, and camaraderieare vitally important. Unfortunately, these

activities have been deemed less significant to their sister activities of task

accomplishment, so little emphasis has been placed on team building.

Team Values

Our values are those beliefs that we possess that help us to make decisions such as

right from wrong, good from bad, or normal from not normal. These values come

into play each time we interact with others, and are the source of rich discussions

or significant conflict.

Our values reflect our teachings from our family, friends, schools, mentors, and

media. When we form teams, we must understand that each team member brings a

unique value system to the table. These learned insights on life add important

information to team discussions, but their differences are frequently the source of

conflict. So understanding how values affect team member relationships is a

critical piece of the team building puzzle.




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Team Operating Principles

As opposed to operating processes that deal with task accomplishment, team

operating principles are standards of behavior that build and strengthen the team.

Team members discuss how they will behave with each other, then formalize

their results in a set of standards or a Code of Conduct.

For example,one team's Code of Conduct included the following:

Respect the opinions of others

Allow equal participation in discussions

Take responsibility for what is going on in the team, and take action when

needed

Teams will inevitably experience difficulties and conflict, but having a basis for

dealing with the interpersonal issues will help to protect the team and allow it to

grow.

The Six Team Building Roles

Team building roles are those carried out by members, either consciously or

unconsciously, that tend to build the team's interpersonal relationships,

cohesiveness, and spirit. They are vitally needed roles that play a large part in

maintaining team performance over the long term. These roles include:

1. Encourager- praises other members' contributions to the team

2. Harmonizer - mediates differences between other members




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3. Compromiser - offers a compromise during disagreement or conflict byyielding position or admitting error

4. Gatekeeper-regulates the flow of communication, particularly in meetings, by

encouraging the participation of those less inclined to participate and quieting

those who are overly talkative

5. Standard Setter- expresses standards for the team regarding its operation

6. Group Observer- observes and reports back to the team on its group dynamics




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______1. His role is to suggests new ideas to the group

______2. He seeks clarification of the values pertinent to

the issue, rather than facts.

______3. He keeps a written record of the groups work______4. he takes a different point of view, argues

against, and implies error in fact or reasoning

______5. His role is to clarifies and integrates

relationships between various ideas,

suggestions, and people

a. Initiatorb. Information Seekerc. Opinion Seekerd. Information Giver

e. Opinion Giverf. Elaboratorg. Summarizerh. Coordinator-Integrator

Disagreer

i. Recorder

A. MATCHING TYPE. Team roles

SELF-CHECK 3




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B. TRUE OR FALSE. Write true if the statement is correct and false if the

statement is not correct.

_______1. Team building roles are those carried out by members, either

consciously or unconsciously, that tend to build the team's interpersonal

relationships, cohesiveness, and spirit.

_______2. Teams will not experience difficulties and conflict, but having a basisfor dealing with the interpersonal issues will help to protect the team and allow it

to grow.

_______3. Team accomplishment is any activity that builds and strengthens the

team as a team.

_______4. The driving force behind every team is a clear mission and vision

_______5. To accomplish tasks effectively and efficiently, good teams need not to

develop operating processes.




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GROUP PLANNING Process - Details

1.PREPARATION

a. Select the planning team which typically consists of the leader, directreports and a number of other key employees.

b. Determine data requirements and analyze information.

c. Determine the leader's expectations for the meeting and process.

2. INTERVIEWS

a. Strategic planning facilitator conducts one-on-one interviews with the TeamPlanning participants in order to understand the culture, organization, issues

and opportunities.

b. B. Hold interviews 2-4 weeks prior to the planning meeting by telephone oron-site.

3.QUESTIONNAIRE

a. Prepare a questionnaire covering a variety of subjects appropriate tostrategic planning for the organization. Questions could revolve around:

growth opportunities, growth impediments, markets, product roadmaps,

culture, core competencies, time-to-market, strategic weaknesses and issues,

financial forecasts, etc.

b. Each participant to complete the questionnaire with personal responses. Thishomework assignment will require 1-2 hours and will prepare each person toparticipate from the first moment of the planning meeting.

INFORMATION SHEET 4

GROUP PLANNING AND DECISION MAKING




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c. Receive questionnaires about one week prior to the planning meeting.Summarize the key points for use and discussion during the session.

4.OFF-SITE PLANNING MEETING

a. Facilitate a detailed, open and candid discussion of the present situation ofthe organization. This will bring all participants to the same level of

understanding of the business situation from which a plan for the future can

be developed. The discussions will be wide ranging, covering the

questionnaire materials and additional subjects.

b. Develop conclusions and assumptions about the future environment yourorganization will face. The discussions will cover anticipated directions for

your industry, competition, buyers, suppliers, new entrants, technologies,

etc.

c. With an understanding of the present situation and where your environmentis headed; determine where you are going and want to go as an organization

by engaging in Strategic Thinking and the creation of a vision, grand

strategy statement, key success factors and 2-4 major strategic objectives.

d. Establish how you will achieve your desired objectives through thedevelopment of business area and cross-functional strategies and action

plans.

e. Assign action parties, action dates and accountabilities to provide the stepsfor subsequent implementation and follow-up.




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5.FOLLOW-UP

a. Facilitate follow-up meetings at the client's option.b. Determine progress on objectives, strategies and commitments.c. Make adjustments to plans if dictated by changes in the environment and

continue the Strategic Thinking.

d. Change planning from a one-time event to a continuing process.

Planning for Decision Making

While decision making without planning is fairly common, it is often not pretty.

The terms used to describe it--crisis management, putting out fires, seat-of-the-

pants governing--all reveal the inelegance and awkwardness of this way of life.

Planning allows decisions to be made in a much more comfortable and intelligent

way. Planning even makes decisions easier by providing guidelines and goals for

the decision. We might even say that planning is a type of decision simplification

technique (see the discussion of these techniques below).

Decision makers will find four major benefits to planning:

1. Planning allows the establishment of independent goals.The vision which

will shape the decisions is set apart from surrounding events. Decisions are not

made only as reactions to external stimuli. "Management by firefighting" is

replaced by a conscious and directed series of choices. Managers now steer the

organization, individuals now steer their lives, rather than being steered by external

forces. Sometimes the difference between planning and not planning is described

as "proactive" (taking control of the situation) versus "reactive" (responding to

stimuli).




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2. Planning provides a standard of measurement.A plan provides something tomeasure against, so that you can discover whether or not you are achieving or

heading toward your goals. As the proverb says,If you don't know where you're

going, it doesn't matter which way you go.

3. Planning converts values to action.When you are faced with a decision, you

can consult your plan and determine which decision will help advance your plan

best. Decisions made under the guidance of planning can work together in a

coherent way to advance company or individual goals.

Planning is useful in emergency situations, too. When a crisis arises, a littlethought about the overall plan will help determine which decision to make that will

not only help resolve the crisis but will also help advance the overall plan. Without

a plan, crises are dealt with haphazardly and decisions are made which may

ultimately be in conflict with each other.

4. Planning allows limited resources to be committed in an orderly way.Budgets, time, effort, manpower--all are limited. Their best use can be made when

a plan governs their use.

DECISION LEVELS

We all recognize that some decisions are more important than others, whether in

their immediate impact or long term significance. As a means of understanding the

significance of a decision so that we can know how much time and resources to

spend on it, three levels of decision have been identified:

1. Strategic.Strategic decisions are the highest level. Here a decision concernsgeneral direction, long term goals, philosophies and values. These decisions are the

least structured and most imaginative; they are the most risky and of the most

uncertain outcome, partly because they reach so far into the future and partly

because they are of such importance.




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2. Tactical.Tactical decisions support strategic decisions. They tend to be mediumrange, medium significance, with moderate consequences.

3. Operational.These are every day decisions, used to support tactical decisions.

They are often made with little thought and are structured. Their impact is

immediate, short term, short range, and usually low cost. The consequences of a

bad operational decision will be minimal, although a seriesof bad or sloppy

operational decisions can cause harm. Operational decisions can be

preprogrammed, pre-made, or set out clearly in policy manuals.

An important comment should be made here. Issues should be examined and

decisions should be made at all of these levels. If you discover that nearly all of

your thinking and decision making is taking place at the operational level, then you

are probably not doing enough strategic thinking and planning. As a result you will

lead a reactive life, responding only to the forces around you and never getting

control of your life, your direction or your goals.

SOME TECHNIQUES FOR DECISION MAKING

This is a list of easy, practical techniques that can be applied to simple or complex

decisions. They share the assumption that circumspect analysis is the key to

making good decisions. Many decisions are made with too little information and

too little thought, in a non-deliberate way. Think about it for a moment: how many

people do you know who commonly spend even five minutes structuring and

analyzing a decision?

Note how these techniques provide a visible, structured, orderly set of factors

involved in a decision, so that the decision maker can consider them in a thoughtfuland coherent way.




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The first three techniques are especially for whether-type decisions, thoseinvolving yes/no, either/or, or two-possibility decisions.

1. T-Chart.A T-Chart is an orderly, graphic representation of alternative features

or points involved in a decision. In one form, it can be a list of positive and

negative attributes surrounding a particular choice. Drawing up such a chart

insures that both the positive and negative aspects of each direction or decision will

be taken into account.

For example, what are the pros and cons of deciding to buy a sport utility vehicle?

PRO CON

better visibility higher insurance

safer structure poorer gas mileage

can take off road more expensive maintenance

In another form, two possible choices are listed, with the good points or arguments

or effects listed for each. Suppose your company is trying to decide whether to

create its own advertising or hire an agency.

Use Outside Agency Write Ads In-House

professional work faster product

expertise of ideas better knowledge of product

media connections use same ad in flyers




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To fill out this latter form, more than two choices can be included, and a list ofnegatives for each choice can be added as well.

2. PMI.Edward de Bono refines the T-Chart idea into a three part structure, which

he calls PMI for plus, minus, and interesting. Here you first list all the plus or good

points of the idea, then all the minus or bad points, and finally all the interesting

points--consequences, areas of curiosity or uncertainty, or attributes that you

simply don't care to view as either good or bad at this point (consequences that

some people might view as good and others might view as bad, for example). The

"interesting" category also allows exploration of the idea or choice outside the

context of judgment--you don't have to evaluate the attribute into a positive or

negative category.

Decision Simplification Techniques

This is a list of techniques used to simplify decision making. You will notice that

many of them work by reducing the number of alternatives considered. Others

work by using premanufactured decisions, and still others use miscellaneous

methods. Depending on the nature and importance of a given decision, some

techniques will be preferable to others. Some techniques, while popularly used for

many decisions, are suboptimal or even harmful in many circumstances.

1. Criteria Filter.Establish a fixed set of criteria which all alternatives must

meet. Potential alternatives which fail to meet even a single criterion are

excluded from the pool of alternatives. For example, in buying a car, certain

criteria might be established before considering any particular vehicle. Onlyvehicles meeting all those criteria would be considered in the decision

process.




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2. Best of 3.A more accurate name for this would be "best of few" becauseit involves limiting the number of alternatives to three or four or five or six.

This is a common technique used when the decision is under time pressure

and many of the alternatives are somewhat similar. If, for example, you must

buy a new toaster or popcorn popper or stereo this week, you might use the

best of 3 technique. Rather than attempt to investigate every possible toaster,

popper, or stereo, you choose just three or four and pick from among them.

3. Cursory Exclusion.This alternative-reducing technique is often used in

conjunction with other decision-making techniques. Here, a potential

alternative is rejected on the basis of a single flaw. Rather than looking atpotential alternatives with a mind to choosing them, they are looked at with

an eye toward rejecting them. Employment officers (and sometimes popular

people hunting for spouses!) often use this technique. When a prospect

comes in, the manager asks, "What reason might I find for rejecting this

person?" The more who are rejected after a cursory (brief and superficial)

examination, the fewer the manager has to think about in his decision

making. (Thus the importance of making a good impression at such

interviews.) Cursory exclusion can be suboptimal or even harmful in some

situations where a really excellent choice is rejected because of somesuperficial flaw or atypical presentation.

4. Routinization. Many decisions are made along the lines of previous

decisions. "When this happens, do that." Standardized policies for handling

recurring events or choices help to make life more efficient. Procedure

manuals are essentially catalogs of previously solved problems. The manuals

tell how to respond when the same or similar problem arises. Thus, they

might be called books of programmed decisions.

Habitual behaviors might be seen as forms of decision simplification, also.

For example, some people have a standard or favorite area to park at the

shopping mall or grocery store they visit most frequently. By using such a

standard parking spot, a new parking decision need not be made each trip

and the mind can run on automatic when the shopper approaches the mall or

store. A potential problem with routinization, the "use what worked before"

approach, is that new problems tend to be pressed into the mold of problems




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that will fit the standard procedures. Remember, then, that new problemsmay need new solutions.

Routinization might be broken down into rules and guidelines. A rule is a

specific requirement that must be followed, while a guideline is a principle

of operation. To use examples from the Bible (which has many guidelines

and some rules), we could say that a rule might be "Do not steal," while a

guideline would be, "Do to others as you would have them do to you."

A subcategory here might be rules of thumb.These are guidelines based on

past experience or on the experience of others in the field.

Many times such rules do not result in the best decision, because individual

cases vary so much. Rules of thumb do have the advantage of leading to a

decision in a short time.

5. Satisficing.As we mentioned in the previous chapter, in this technique,

the first satisfactory alternative is chosen rather than the best alternative.

When you want to write a note, you just grab the first suitable piece of paper

rather than looking all over to find the very best one in your room or office.Looking for the very best would be the optimizing strategy, which is

decision complicating rather than decision simplifying. Satisficing is

preferred for decisions of small significance, when you're in a hurry, or

where most of the alternatives are essentially similar.

6. Delegation.Perhaps this technique is only apparentlysimplifying, since

the person given the decision to make may have complexity enough. But for

the person doing the delegating, it is a very good simplification technique.

Let someone else do the research, consider the alternatives, and make the

decision.




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7. Parameter Delegation.One of the most common decision simplificationtechniques, this method involves delegating to others the research and

development of alternatives from which the decision maker will then choose.

We use this method in our everyday lives by walking into a store, where the

managers have chosen to carry 10 of the scores of washing machine

available, by ordering from the mail order catalog listing six of the dozens of

word processing programs available and so on. We assume that these people

have used some method of useful decision making to select the group of

alternatives presented to us. We hope the criteria included quality,

performance, value, and so on, rather than profit margin, but we are

sometimes deceived.

In a company, an executive may delegate to a committee or a subordinate

the basic research into a decision and ask to be presented with three or four

alternatives from which to choose.

Another example of parameter delegation is the reliance on

recommendations from others. When we buy something or go see a movie

based on a favorable review, we are exercising this method of decision

simplification. The newest term for this version of parameter delegation is

collaborative filtering.

8. Random Choice.Here, just any alternative is chosen. The choice may be

the first alternative available or simply one picked without analysis or

ordering. When you need to use a towel, or put clean sheets on the bed, or

choose some fruit to eat, you might decide that any will do. "Just grab one"

might be another name for this technique. It certainly makes the decision

easy and simple. Analysis requires a lot of mental effort, and some people,

especially those who spend much of their working lives performingcomplicated analyses, want to reduce the level of analysis in the rest of their

lives. You will sometimes see them walk into a stationery store and rather

nonchalantly grab a notebook or pad to use. Random choice can produce a

fun adventure in restaurants, too.




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9. Conformity.Follow the crowd; do what others do; go with the flow. Inthis technique you attach yourself to a preexisting decision stream and

accept the decisions that most other people have made. When most other

people in your subgroup have put on acid-washed jeans, you do too. We like

to think of ourselves as rugged and independent individualists, but in reality

we adopt many pre-made decisions through social conformity.

10. Reaction.Rebel; do the opposite of the majority; go against the flow.

This technique is used by those who want to appear to be making decisions.It is easy and automatic, just like conformity.

11. Feelings.Follow your heart; go with your emotions; use your intuition;

trust that gut feeling. Choices presented by your feelings are ready and

apparent. Once again, this is a way of avoiding the hard mental work of

analysis. And, of course, there is some evidence that some preferences of the

feelings may actually be subconsciously performed analyses. Other

preferences of the feelings are simply irrational lusts.

12. Idleness. Do nothing. Let others decide for you, or let circumstances

dictate the choice. You must face the consequences of making no decision,

however. Someone has said that making no decision is really a decision. If

you do not decide whether to vacation in France or England, you will in

effect be deciding to stay home.

13. Adoption of a short-range view. Choices are simplified if the

consequences are considered only insofar as they involve today. This

strategy leads to quick decisions, but it can also be very dangerous.




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1. You are planning to buy a house or a car. Rather than having to decide betweenbuying the item right now with all cash or never having it, you can plan to buy

it over several years by making payments. Or, you might combine this plan with

the plan to buy a smaller house and add rooms later as they could be afforded.

By planning you can thus accomplish things that might otherwise look

impossible. What does planning gives you in this situation

a. it provides a standard of measurement..

b. it allows limited resources to be committed in an orderly way.

c. Planning converts values to action

2. An engineer notices a fine white powder covers everything in a room that has a

laminating press. She asks the operator how long he has been working in this

room. He replies that he has been working there for over ten years. The engineer

is concerned that the health of this operator may be at risk from inhaling this

powder for so long. What should she do?

a. Do nothing. After all, it is not a part of her job description.

b. Go to the nearest television station and talk with a reporter about this

deplorable situation.

c. Check into OSHA regulations concerning this powder. Should theregulations warrant it, notify OSHA of the problem. Then, through

appropriate company channels notify the operator and make sure that he

receives a thorough medical examination to determine if any harm has

occurred. Then check to make sure that appropriate follow-up examinations

are carried out.

d. Your own solution

SELF-CHECK 4




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3. Marta Malasobras has been coming to work late for the several weeks now. Sheworks in a small group and the other members have come to you to complain that

her tardiness reduces the effectiveness of the entire group. When you confront her

with this problem, she breaks down and cries: she has to drop her son off to school

but the school gates do not open soon enough for her to get to work on time. She

has been unable to find anyone to take her son to school. What should you do?

a. Fire her. Chronic lateness to work is a serious offense and cannot be

tolerated in any way.

b. Discuss her problem with the rest of her work team. See if any temporary

arrangement can be made to give her time to find someone to take her son

to school.

c. Delegate the problem to the work team. After all, empowering them with

decision-making authority also makes them more accountable. Its their

problem, not yours.

d. Your solution

4. Your company has decided to accept your recommendation to purchase a UVcuring oven to increase productivity. When the oven has been delivered and

readied for use, your supervisor asks you to begin using it even though theappropriate Environmental Quality Board permits have not yet been issued. He

argues that such permission is pro forma anyway so why wait and lose valuable

production time. What should you do?

a. Do what your supervisor asks. The permits should arrive in a couple of

weeks and nobody is going to find out that during that time you have been

operating the oven without permits.

b. Refuse to do it. Nobody has the right to ask you to do something illegal.

c. Tell him that he can do so but only on his own authority. Then write a

memo to him, his supervisor, and a coworker explaining that you

disapprove of this decision.

d. First, try to reason with him. Explain that even though you will probably

not get caught, the severity of the fine and loss of reputation are not worth

the risk. Add that as an engineer, you have a special obligation to

safeguard the environment which includes strictly conforming to

government environmental regulations.

e. Your solution




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5. A skilled machine operator under your supervision has recently returned from

maternity leave. She works a ten-hour shift two days a week; company policy is

that workers are entitled to a ten-minute break every two hours and a half hour for

lunch in the middle of the shift. She has asked you for permission to return home

every two hours to nurse her baby. Since she lives ten minutes away from work,

this would require her to violate company policy. What should you do?

a. Tell her that she can either start bottle-feeding her baby or look for

another job. You cannot get involved in the personal affairs of your

employees

b. Suggest that her husband bring the baby to work. She could then nurse the

baby in the companys medical room during her regular, authorized

breaks.

c. Honor her request but set a time limit of, say, three weeks.

d. Your solution




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B. Using the T-Chart list the possible PROs and CONs in the situation below

Your company has recently entered into a cooperative venture with a Japanese

firm. A team of Japanese engineers has come to your plant to teach your engineers

a new manufacturing process. However, the senior member of this team, a

Japanese engineer with very traditional cultural views, refuses to work with a

female member of your team despite the fact that she is a highly qualified engineer.

Your initial decision is to reassign the woman engineer. What do you think will be

the possible effects? What will be your final decision?

PRO CON




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Module 2 - Leading Small Teams

Recording Sheet For Oral Questioning / Interview

Student name:

Module Title/o:

Quali!ication:

Oral/interview "uestions Satis!actor# res$onse

%es o

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The student's underpinning knowledge was:

Satisfactory Not satisfactory

Student&s Signature: 'ate

Trainor&s signature: 'ate:

(cce$ta)le answers are:




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Rating Sheet

Module 2 - Leading Small Teams

Performance

Feedback

Remarks

S NS C NYC

1. Self-Check 1

2. Self-Check 1.1

3. Self-Check 2

4. Self-Check 3

5. Self-Check 4

S - SatisfactoryNS Not Satisfactory

C - Completed

NYC Not Yet Completed

odule is

!o"pleted Not #et !o"pleted

$e"arks:

Student&s Signature 'ate


module 2 leading small teams

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