modern rf and microwave measurement...

Modern RF and Microwave Measurement Techniques

This comprehensive, hands-on review of the most up-to-date techniques in RF andmicrowave measurement combines microwave circuit theory and metrology, in-depthanalysis of advanced modern instrumentation, methods and systems, and practical advicefor professional RF and microwave engineers and researchers.

Topics covered include microwave instrumentation, such as network analyzers, real-time spectrum analyzers, and microwave synthesizers; linear measurements, such asVNA calibrations, noise figure measurements, time domain reflectometry and multiportmeasurements; and nonlinear measurements, such as load- and source-pull techniques,broadband signal measurements, and nonlinear NVNAs.

Each technique is discussed in detail, and accompanied by state-of-the-art solutionsto the unique technical challenges associated with its deployment. With each chapterdelivered by internationally recognized experts in the field, this is an invaluable resourcefor researchers and professionals involved with microwave measurements.

Valeria Teppati is a Researcher in the Millimeter Wave Electronics Group of the Depart-ment of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering at ETH Zürich, developinginnovative solutions to aspects of linear and nonlinear measurement techniques.

Andrea Ferrero is a Professor in the RF, Microwave and Computational Electronics groupof the Department of Electronics and Telecommunications at Politecnico di Torino. Heis a Distinguished Microwave Lecturer of the IEEE Microwave Theory and TechniquesSociety, and a Fellow of the IEEE.

Mohamed Sayed is the Principal Consultant for Microwave and Millimeter Wave Solu-tions, and has nearly thirty years’ experience of developing microwave and millimeterwave systems for Hewlett-Packard Co. and Agilent Technologies Inc.

www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press978-1-107-03641-3 - Modern RF and Microwave Measurement TechniquesEdited by Valeria Teppati, Andrea Ferrero and Mohamed SayedFrontmatterMore information

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The Cambridge RF and Microwave Engineering Series

Series EditorSteve C. Cripps, Distinguished Research Professor, Cardiff University

Peter Aaen, Jaime Plá, and John Wood, Modeling and Characterization of RF andMicrowave Power FETs

Dominique Schreurs, Máirtín O’Droma, Anthony A. Goacher, and Michael Gadringer(Eds), RF Amplifier Behavioral Modeling

Fan Yang and Yahya Rahmat-Samii, Electromagnetic Band Gap Structures in AntennaEngineering

Enrico Rubiola, Phase Noise and Frequency Stability in OscillatorsEarl McCune, Practical Digital Wireless SignalsStepan Lucyszyn (Ed.), Advanced RF MEMSPatrick Roblin, Nonlinear FR Circuits and the Large-Signal Network AnalyzerMatthias Rudolph, Christian Fager, and David E. Root (Eds), Nonlinear Transistor

Model Parameter Extraction TechniquesJohn L. B. Walker (Ed.), Handbook of RF and Microwave Solid-State Power AmplifiersAnh-Vu H. Pham, Morgan J. Chen, and Kunia Aihara, LCP for Microwave Packages

and ModulesSorin Voinigescu, High-Frequency Integrated CircuitsRichard Collier, Transmission LinesValeria Teppati, Andrea Ferrero, and Mohamed Sayed (Eds), Modern RF and

Microwave Measurement Techniques

ForthcomingDavid E. Root, Jason Horn, Jan Verspecht, and Mihai Marcu, X-ParametersRichard Carter, Theory and Design of Microwave TubesNuno Borges Carvalho and Dominique Schreurs, Microwave and Wireless

Measurement Techniques






Modern RF and MicrowaveMeasurement Techniques

Edited by

VALERIA TEPPATIETH Zürich

ANDREA FERREROPolitecnico di Torino

MOHAMED SAYEDMicrowave and Millimeter Wave Solutions






www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107036413

© Cambridge University Press 2013

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place without the writtenpermission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 20132014

Printed in the United Kingdom by CPI Group Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication dataModern RF and microwave measurement techniques / [edited by] Valeria Teppati,Andrea Ferrero, Mohamed Sayed.

pages cm. – (The cambridge RF and microwave engineering series)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-107-03641-3 (hardback)1. Radio measurements. 2. Microwave measurements. 3. Radio circuits.I. Teppati, Valeria, 1974– editor of compilation.TK6552.5.M63 2013621.382028′7–dc23 2013000790

ISBN 978-1-107-03641-3 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence oraccuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to inthis publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

3rd printing






This book is dedicated to the memory of our colleague Dr. Roger D. Pollard,innovator, educator, contributor and friend.






Contents

Preface page xviiList of contributors xixList of abbreviations xxi

Part I General concepts 1

1 Transmission lines and scattering parameters 3Roger Pollard and Mohamed Sayed

1.1 Introduction 31.2 Fundamentals of transmission lines, models and equations 3

1.2.1 Introduction 31.2.2 Propagation and characteristic impedance 41.2.3 Terminations, reflection coefficient, SWR, return loss 71.2.4 Power transfer to load 8

1.3 Scattering parameters 81.4 Microwave directional coupler 11

1.4.1 General concepts 111.4.2 The reflectometer 12

1.5 Smith Chart 131.6 Conclusions 16References 20

Appendix A Signal flow graphs 16Appendix B Transmission lines types 18

2 Microwave interconnections, probing, and fixturing 21Leonard Hayden

2.1 Introduction 212.2 Device boundaries and measurement reference planes 21

2.2.1 Devices 222.2.2 Transmission lines 222.2.3 Circuits 23






viii Contents

2.3 Signal-path fixture performance measures 242.3.1 Delay 242.3.2 Loss 242.3.3 Mismatch 252.3.4 Crosstalk 272.3.5 Multiple-modes 282.3.6 Electromagnetic discontinuity 29

2.4 Power-ground fixture performance measures 302.4.1 Non-ideal power 302.4.2 Non-ideal ground 32

2.5 Fixture loss performance and measurement accuracy 332.6 Microwave probing 34

2.6.1 Probing system elements 352.6.2 VNA calibration of a probing system 362.6.3 Probing applications – in situ test 372.6.4 Probing applications – transistor characterization 37

2.7 Conclusion 38References 38

Part II Microwave instrumentation 39

3 Microwave synthesizers 41Alexander Chenakin

3.1 Introduction 413.2 Synthesizer characteristics 41

3.2.1 Frequency and timing 423.2.2 Spectral purity 433.2.3 Output power 47

3.3 Synthesizer architectures 473.3.1 Direct analog synthesizers 473.3.2 Direct digital synthesizers 503.3.3 Indirect synthesizers 523.3.4 Hybrid architectures 54

3.4 Signal generators 553.4.1 Power calibration and control 553.4.2 Frequency and power sweep 573.4.3 Modulation 58

3.5 Conclusions 62References 62






Contents ix

4 Real-time spectrum analysis and time-correlated measurements applied tononlinear system characterization 64Marcus Da Silva

4.1 Introduction 644.1.1 Types of spectrum analyzers 65

4.2 Spectrum analysis in real-time 684.2.1 Real-time criteria 694.2.2 Theoretical background 69

4.3 Spectrum analysis using discrete Fourier transforms 704.3.1 The Fourier transform for discrete-time signals 704.3.2 Regularly spaced sequential DFTs 71

4.4 Windowing and resolution bandwidth (RBW) 724.4.1 Windowing considerations 744.4.2 Resolution bandwidth (RBW) 75

4.5 Real-time specifications 764.5.1 Real-time criteria 764.5.2 Minimum event duration for 100% probability of intercept at the

specified accuracy 764.5.3 Comparison with swept analyzers 784.5.4 Processing all information within a signal with

no loss of information 804.5.5 Windowing and overlap 814.5.6 Sequential DFTs as a parallel bank of filters 834.5.7 Relating frame rate, frame overlap, and RBW 854.5.8 Criteria for processing all signals in the input waveform with no

loss of information 854.6 Applications of real-time spectrum analysis 85

4.6.1 Displaying real-time spectrum analysis data 854.6.2 Digital persistence displays 864.6.3 The DPX spectrum display engine 86

4.7 Triggering in the frequency domain 884.7.1 Digital triggering 884.7.2 Triggering in systems with digital acquisition 894.7.3 RTSA trigger sources 904.7.4 Frequency mask trigger (FMT) 904.7.5 Frequency mask trigger time resolution and time alignment 914.7.6 Other real-time triggers 92

4.8 Application examples: using real-time technologies to solvenonlinear challenges 924.8.1 Discovering transient signals 924.8.2 Adjacent channel power (ACP) violation caused by power supply

fluctuations 934.8.3 Software errors affecting RF performance 93






x Contents

4.8.4 Memory effects in digitally pre-distorted (DPD) amplifiers 954.9 Conclusions 96End Notes 96References 97

5 Vector network analyzers 98Mohamed Sayed and Jon Martens

5.1 Introduction 985.2 History of vector network analyzers 98

5.2.1 Pre-HP-8510 VNA – 1950–1984 985.2.2 HP-8510 VNA System – 1984–2001 995.2.3 Evolution of VNA to the Present – 2001–2012 101

5.3 Authors’ remarks and comments 1015.4 RF and microwave VNA technology 101

5.4.1 Sources 1035.4.2 Switches 1075.4.3 Directional devices 1095.4.4 Down-converters (RF portion of the receivers) 1135.4.5 IF sections 1175.4.6 System performance considerations 119

5.5 Measurement types in the VNA 1215.5.1 Gain, attenuation, and distortion 1215.5.2 Phase and group delay 1215.5.3 Noise figure measurements 1215.5.4 Pulsed RF measurements 1215.5.5 Nonlinear measurements of active and passive devices 1225.5.6 Multi-port and differential measurements 1225.5.7 Load-pull and harmonic load-pull 1225.5.8 Antenna measurements 1225.5.9 Materials measurements 122

5.6 Device types for VNA measurements 1235.6.1 Passive devices such as cables, connectors, adaptors, attenuators,

and filters 1235.6.2 Low power active devices such as low noise amplifiers, linear

amplifiers, and buffer amplifiers 1235.6.3 High power active devices such as base station amplifiers and

narrow-band amplifiers 1235.6.4 Frequency translation devices such as mixers, multipliers,

up/down-converters and dividers 1235.6.5 On-wafer measurements of the above devices 124

5.7 Improving VNA measurement range 1255.7.1 Using a switch matrix box 1255.7.2 Using multiple sources 125






Contents xi

5.7.3 Using reversing couplers 1265.7.4 Using an external amplifier/attenuator 1265.7.5 All-in-one VNA box 126

5.8 Practical tips for using VNAs 1275.8.1 User training 1275.8.2 Connector care 1275.8.3 Temperature environment and stability 1285.8.4 Measurement locations: production, development or research 128

5.9 Calibration and calibration kits 1285.10 Conclusions 128References 129

6 Microwave power measurements 130Ronald Ginley

6.1 Introduction 1306.1.1 Why power and not voltage and current? 131

6.2 Power basics, definitions, and terminology 1316.2.1 Basic definitions 1326.2.2 Different types of power measurements 132

6.3 Power detectors and instrumentation 1366.3.1 Bolometric detectors 1376.3.2 Thermoelectric detectors 1386.3.3 Diode detectors 1396.3.4 Power meters 1426.3.5 Power measurements and frequency ranges 1426.3.6 Power levels and detectors 143

6.4 Primary power standards 1436.4.1 The microcalorimeter 1456.4.2 The dry load calorimeter 1466.4.3 Voltage and impedance technique 147

6.5 Basic power measurement techniques 1486.5.1 Mismatch factor 1496.5.2 Measuring power through an adapter 1506.5.3 Power meter reference 151

6.6 Uncertainty considerations 1516.6.1 Power meter uncertainty – uncertainty in Psub 1526.6.2 ηDet uncertainty 1526.6.3 Mismatch uncertainty 1526.6.4 Adapter uncertainty 1536.6.5 Device repeatability 153

6.7 Examples 1546.8 Conclusions 157References 157






xii Contents

7 Modular systems for RF and microwave measurements 160Jin Bains

7.1 Introduction 1607.1.1 Virtual instrumentation 1617.1.2 Instrumentation standards for modular instruments 1637.1.3 PXI architecture 1657.1.4 The role of graphical system design software 1677.1.5 Architecture of RF modular instruments 169

7.2 Understanding software-designed systems 1717.2.1 Measurement speed 171

7.3 Multi-channel measurement systems 1757.3.1 Phase coherence and synchronization 1767.3.2 MIMO 1797.3.3 Direction finding 1807.3.4 Phase array 183

7.4 Highly customized measurement systems 1847.4.1 IQ data conditioning (flatness calibration) 1847.4.2 Streaming 1847.4.3 Integrating FPGA technology 186

7.5 Evolution of graphical system design 1897.6 Summary 190References 191

Part III Linear measurements 193

8 Two-port network analyzer calibration 195Andrea Ferrero

8.1 Introduction 1958.2 Error model 1958.3 One-port calibration 1988.4 Two-port VNA error model 201

8.4.1 Eight-term error model 2028.4.2 Forward reverse error model 204

8.5 Calibration procedures 2078.5.1 TSD/TRL procedure 2088.5.2 SOLR procedure 2108.5.3 LRM procedure 2118.5.4 SOLT procedure 215

8.6 Recent developments 2168.7 Conclusion 217References 217






Contents xiii

9 Multiport and differential S-parameter measurements 219Valeria Teppati and Andrea Ferrero

9.1 Introduction 2199.2 Multiport S-parameters measurement methods 220

9.2.1 Calibration of a complete reflectometer multiport VNA 2219.2.2 Calibration of a partial reflectometer multiport VNA 2259.2.3 Multiport measurement example 229

9.3 Mixed-mode S-parameter measurements 2309.3.1 Mixed-mode multiport measurement example 235

References 237

10 Noise figure characterization 240Nerea Otegi, Juan-Mari Collantes, and Mohamed Sayed

10.1 Introduction 24010.2 Noise figure fundamentals 241

10.2.1 Basic definitions and concepts 24110.2.2 Two noise figure characterization concepts:

Y-factor and cold-source 24610.3 Y-factor technique 24710.4 Cold-source technique 24910.5 Common sources of error 251

10.5.1 Mismatch 25210.5.2 Temperature effects 25810.5.3 Measurement setup 260

10.6 Noise figure characterization of mixers 26510.6.1 Noise figure definitions for frequency translating devices 26610.6.2 Obtaining the SSB noise figure from Y-factor and cold-source 270

10.7 Conclusion 274References 275

11 TDR-based S-parameters 279Peter J. Pupalaikis and Kaviyesh Doshi

11.1 Introduction 27911.2 TDR pulser/sampler architecture 27911.3 TDR timebase architecture 28211.4 TDR methods for determining wave direction 28611.5 Basic method for TDR-based S-parameter measurement 29011.6 Summary of key distinctions between TDR and VNA 29311.7 Dynamic range calculations 29411.8 Dynamic range implications 29811.9 Systematic errors and uncertainty due to measurement noise

in a network analyzer 30011.9.1 Error propagation for a one-port DUT 300






xiv Contents

11.10 Conclusions 304References 304

Part IV Nonlinear measurements 307

12 Vector network analysis for nonlinear systems 309Yves Rolain, Gerd Vandersteen, and Maarten Schoukens

12.1 Introduction 30912.2 Is there a need for nonlinear analysis? 309

12.2.1 The plain-vanilla linear time-invariant world 30912.2.2 Departure from LTI 31012.2.3 Measuring a non-LTI system 31012.2.4 Figures of merit to characterize the nonlinearity 311

12.3 The basic assumptions 31212.3.1 Restricting the class of systems: PISPO systems 31312.3.2 Influence of the excitation signal 31512.3.3 The definition of the nonlinear operating point 320

12.4 Principle of operation of an NVNA 32012.4.1 Introduction 32012.4.2 Basic requirements for nonlinear characterization 32112.4.3 A calibration for nonlinear measurements 323

12.5 Translation to instrumentation 32712.5.1 Oscilloscope-based receiver setups 32812.5.2 Sampler-based receiver setups 33112.5.3 VNA-based setups 33812.5.4 IQ-modulator based setups 341

12.6 Conclusion, problems, and future perspectives 342References 343

13 Load- and source-pull techniques 345Valeria Teppati, Andrea Ferrero, and Gian Luigi Madonna

13.1 Introduction 34513.2 Setting the load conditions: passive techniques 347

13.2.1 Basics 34813.2.2 Harmonic load-pull with passive tuners 349

13.3 Setting the load conditions: active, open-looptechniques 350

13.4 Setting the load conditions: active-loop techniques 35213.4.1 Active loop: basics 35213.4.2 Stability analysis of the active loop 35313.4.3 Practical active-loop implementations 35513.4.4 Wideband load-pull 35613.4.5 Combining passive tuners and active techniques 357






Contents xv

13.5 Measuring the DUT single-frequency characteristics 35913.5.1 Real-time vs. non-real-time load-pull measurements 36013.5.2 Calibration of real-time systems 36113.5.3 Mixed-mode, harmonic load-pull systems 365

13.6 Measuring the DUT time domain waveforms 36813.6.1 Load-pull waveform techniques in the time domain 36813.6.2 Load-pull waveform techniques in the frequency domain 37013.6.3 Other calibration approaches 37313.6.4 Measurement examples 374

13.7 Real-time source-pull techniques 37513.8 Conclusions 378References 379

14 Broadband large-signal measurements for linearity optimization 384Marco Spirito and Mauro Marchetti

14.1 Introduction 38414.2 Electrical delay in load-pull systems 38514.3 Broadband load-pull architectures 386

14.3.1 Detection scheme 38614.3.2 RF front-end 38814.3.3 System calibration 392

14.4 Broadband loads 39214.4.1 Closed-loop active loads 39214.4.2 Mixed-signal active loads 395

14.5 System operating frequency and bandwidth 40014.6 Injection power and load amplifer linearity 40014.7 Baseband impedance control 40314.8 Broadband large-signal measurement examples 405

14.8.1 IMD asymmetries measurements 40514.8.2 Phase delay cancellation 40714.8.3 High power measurements with modulated signals 408

References 411

15 Pulse and RF measurement 414Anthony Parker

15.1 Introduction 41415.2 Dynamic characteristics 41415.3 Large-signal isodynamic measurements 417

15.3.1 Measurement outside safe-operating areas 41815.3.2 Pulsed-RF characteristics 418

15.4 Dynamic processes 41815.4.1 Temperature and self-heating 41915.4.2 Charge trapping 420






xvi Contents

15.4.3 Impact ionization 42215.5 Transient measurements 423

15.5.1 Measurement of gate lag 42315.5.2 Time evolution characteristics 426

15.6 Pulsed measurement equipment 42715.6.1 System architecture 42715.6.2 Timing 430

15.7 Broadband RF linearity measurements 43115.7.1 Weakly nonlinear intermodulation 43215.7.2 Intermodulation from self-heating 43315.7.3 Measuring heating response 43515.7.4 Measuring charge trapping response 43615.7.5 Measurement of impact ionization 437

15.8 Further investigation 438References 439

Index 442






Preface

In the last few years, the field of microwave testing has been evolving rapidly with thedevelopment and introduction of digital techniques and microprocessor based instru-ments, and reaching higher and higher frequencies. Nevertheless, the basic underlyingconcepts, such as frequency synthesis, network analysis and calibration, and spectrumanalysis, still constrain even the more modern equipment.

In recent years, microwave instrumentation has had to meet new testing requirements,from 3G and now LTE wireless networks, for millimeter wave and THz applications. Thusinstrumentation and measurement techniques have evolved from traditional instruments,such as vector network analyzers (VNAs), to increasingly more complex multifunctionplatforms, managing time and frequency domains in a unified, extensive approach.

We can identify two main directions of evolution:

• linear measurements, essentially S-parameter techniques;• nonlinear measurements, for high power and nonlinear device characterization.

S-parameter measurements have been moving towards the multiport and millimeter wavefields. The first to characterize multi-channel transmission structures such as digitalbuses, and the latter for space or short-range radio communication or security scannerapplications. New calibrations and instrument architectures have been introduced toimprove accuracy, versatility and speed.

Nonlinear applications have also evolved. Traditional high power transistor charac-terization by load-pull techniques now also typically includes time domain waveformmeasurements under nonlinear conditions. These techniques can nowadays also handlethe broadband signals used in most communication links, or pulsed signals. Moreover,even nonlinear measurements had to evolve to multiport, with differential and com-mon mode impedance tuning, due to the spreading of amplifiers and devices exploitingdifferential configuration.

The idea of a comprehensive book on microwave measurement was born when wenoticed that the knowledge of these modern instrumentation and measurement techniqueswas scattered inside different books or papers, sometimes dealing more with design ormodeling than with the measurement itself or the metrological aspects, and there was norecent book covering these topics extensively.






xviii Preface

We thus tried to make an effort to produce a book that could:

• give an overview of modern techniques for measurements at microwave frequencies;• be as complete and comprehensive as possible, giving general concepts in a

unitary way;• treat modern techniques, i.e. the state of the art and all the most recent developments.

As editors of the book, we have been honored to work with several international expertsin the field, who contributed their invaluable experience to the various chapters of thisbook. This multi-author approach should guarantee the reader a deep understanding ofsuch a complex and sophisticated matter as microwave measurements.

The book is structured in four main sections:

1. general concepts2. microwave instrumentation3. linear measurement techniques4. nonlinear measurement techniques.

An already expert reader may directly jump to a specific topic, to read about innova-tive instruments or techniques, such as synthesizers, modular RF instruments, multiportVNAs or broadband load-pull techniques, or follow the book’s organization that willguide him/her through the development of the instruments and their applications.

Fifteen chapters form the body of the four book sections. Two of them describe funda-mentals, from the theory behind the S-parameters to the interconnections; five chaptersare then devoted to microwave instrumentation: synthesizers, network and spectrumanalyzers, power meters, up to modern microwave modular instrumentation. The thirdsection on linear measurements covers traditional two-port S-parameter calibration,multiport S-parameter techniques, noise measurements and time domain reflectome-try techniques. Finally the last section on nonlinear measurements describes nonlinearVNAs, load-pull, broadband load-pull, and concludes with pulsed measurements.

All the content is correlated with details on metrological aspects whenever possible,and with some examples of typical use, though we have tried to be as independent aspossible of a specific device under test and to concentrate on the measurement techniquerather than the particular application.






Contributors

Jin BainsNational Instruments Corp., USA

Alexander ChenakinPhase Matrix, Inc., USA

Juan-Mari CollantesUniversity of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain

Kaviyesh DoshiTeledyne LeCroy, USA

Andrea FerreroPolitecnico di Torino, Italy

Ronald GinleyNIST, USA

Leonard HaydenTeledyne LeCroy, USA

Gian Luigi MadonnaABB Corporate Research, Baden, Switzerland

Mauro MarchettiAnteverta Microwave B.V., the Netherlands

Jon MartensAnritsu Company, USA

Nerea OtegiUniversity of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain

Anthony ParkerMacquarie University, Sydney, Australia

Roger PollardAgilent Technologies, USA and University of Leeds, United Kingdom

Peter J. PupalaikisTeledyne LeCroy, USA






xx List of contributors

Yves RolainVrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium

Mohamed SayedMicrowave and Millimeter Wave Solutions, USA

Maarten SchoukensVrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium

Marcus Da SilvaTektronix Inc., USA

Marco SpiritoDelft University of Technology, the Netherlands

Valeria TeppatiETH Zürich, Switzerland

Gerd VandersteenVrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium






Abbreviations

ACLR Adjacent Channel Leakage RatioACPR Adjacent Channel Power RatioAD Analog-to-DigitalADC Analog-to-Digital ConverterADS Advanced Design SystemALC Automatic Level ControlAM Amplitude ModulationASB All-Side-BandAWG Arbitrary Waveform GeneratorBER Bit Error RateBWO Backward Wave OscillatorsCDMA Code Division Multiple AccessCIS Coherent Interleaved SamplingCMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide SemiconductorCPU Central Processing UnitCPW CoPlanar WaveguideCRT Cathode Ray TubeCW Continuous WaveCZT Chirp Zeta TransformDAC Digital-to-Analog ConverterDDC Digital Down ConverterDDS Direct Digital SynthesizerDFT Discrete Fourier TransformDMM Digital MultimeterDPD Digital Pre-Distortion – used to linearize power amplifiersDPX Digital Phosphor Processing – Tektronix implementation of a variable

persistence spectrum display.DSA Discrete-time Spectrum AnalyzerDSB Double Side BandDSP Digital Signal ProcessingDTC Digital to Time ConverterDTFT Discrete-Time Fourier TransformDUT Device Under TestDVM Digital Volt Meter






xxii List of abbreviations

DWT Discrete Wavelet TransformEDA Electronic Design & AutomationEDGE Enhanced Data rates for GSM EvolutioneLRRMTM enhanced Line-Reflect-Reflect Match (Cascade Microtech)ENR Excess Noise RatioEVM Error Vector MagnitudeFEM Finite Element MethodFET Field Effect TransistorFEXT Far End CrossTalkFFT Fast Fourier transformFM Frequency ModulationFMT Frequency Mask TriggerFOM Figure of MeritFPGA Field-Programmable Gate ArraysGMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift KeyedGPIB General Purpose Interface BusGPU Graphics Processing UnitGSG Ground-Signal-GroundGSM Global System for Mobile CommunicationsGUI Graphical User InterfaceHBT Heterojunction Bipolar TransistorHEMT High Electron Mobility TransistorHW HardWareI In-phase component of vector modulationIC Integrated CircuitIDE Integrated Drive ElectronicsIDFT Inverse Discrete Fourier transformIDWT Discrete Wavelet TransformIEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersIF Intermediate FrequencyIFFT Inverse Fast Fourier TransformIL Insertion LossIM3 Third-order Inter Modulation distortionIM5 Fifth-order Inter Modulation distortionIMD Inter Modulation DistortionIP Intellectual PropertyIQ Cartesian vector modulation format – In-phase and Quadrature.IVI Interchangeable Virtual InstrumentsJTFA Joint Time-Frequency AnalysisKCL Kirchhoff’s Current LawKVL Kirchhoff’s Voltage LawLAN Local Area NetworkLCD Liquid Crystal DisplayLDMOS Laterally Diffused Metal Oxide Semiconductor






List of abbreviations xxiii

LO Local OscillatorLPF Low Pass FilterLRL Line Reflect LineLRM Line Reflect MatchLSNA Large Signal Network AnalyzerLTE Long Term EvolutionLTI Linear Time InvariantLUT Look Up TableLXI LAN eXtensions for InstrumentationMESFET MEtal-Semiconductor Field Effect TransistorMIMO Multiple Input Multiple OutputMMIC Monolithic Microwave Integrated CircuitMTA Microwave Transition AnalyzerNCO Numerically Controlled OscillatorNEXT Near End CrossTalkNF Noise FigureNFA Noise Figure AnalyzerNIST National Institute of Standards and TechnologyNVNA Nonlinear Vector Network AnalyzerOFDM Orthogonal Frequency-Division MultiplexingOIP2 Output Second Order Intercept PointOIP3 Output Third Order Intercept PointORFS Output RF SpectrumOS Operating SystemP2P Peer-to-PeerPA Power AmplifierPAE Power Added EfficiencyPC Personal ComputerPCB Printed Circuit BoardPCI Peripheral Component InterconnectPCMCIA Personal Computer Memory Card International AssociationPDF Probability Density FunctionPFER Phase and Frequency ErrorpHEMT pseudomorphic High Electron Mobility TransistorPICMG PCI Industrial Computer Manufacturers GroupPISPO Periodic In, Same Period OutPLL Phase Locked LoopPM Phase ModulationPMC PCI Mezzanine CardPVT Power Versus TimePXI PCI eXtensions for InstrumentationPXISA PXI Systems AllianceQ Quadrature component of vector modulationQMF Quadrature Mirror Filter






xxiv List of abbreviations

QSOLT Quick Short Open Load ThruRAID Redundant Array of Inexpensive DisksRAM Random Access MemoryRBW Resolution BandWidth- The minimum bandwidth that can be resolved

in a spectrum analyzer display.RF Radio FrequencyRL Return LossRMS Root Mean SquareROM Read Only MemoryRSA Tektronix nomenclature for its real-time signal analyzer familyRSS Root Sum of SquaresRTSA Real-Time Signal AnalyzerSA Spectrum AnalyzerSATA Serial Advanced Technology AttachmentSI Signal IntegritySMVR R&S nomenclature for its real-time signal analyzer familySNR Signal to Noise RatioSOL Short Open LoadSOLT Short Open Load ThruSSB Single-Side BandSW SoftWareSWR Standing Wave RatioTDEMI Gauss Instruments nomenclature for its real-time spectrum analyzers

targeted at emissions measurementTDMA Time Division Multiple AccessTDR Time Domain ReflectometryTDT Time Domain TransmissionTE Transverse ElectricTEM Transverse ElectroMagneticTL Transmission LineTM Transverse MagneticTOI Third Order InterceptTRL Thru Reflect LineTSD Thru Short DelayTXP Transmit PowerUHF Ultra High FrequencyUML Universal Modeling LanguageUSB Universal Serial BusVCO Voltage Controlled OscillatorVISA Virtual Instrument Software ArchitectureVNA Vector Network AnalyzerVPN Virtual Private NetworkVSA Vector Signal AnalyzerVSG Vector Signal Generator






List of abbreviations xxv

VSWR Voltage Standing Wave RatioVXI VMEbus eXtensions for InstrumentationW-CDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple AccessWLAN Wireless Local Area NetworkYIG Yttrium-Iron-Garnet






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