1. McKinsey Global InstituteMyanmars moment:Unique opportunities,major challengesJune 2013

2. Copyright McKinsey & Company 2013The McKinsey Global InstituteThe McKinsey Global Institute (MGI), the business and economics researcharm of McKinsey & Company, was established in 1990 to develop a deeperunderstanding of the evolving global economy. Our goal is to provide leaders inthe commercial, public, and social sectors with the facts and insights on which tobase management and policy decisions.MGI research combines the disciplines of economics and management, employingthe analytical tools of economics with the insights of business leaders. Ourmicro-to-macro methodology examines microeconomic industry trends to betterunderstand the broad macroeconomic forces affecting business strategy andpublic policy. MGIs in-depth reports have covered more than 20 countries and30 industries. Current research focuses on four themes: productivity and growth;the evolution of global financial markets; the economic impact of technology andinnovation; and urbanisation. Recent research covers job creation, infrastructureproductivity, cities of the future, and the impact of the Internet.MGI is led by McKinsey & Company directors Richard Dobbs and JamesManyika. Michael Chui, Susan Lund, Jaana Remes, and Yougang Chen serve asMGI principals. Project teams are led by a group of senior fellows and includeconsultants from McKinseys offices around the world. These teams draw onMcKinseys global network of partners and industry and management experts. Inaddition, leading economists, including Nobel laureates, act as research advisers.The partners of McKinsey & Company fund MGIs research; it is not commissionedby any business, government, or other institution. For further information aboutMGI and to download reports, please visit www.mckinsey.com/mgi.McKinsey & Company in ASEANMcKinsey & Company is a global management consulting firm that helps manyof the worlds leading organisations address their challenges. With consultantsdeployed in more than 50 countries across the globe, McKinsey advises 95 of the100 largest corporations, government agencies in more than 85 countries, andleading institutions in the social sector on strategic, operational, organisational,and technological issues. For more than eight decades, the firms primaryobjective has been to serve as an organisations most trusted external adviser oncritical issues facing senior management.Situated in a region of unique economic, cultural, and religious diversity,McKinsey & Company in Southeast Asia is one of the Firms fastest-growingoffice complexes. Since McKinsey established Jakarta as its first office in theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region in 1995, it has openedoffices in Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand, and, most recently, inVietnam in 2008. With a team of more than 300 global and local professionals,McKinsey has served clients across the public, private, and social sectors in theregion to address their most important challenges as Southeast Asia grows as animportant, integrated regional market. McKinsey & Company in Southeast Asia isled by McKinsey director Oliver Tonby. 3. McKinsey Global InstituteHeang ChhorRichard DobbsDoan Nguyen HansenFraser ThompsonNancy ShahLukas StreiffJune 2013Myanmars moment:Unique opportunities,major challenges 4. Between June 5 and 7, the World Economic Forum on East Asia meets in NayPyi Taw, Myanmars new capital city. The fact that Myanmar is hosting sucha high-profile international gathering of luminaries from industry, government,and academia is a firm signal of the worlds interest in this countrys economicprospects. Myanmars economy is relatively smallonly 0.2percent of the Asianeconomy overall. Yet the potential of Myanmars economy is currently subjectto intense curiosity. Myanmar is a very unusual case: a large country with a richhistory that remains an underdeveloped agrarian economy in the heart of theworlds fastest-growing regional economyperhaps one of the few remaining,largely untapped markets in the world.It is in this context that the McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) decided to launch aresearch project on Myanmars economy. Very little is known about it, and dataare generally lacking or of questionable accuracy. We nevertheless have tried tobuild as strong a fact base for our analysis as possible under the circumstances.A MGI team based in Myanmar for four months collected data from a range ofgovernment agencies with the help of local researchers, and conducted fieldresearch and more than 200 interviews with experts, political leaders, andbusiness people. We used data from international organisations including theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, UN Development Programme(UNDP), and Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU). We also used comparison datafrom many other countries that have undergone transitions similar to thatwhich could be in prospect in Myanmar today. While the unreliability of data isundeniably an issue, our hope is that this assessment will be a starting point forthose looking to better understand Myanmars economic prospects.In this report, we discuss Myanmars new beginning after a long period ofeconomic stagnation and look at how the economy might develop. We have usedMGIs experience of bottom-up sector analysis to size the potential economicopportunity of Myanmars key sectors in the period to 2030both in terms oftheir contribution to GDP and the creation of jobs. We highlight the importance ofraising labour productivity across the economy. We have also looked at four areasthat arguably deserve a greater focus: (1) the fact that Myanmars transformationis beginning in the digital age, giving the country the opportunity to leapfrog inits development; (2) the importance of a structural shift towards manufacturing;(3) the impending urbanisation of Myanmar and the imperative to prepare forit; and (4) how to quickly reconnect to the global economy through investment,trade, and people. The task Myanmar faces is monumentalvirtually everyaspect of economic and social development is on the agendaand we close thereport with a discussion of some of the implications for government as well asbusinesses from Myanmar and overseas.Preface 5. Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteHeang Chhor, a McKinsey director in Singapore, and Richard Dobbs, a McKinseyand MGI director in Seoul, led this research together with Doan Nguyen Hansen,a partner in Vietnam, and Fraser Thompson, an MGI senior fellow in London.Consultant Nancy Shah led the Myanmar-based project team, which consisted ofKuntala Karkun, Stephanie Knight, Meik Laufer, Lukas Streiff, and Christabel Su-Huey Sunmugam, with help from Tim McEvoy, an MGI research fellow.We are grateful for the advice and input of many McKinsey colleagues, includingJonathan Ablett, Suvradipta Banerjee, Timothy Beacom, Shannon Bouton,Marco Breu, Martin Checinski, Li-Kai Chen, Nicola Chiara, Mutsa Chironga,Brian Cooperman, Eoin Daly, Dumitru Dediu, Driek Desmet, Georges Desveaux,Lucia Fiorito, Michael Fleming, Francois Godin, Andrew Grant, Anna Gressel-Bacharan, Shishir Gupta, Supriya Handa, Johan Hesselse, Jimmy Hexter,Eduardo Doryan Jara, Martin Joerss, Karen Jones, Priyanka Kamra, AnushiaKandasamy, Duncan Kauffman, Tomas Koch, Kinshuk Kocher, Elif Kutsal, PeterLambert, Cecile Lavrard, Jean-Christophe Lebraud, Armin Lohr, Susan Lund,Anu Madgavkar, Laurie Mahon, Alan Martin, Tobias Meyer, Jan Mischke, EllenMo, Sabrina Mustopo, Derek Neilson, Bettina Neuhaus, Stagg Newman, RaoulOberman, Gordon Orr, Vivek Pandit, Moira Pierce, Herbert Pohl, Ali Potia, TamaraRajah, Sree Ramaswamy, Lou Rassey, Markus Rebman, Stefan Rehbach, JaanaRemes, Alfonso Villanueva Rodriguez, Sunali Rohra, Morten Ross, LorraineSalazar, Brian Salsberg, Sunil Sanghvi, Shirish Sankhe, Halldor Sigurdsson, VivienSinger, Seelan Singham, Pornnipa Srivipapattana, Matt Stone, Jennifer Sternberg,Tilman Tacke, Nadia Terfous, Oliver Tonby, Asli Ucyigit, Danny Van Dooren, SergioSandoval Villalba, Jue Wang, Jonathan Woetzel, and Haimeng Zhang.The team benefited from the contributions of Janet Bush, MGI senior editor, andRoger Malone, who provided editorial support; Penny Burtt and Rebeca Robboy,for their help on external relations; Julie Philpot, MGIs editorial productionmanager; and Marisa Carder and Joanne Willis, visual graphics specialists.We would like to give particular thanks to the advisers on this project: MartinBaily, Bernard L. Schwartz Chair in Economic Policy Development at theBrookings Institution; Richard Cooper, Maurits C. Boas Professor of InternationalEconomics at Harvard University; Richard Horsey, independent Myanmar analyst;Nobel Laureate A. Michael Spence, William R. Berkley Professor in Economicsand Business at the Leonard N. Stern School of Business, New York University,and chairman of the Commission on Growth and Development; and Sean Turnell,professor of economics at Macquarie University, Sydney. 6. Many experts in Myanmar and around the world from the fields of academia,government, and business have also offered invaluable guidance, suggestions,and advice. We are very grateful to Nay Aung, founder and CEO, Oway CompanyLimited; U Set Aung, deputy minister, Ministry of National Planning andEconomic Development; U Toe Aung, head of the urban planning unit, YangonCity Development Committee; Elinor Bajrakthari, programme adviser, UNDP;Antonio Berenguer, head of trade and economic section, EU Mission to Myanmar;Sharad Bhandari, Principal Country Specialist, Asian Development Bank; OliverBientzle, counsellor and deputy head of mission, German Embassy in Yangon;Romain Caillaud, managing director, Myanmar office, Vriens & Partners; AelaCallan, independent film maker; Shon Campbell, manager, Myanmar InformationManagement Unit (MIMU); Alex Chan, executive vice chairman, Jebsen & Jessen;Adam Cooper, country representative in Myanmar, Centre for HumanitarianDialogue; Professor David Dapice, Ash Center for Democratic Governanceand Innovation at Harvard Kennedy School; Matt Davies, chief of mission toMyanmar, IMF; Daw Debbie Aung Din, director, Proximity Designs; FergusEckersley, head of economic relations and trade, British Embassy in Yangon;Jeff Glekin, head of economic diplomacy, Foreign and Commonwealth Office,United Kingdom; Andy Hall, migration consultant, International ManagementGroup (IMG); Philipp Hoffmann, general manager, JJ-Pun Limited; Nang Mo Hom,researcher, Myanmar Development Research (MDR); U Sai Sam Htun, chairman,Loi Hein Group; Heinrich Jessen, chairman, Jebsen & Jessen; Putu Kamayana,head, extended mission in Myanmar, Asian Development Bank; ShumawaKhin and associates, My Republic; Jong-Inn Kim, lead energy specialist, AsianDevelopment Bank; Andrew Kirkwood, fund director, Livelihoods and FoodSecurity Trust Fund (LIFT); Morten Kvammen, managing partner, M-Invest; UAung Myat Kyaw, vice chairman, Myanmar Tourism Federation; U Maung MaungLay, vice president, Union of Myanmar Federation of Chambers of Commerce andIndustry (UMFCCI); U Than Lwin, deputy chairman, KBZ Bank; Steve Marshall,liaison officer Myanmar, International Labour Organization (ILO); Bront Moules,Australian ambassador to Myanmar; Nikolas Myint, country manager, World Bank;U Myint, chief, Economic Advisory Unit, Presidents Office; U Thant Myint-U,member of the National Economic and Social Advisory Council (NESAC), andchairman, Yangon Heritage Trust; Daw Khine Khine Nwe, joint secretary general,UMFCCI, and member of the Myanmar Investment Commission (MIC); CheongYew Ng, centre director Yangon, International Enterprise Singapore; Daw HlaingMaw Oo, deputy director, Department for Human Settlement and HousingDevelopment, Ministry of Construction; U Aung Naing Oo, director general,Directorate of Investment and Company Administration, Ministry of NationalPlanning and Economic Development; U Tin Htut Oo, chairman of NESAC;U Zaw Oo, executive director, Myanmar Development Resources Institute;Isabell Poppelbaum, political adviser, European Union Delegation to Myanmar;Anthony Preston, second secretary, British Embassy in Rangoon; U Serge Pun,chairman, Serge Pun & Associates (Myanmar) Limited; Khin Moe Samm, chiefexecutive, Myanmar Egress; U Wai Lin Saw, special adviser to the under secretarygeneral of the United Nations and executive secretary of the UN Economic andSocial Commission for Asia and the Pacific; Fritz Graf von der Schulenberg,executive vice chairman, Jebsen & Jessen; Charles Schneider, country director,International Finance Corporation; Sunil Seth, country head, Tata International;Kanthan Shankar, country manager, World Bank; U Hla Maung Shwe, vicepresident, UMFCCI, and vice president, Myanmar Egress; Michael Slingsby,adviser, UN-HABITAT; Doug Sonnek, head of economic and political section,United States Embassy in Rangoon; U Soe Thane, minister for Presidents 7. Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteOffice, Ministry for Presidents Office; U Kyaw Thane, vice president, UMFCCI;U Tin Maung Thann, president, Myanmar Egress, member of NESAC; WaiyanMoe Thone Thann, assistant to the minister, Ministry for Presidents office; AyeThiha, CEO, Thiha Group; Myat The Thitsar, CEO, MDR; Myat Thet Thitsar, COO,MDR; Matthew Tippetts, managing partner, M-Invest; Luc de Waegh, founderand managing partner, West Indochina; Lisa Weedon, director, UK Trade &Investment; U Nyan Win, data officer, MIMU; and Paul Wittingham, head of office,Department for International Development, United Kingdom.We would also like to thank the participants of two surveys related tomanufacturing and foreign direct investment conducted for this report. Theforeign direct investment survey was conducted with the support of the CIMBASEAN Research Institute.This report contributes to MGIs mission to help global leaders understand theforces transforming the global economy, identify strategic locations, and preparefor the next wave of growth. As with all MGI research, we would like to emphasisethat this work is independent and has not been commissioned or sponsored inany way by any business, government, or other institution.Richard DobbsDirector, McKinsey Global InstituteSeoulJames ManyikaDirector, McKinsey Global InstituteSan FranciscoJune 2013 8. The challenge ...average productivity of a worker inMyanmar today, about 70percent belowthat of benchmark Asian countries$1,500additional people toabsorb in Myanmarslarge cities by 203010millionof average schooling in Myanmar(UN Development Programme,Human development report, 2013)4 yearstotal investment needed by 2030to support growth potential,$320billion in infrastructure alone$650billion 9. ... and the opportunityPotentialto achieveGDP in 2030, over four times as high as today$200billion+additional non-agricultural jobs by 2030Potentialto createmore than10millionmembers of the consuming class in 2030 from 2.5million in 2010With spending potentially tripling from$35billion to $100billion, an estimated19millionpeople living in countries bordering Myanmarand the closest parts of China and India,a huge potential market500million 10. Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteContentsExecutive summary 11. Myanmars new start 122. A $200billion opportunity but potential for disappointment 313. Four keys to unlocking Myanmars potential 514. Implications for the government and the private sector 105Appendix: Technical notes 112Bibliography126 11. 1Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteMyanmar is at a pivotal moment.1The government has ushered in a series ofpolitical and economic reforms after decades of authoritarianism, a revivedpeace process is under way to address on-going ethnic conflicts and communalviolence, and the foundations of an open market economy are being laid afteryears of isolation.There is everything to play forbut also a major risk of disappointment. Today,Myanmar is enjoying a groundswell of goodwill from an international communitythat is keen to support the country in its process of change and opening.Investors are understandably interested in this highly unusual and potentiallypromising market prospect. Myanmar is at the heart of the worlds fastest-growing region and begins its transformation in the digital age. Severe under-development, after nearly a century of economic stagnation, poses fundamentalchallenges for an economy that now only contributes 0.2 percent of Asias GDP.But it also gives Myanmar an opportunity to use its greenfield situation to leapfrogover intermediate stages of economic development and to create sufficient jobsto meet the high expectations of its people.Much uncertainty remains. Investors are actively considering Myanmar, butmany want reassurance that the government can resolve ethnic and communalviolence, maintain its momentum towards political and economic reform, andease constraints on doing business. Those political and economic choices willdetermine the sustainability of change and the level of interest from investors andsupportersand therefore the success of Myanmars economic transformation.By developing a diversified set of sectors, Myanmar has the potential to more thanquadruple the size of its economy to over $200billion by 2030. But if it fails tobuild a compelling growth plan and implement it effectively, todays goodwill andcautious optimism could evaporate all too rapidly.In this report, the McKinsey Global Institute (MGI), the business and economicsresearch arm of McKinsey & Company, assesses the economic potential thatMyanmar offers and explores how the nation can seize todays window ofopportunity to vault itself into a new era of growth and development. To undertakethis research, we have had to make more than typical estimations, given issueswith reliability of data on Myanmar. These estimations should be a starting pointfor those looking to better understand Myanmars potential.1 The ruling military junta changed the name of the country from Burma to Myanmar in 1989,and this remains the official name today. For this reason, despite the fact that many partiesinside and outside the country do not recognise the nomenclature, we have opted to useMyanmar throughout this report.Executive summary 12. 2Myanmar is at an early stage in its economicdevelopment but has some undeniable advantagesMyanmar has largely missed the enormous progress in growth, productivity,and poverty spreading across Asia. But as long as Myanmar stays the courseon reform and transformation, it has a number of intrinsic assets and a highlysupportive external environment on which to build.MYANMAR LAGS BEHIND ASIA AFTER YEARS OFECONOMIC STAGNATIONBetween 1900 and 1990, the global economy achieved average GDP growthof 3percent a year. But Myanmars growth was strikingly low, estimated atonly 1.6percent a year. During this period, global per capita GDP quadrupled;Myanmars was virtually stagnant.Since 1990, Myanmars growth has picked up, but it is still much weaker thanthe growth rates common across Asia. From 1990 to 2010, we estimate thatMyanmars GDP grew at an average of 4.7percent a year, which was slower thanthe average annual growth of nearly 6percent posted by its Asian neighbours.Myanmars per capita GDP grew at a compound annual growth rate of2.7percent, compared with the Asian average of 4.2percent.Myanmars low per capita GDP is largely due to the fact that it has missed outon Asias remarkable improvement in labour productivity. On average, a workerin Myanmar adds only $1,500 of economic value in a year of work, around70percent less than the average of seven other Asian economies (Exhibit E1).SOURCE: Economist Intelligence Unit; The Conference Board Total Economy Database; McKinsey Global Institute analysisMyanmars weak per capita GDP is due to low labour productivityExhibit E1Decomposition of per capita GDP (real), 2010NOTE: Not to scale. May not sum due to rounding. 2.50.8MyanmarVietnam 1.2India 1.4Philippines 2.0Sri Lanka 2.3Indonesia 3.0China 4.4Thailand 4.8-69%5055403633455757 47+7%1.5-71%2.23.65.56.86.57.88.4 5.3Per capita GDP2010 $ thousandEmployment/population%Labour productivity2010 $ thousand= 13. 3Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteThe modest acceleration in Myanmars GDP growth over the past 20 years hasbeen due largely to an expanding population, rather than productivity growth. It isweak productivity that underlies Myanmars low per capita GDP. This productivitygap exists across all sectors but also reflects the fact that Myanmars economycontinues to rely very heavily on agriculture, a low-productivity sector in mostcountries. Indeed, in Myanmar, agricultures share of GDP actually rose from35percent in 1965 to 44percent in 2010while that share was dropping sharplyin other Asian economies as they developed their manufacturing and servicesectors. In the rest of Asia, the average share of agriculture in overall GDP in 2010was 12percent.The rest of the world has seen economic growth partially driven by a ballooningconsumer classpeople with incomes of more than $10 a day at purchasingpower parity (PPP) who can spend money on discretionary goods and servicesas well as basic necessitiesbut because of its long history of weak growth,Myanmar remains a very poor country. Today, 35percent of the worldspopulation belongs to the global consuming class, and of the 2.5billion people inthe global consuming class, 40percent, or onebillion, live in Asia. However, only4 percent of Myanmars population falls into this category.BUT MYANMAR HAS UNDENIABLE ADVANTAGESDespite facing major challenges, Myanmar does have intrinsic strengths; it isfortunate in its location and that it is starting its reforms during the digital era.Among Myanmars intrinsic strengths are its rich endowments of natural gas,oil, and precious and semi-precious stonesthough the experience of othercountries shows that resources can be a mixed blessing.. Myanmar accountsfor 90percent of the worlds jade production and is among the top producers ofrubies and sapphires. Myanmar also has the 25th-largest endowment of arableland and ten times the per capita water endowment of China and India. Myanmaris blessed with a large working-age population (aged 15 to 64) estimatedat 46million out of an estimated population of 60million, and an estimatedthreemillion to fivemillion migrants working abroad whose experience wouldbenefit the country if they were to return home.Myanmar is also fortunate in its location at the crossroads between Bangladesh,China, India, Laos, and Thailand, countries that are home to more than40percent of the worlds population and are huge potential markets. Overall,Myanmar is close to a market of more than half abillion people.2And by 2025over half of the worlds consuming class, that is, those with income of more than$10 a day, will live within a five-hour flight of Myanmar. Not only are such Asianeconomies growing rapidly but economic integration in the region is gatheringmomentum, and Myanmar is part of that process. It chairs the Association ofSouth East Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 2014. In addition, Myanmar is garneringconsiderable support from multilateral institutions and donors. Sanctions arebeing lifted, and foreign governments have opened embassies after many yearsof absence. Dozens of trade delegations have visited Myanmar in the past yearalone, an indication of interest from potential investors.2 All figures are for 2010 and sourced from the United Nations and Chinas National Bureau ofStatistics, except for the population of the Indian provinces, which come from Indias censusin 2011. 14. 4Moreover, with little legacy infrastructure in place, Myanmar can use digitaltechnology to avoid some of the cost of a more conventional bricks-and-mortar approach to such sectors as banking, retail, education, health care, andagriculture. It also can build the connections that can give even the poorestcommunities in remote rural areas access to economic opportunity andpublic services.Myanmar could quadruple its economy to 2030,but risks disappointingIf current demographic trends continue and labour productivity growth remainsthe same as it has been over the past 20 years, annual GDP growth could beas low as 3.7percent. However, Myanmar has the potential to achieve rapideconomic growth equivalent to 8percent per annum if it takes action to tap thefull potential of all seven key sectors of its economy. Expanding these sevensectors (Manufacturing, Agriculture, Infrastructure, Energy/Mining, Tourism,Financial Services, and Telecom) could more than quadruple the size of theeconomy from $45billion in 2010 to over $200billion in 2030 and per capita GDP(PPP) could rise from $1,300 in 2010 to $5,100 by 2030. By 2030, this could movearound 18million people out of poverty (lifting individuals to earnings of above$1.25per day).3The recent experience of other emerging economies suggests that such anacceleration of growth in Myanmar would be challenging, but possible. Incomesin developing economies are rising faster than at any other point in history.Globally, the average time it takes to double per capita GDP at PPP from $1,300to $2,600 has dropped dramatically, from 47 years before 1960 to 17 years since2000. Indonesia quadrupled per capita GDP (PPP) from the level in Myanmartoday in just 14 years, and Thailand did it in 13 years. China quadrupled its percapita GDP in just 12 years.4To achieve real annual GDP growth of 8percent, Myanmar would need toaccelerate the annual rate of growth in labour productivity to 7percent from thecurrent 2.7percent (Exhibit E2). Again, the experience of other Asian economiessuggests that such acceleration would be difficult but not unprecedented. Forexample, China increased labour productivity by 7percent per year from 1994to 2006, the time frame in which it quadrupled per capita GDP from the levelof Myanmar today, and nearly doubled its labour productivity from $3,600 to$6,800 (PPP). Likewise, between 1982 and 1995, Thailand increased its labourproductivity by 6.5percent per year from $4,800 to $10,800.53 We calculated poverty reduction by looking at the average povertypercentage reductionin China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand when they increased per capita annual GDPby the same amount that Myanmar would increase its per capita GDP if it were to achieve8percent GDP growth between 2010 and 2030. We used IMF data for per capita GDP (PPP)and the poverty ratio from the World Bank.4 We used per capita GDP (PPP) statistics from the IMF.5 We used per capita GDP (PPP) statistics from the IMF and employment numbers from IHSGlobal Insight. Chinas data are from 1994 to 2006, and Thailands are from 1982 to 1995. 15. 5Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteWhile there has been a great deal of discussion and excitement about thepotential of its energy and mining sector, Myanmar cannot rely narrowly ononly one or two sectors of the economy if it is going to deliver rapid growth.Myanmar would need a more diversified economy. We believe that by fully tappingthe potential of seven key sectors of the economy, Myanmar could generateGDP exceeding $200billion in 2030 (Exhibit E3). This could create more thantenmillion additional non-agricultural jobs through 2030.Labour productivity will need to more than doubleto 2030 to achieve 8 percent annual GDP growth1 At 2010 levels of participation and employment rates.2 If labour productivity growth from 1990 to 2010 is used, growth would be even lower at only 2.5 percent.NOTE: Numbers may not sum due to rounding.2.77.01.08.0~2xHistorical labourproductivitygrowth, 2005102Required growthfrom labourproductivity,201030Expected growthfrom increasedlabour inputs,2010301GDP growthtarget, 201030Annual real GDP growth rates%Additional labourproductivitygrowth requiredSOURCE: International Monetary Fund; Asian Development Bank; Sein Htay, Burma Economic Review 20052006, BurmaFund; Central Statistical Organisation, Myanmar; McKinsey Global Institute analysisExhibit E23.7% GDP growthwithout labourproductivityimprovementSeven sectors could generate more than $200 billion ofeconomic output by 2030SOURCE: McKinsey Global Institute analysisExhibit E3Real GDP sector sizing$ billion, 2010 prices50.40.10.20.68.010.521.29.8TotalTelecomFinancialservicesTourismEnergy/miningInfrastructureAgricultureManufacturing49.148.86.411.114.121.769.4220.62010Compound annualgrowth rate, 201030%104851723238Real GDP sector sizing and potential1$ billion, 2010 prices20301 Our estimate of the GDP contribution of these seven sectors differs from government data on their GDP contribution in2010 because we have analysed each sector bottom-upfor example, by identifying production data and multiplying it bymarket prices. 16. 6Our analysis suggests that agriculture, manufacturing, energy and mining, andinfrastructure, which together account for almost 85percent of the total economicopportunity, will be major drivers of growth: Agriculture. Myanmar has a total of 12.25million hectares of arable landand permanent crops, the 25th-largest endowment in the world despite thefact that Myanmar is only the 38th-largest country by total area. Althoughthe countrys endowment of water and fertile land is abundant, productivityin Myanmars agriculture sector is low with output per worker of only around$1,300 a year, compared with around $2,500 per worker in Thailand andIndonesia. The sectors low productivity and the low level of inputs such asseeds, fertilisers, water, and machinery suggest that there is significant roomto grow. There is also large scope to increase the share of fruits, vegetables,coffee, oil palm, rubber, and other high-value crops as well as the productionof fisheries. Given that agriculture currently accounts for 52percent ofworkforce employment, capturing the full growth potential of agriculture iscritical to ensuring that the economys growth is shared widely. Energy and mining. Myanmar has large endowments of oil, gasits mostimportant exportand precious minerals such as rubies, sapphires, and jade.For example, Myanmar currently ranks 46th in the world in terms of proven gasreserves, and estimates of undiscovered gas reserves indicate that the amountof reserves is likely to be much higher. Myanmar produces 90percent of theworlds jade, which is valued highly in Asia. Many of these natural resourcereserves are largely unexplored todaywith new technologies, the potentialcould be much higher than current estimates. Manufacturing. Myanmars labour costs today are comparatively low, givingthe country an opportunity to boost output in labour-intensive manufacturingsectors such as textiles, apparel, leather, furniture, and toys at a time whensome of this manufacturing is leaving China. However, labour productivityin the sector is also weak. Output per worker is only 70percent of that inVietnam in 2010, 20percent of that in China and Thailand, and less than15percent of that in Malaysia. To compete in the region, Myanmar will needto improve labour productivity. On the back of that higher productivity, there isscope over time to make the transition to more value-added sectors, followingthe example of Thailand, Malaysia, and other Asian economies. Infrastructure. Myanmars infrastructure is not sufficient today to support thehigher growth and future demand driven by developing industrial sectors andan urbanising population. Between 2010 and 2030, our analysis suggests thatMyanmar will need to invest $320billion in its infrastructure if the economyis to achieve growth of 8percent a year. The majority of infrastructureinvestment60percentwill need to be in residential and commercial realestate, but there is also a huge need for power plants, water-treatment plants,and road and rail networks.There is also a significant consumer opportunity for private-sector firms to target.The number of people belonging to the consumer classthose with sufficientincome for discretionary spendingcould potentially rise from 2.5million today to19million in 2030, thereby potentially tripling consumer spending from $35billionto $100billion. 17. 7Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteAchieving this growth will not be easy; Myanmar has a monumental task ahead.The country will need to maintain credibility with the international community bydemonstrating that it is committed to reform. The government also needs to showthat it is capable of managing change. Myanmar is early in its transformationand will need to work courageously to maintain the speed and course of changecurrently under way and build capabilities within the government. Huge progresshas already been madewith many of those in government working tirelessly. Oneof the tasks facing Myanmar is to quickly develop a cadre of skilled and talentedofficials who can navigate the country through the many challenges that lie ahead.Myanmar needs to get all the fundamentals rightand use four other keys to unlock growthMyanmar has a large opportunity for development and sustained growth. But theroad ahead is not easy. Action in virtually every area of economic developmentas well as governance itself is essential. Myanmar has to prioritise its efforts andensure delivery.On the economic front, Myanmar needs to maintain macroeconomic stability,enhance and expand education and vocational training to close its skillsgap, invest heavily in infrastructure, improve the ease of doing business,and strengthen its financial system. A politically stable environment is just asimportant. Economic development and foreign direct investment (FDI) in Myanmarwill take off only if all parties remain committed to the reform agenda and if thereis domestic political stability and security. Finally, there is the enormous challengeof putting in place the governance structures and capabilities that are necessaryto implement, effectively and at the right pace, the extraordinarily complicatedtasks that lie ahead.These economic, political, and governance issues facing Myanmar are all widelyacknowledged. But we believe that there are four other keys to unlocking growththat have not received as much attention. Action in these four areas could make asubstantial contribution to Myanmars growth and development agenda. Digital leapfrogging. Myanmar is starting on its economic developmentjourney in the digital agewhen mobile and Internet technology is increasinglyaffordable. One of the most important strategic decisions that Myanmar canmake is to explore how it can leverage digital technology as a central platformof its development plans. Digital technology is accelerating developmentacross emerging economiesand Myanmar has barely begun to tap itspower. There is a correlation between technology, innovation, and economicgrowth. In a study of 120 low- and middle-income countries, the World Bankfound that a 10percent increase in broadband penetration between 1980 and2002 yielded an additional 1.38percent in GDP growth.6In January 2012, theMcKinsey High Tech Practice estimated that the Internet had accounted foras much as 12percent of cumulative GDP growth over the past five years in a6 C. Z. Qiang and C. M. Rossotto, Economic impacts of broadband, in Information andcommunications for development 2009: Extending reach and increasing impact, WorldBank, 2009. 18. 8group of aspiring countries.7Digital technology could transform six importantareas of Myanmars economy: government, education, health care, banking,retail, and even agriculture. Technology could enable Myanmar to spreadservices in a cost-effective way to a broad swathe of the population. Takeeducation as an example. Today, Myanmar has one of the lowest averages ofschooling in the world at just four years. Its teacher-to-pupil ratio is around oneteacher for every 30 schoolchildrenmuch higher than 1 to 17 in Indonesiaand 1 to 13 in Malaysia.8But change could come quickly if Myanmar usestechnology to deliver an element of e-education to a much larger number ofchildren of school age as well as adults in vocational training and even tertiaryeducation, as we are seeing in many emerging economies today. Capturingthis opportunity will not be easy in particular, Myanmar will need to movedecisively on an aggressive telecommunications infrastructure plan. Structural sector shift. Myanmar is quite unusual among emergingeconomies in that its economic mix has barely changed in decades. Whileother countries have experienced a structural shift away from agriculturetowards manufacturingand eventually service sectorsMyanmars relianceon agriculture has continued. The first step in the structural shift undertakenby many emerging economies is usually into manufacturing, which has thepotential to deliver the greatest gains in productivity and employment of anysector. Manufacturing plays an important development stepping stone byproviding higher-value jobs for relatively under-educated workers movingfrom agriculture. Today, Myanmars manufacturing sector is small in absolutetermsless than half the size of the sector in Vietnam, for instancebut it hasthe potential to be Myanmars largest sector in 2030, overtaking agricultureand energy and mining. Myanmar could consider developing its manufacturingsector in stages, focusing in the short term on using current comparative costadvantages to expand labour-intensive manufacturing. Food and beverages,mineral-based products, textiles, footwear, furniture, jewellery, toys, andvarious rubber and plastic products are all industries that match the countryscurrent capabilities and benefit from high domestic demand. At the same time,Myanmar could encourage investment and innovation by beginning to developa few core industries with high growth potential and higher productivity, andwhere it could feasibly develop the capabilities to compete successfully overthe long term. These segments could include automotive parts and assembly,chemicals, petroleum refineries, electrical machinery, and communicationsequipment, which are all high-growth and high-productivity industries. Urbanisation. Today, the vast majority of Myanmars citizens still live in thecountryside, but that is likely to changeat a rapid speed and on a large scale.We estimate that the share of Myanmars people who live in large cities, whichwe define as having more than 200,000 inhabitants, could double from just13percent today to around one-quarter of the total population in 2030. In theselarge cities alone, there could be around tenmillion new urbanitesthe equivalent7 Aspiring countries are defined as those dynamic and significant enough that they canaspire to become developed countries within a reasonable time frame. Dynamic is definedas having a nominal per capita GDP that grew at a compound annual growth rate above3percent between 2005 and 2010. Significant is defined as having a nominal per capitaGDP between $1,000 and $20,000 in 2010 and nominal GDP in 2010 above $90billion.See Online and upcoming: The Internets impact on aspiring countries, McKinsey High TechPractice, January 2012.8 Pupil-teacher ratio, primary, World Development Indicators, World Bank, 2009. 19. 9Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global Instituteof two new cities the size of Yangon or ten new cities the size of Mandalay. Thiscould be one of the most significant migrations in Myanmars history and hasthe potential to fundamentally transform Myanmars economy and society inthe decades to come. Large cities could generate 54percent of the nationsGDP growth to 2030 (Exhibit E4). Myanmar has the opportunity to learn fromthe successes and failures of other countries. Their experience suggests thatthere are three elements that Myanmar needs to get right. First, it needs to planproactively for its urban expansion, putting in place a modern planning system.Second, Myanmar needs to invest in the infrastructure that cities require to runsmoothly and to cater to the needs of their citizens. Third, it needs to considerthe governance of cities. One of the models that has proved effective in citiesaround the world (including London, Johannesburg, and Kolkata) is an electedmayor whose jurisdiction covers the whole city, and who works with professionalagencies that implement urban plans and policies.9This would be especiallyuseful in Myanmar, where there are only two active city mayors, governing Yangonand Mandalay, and one de facto mayor, governing Nay Pyi Taw.11161826333543487785CambodiaVietnamIndiaThailandPhilip-pinesMalaysiaIndo-nesiaChinaJapanSouthKoreaMyanmars population living in large cities with 200,000 plus inhabitants,could double from just 13 percent to one-quarter of the population in 2030SOURCE: McKinsey Global Institute Cityscope 2.0 database; Department of Human Settlement and Housing Development,Ministry of Construction, Myanmar; McKinsey Global Institute analysis13~2520302009710 22847 51 118 33 3216 15 1 10 ~25Exhibit E4Share of country population living in cities of more than 200,000 inhabitants%, 2010MyanmarNumber of citieswith more than200,000 inhabitantsNOTE: Share of country population living in cities of more than 200,000 is not the same as the urbanisation rate.Average: 39 percentThis increasewould entail tenmillion morepeople living inMyanmars largecities by 2030 Globally connected economy. After decades of being cut off, Myanmarneeds to be open to, and part of, the global economy through investment,trade, people and the exchange of ideas. Based on the experience of otherAsian countries, Myanmar could need around $650billion in total investment toachieve its growth potential. In the early years of its economic transformation,Myanmar may need to rely heavily on foreign capital and trade to drivegrowth. Myanmar could potentially need to attract foreign capital of morethan $170billion to close the gap between required investment and potentialdomestic savings. This foreign capital could also help transfer capabilities andideas. To bring in these high volumes of foreign capital, Myanmar would needto develop a targeted investment attraction strategy led by a dedicated agency9 Indias urban awakening: Building inclusive cities, sustaining economic growth, McKinseyGlobal Institute, April 2010. 20. 10and to prioritise improving its business environment including, for instance,regulation of financial services. Today, trade volumes are low and undiversifiedbecause of the long years of sanctions and stagnant growth. Myanmar couldbenefit from expanding trade opportunities with a larger set of partners,especially by establishing itself as part of the global supply chain. The mostpromising route thus far has proved to be free trade agreements, and Myanmarcould consider how to strike more such deals and maximise the opportunitiesavailable to it as a member of ASEANs existing free trade agreements withkey countries. Myanmar may also want to understand where its economyand businesses could fit best into a global supply chain that is increasinglyfragmented as countries specialise.10Once this assessment has been made,it would be important to ensure that infrastructure services such as transport,telecommunications, finance, and insurance are available at reasonable cost.People flows are important, too. After years of isolation, welcoming a steadystream of foreigners into the country and sending its own citizens abroad tostudy, conduct business, or simply explore other parts of the world couldhelp Myanmar build up its skills and stimulate the transfer of knowledge andtechnologyall important elements that need to be in place as the economydevelops. Tourism may be not only a major economic opportunity, but also away to reinforce a positive image of openness and connection to the world.Making this happen will require government and theprivate sector to rethink their current approachesMyanmars potential is formidable, but so are the challenges. The countrys growthtrajectory could become either one of the fastest economic transformations seen inpast decades or a great disappointment. Realising the economic potential we haveoutlined will depend in large measure on the actions of Myanmars leaders, in boththe public and private sectors, during the coming months and years.GOVERNMENTThe government is working within extremely tight constraints in terms of itscapacity, finances, and time. Key considerations for the future should includeensuring delivery of the political and economic reforms so as to maintain theconfidence and trust of its own citizens, local businesses, and internationalcorporations and institutions. The government also needs to drive throughkey legislation. Another useful step might be to develop a compelling masterplan for growth and investment. There is no guarantee that current interestin the economy among investors will turn into real investment, and Myanmartherefore needs to articulate a clear business case that includes, for instance, atransparent view of the future regulatory environment, a multi-year infrastructurecapacity-building plan, and a programme of building skills.Myanmar might also consider setting up a government delivery programme todrive implementation. Delivery programmes have had success even in countrieswhose governmental capacity constraints were similar to Myanmars. Governments10 A common way to assess trade in intermediate goods is to use the United Nations BroadEconomic Categories. This groups commodities by main end-use, principally distinguishingbetween consumption, capital and intermediate goods. See Trade patterns and global valuechains in East Asia: From trade in goods to trade in tasks, WTO and IDE-JETO (Institute ofDeveloping EconomiesJapan External Trade Organization), 2011. 21. 11Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global Institutehave managed extraordinary transformations because they focused on a well-designed and well-executed delivery programme that applied seven types of bestpractice. First, they clearly defined the priority outcomes to be delivered overdifferent time horizons, such as poverty reduction and educational attainment.Second, they developed implementation plans in intense full-time collaborationsuniting all stakeholders. Third, they delivered more for less by focusing public andprivate funds according to the delivery priorities. Fourth, they intensified internaland external pressure to perform by publishing targets and regularly reviewingperformance. Fifth, they established a high-powered delivery unitan institutionwith the sole purpose of solving problems and driving the implementation of changeacross government. Sixth, they ensured visible sponsorship from top leaders.Lastly, they didnt just communicate with stakeholdersthey engaged them.PRIVATE SECTORMyanmars companies will experience a period of huge change in coming years.To thrive in this environment, they need to meet three interlinked imperatives.First, they need to prepare to compete at home and overseas, building anunderstanding of the opportunities available in different markets and thestrategies of competitors. Second, they need to rapidly reach internationalstandards of quality and price for their goods and services. Third, they needto explore foreign partnerships as a source of capital and knowledge, and toconnect to global supply chains.For international companies, there are different considerations. First, they needto move fast if they are to be the first to establish lasting business relationshipsin Myanmar and build market share into a leadership position in their segments.Second, companies should be prepared to make a long-term commitmentto Myanmar and to play a part in developing the business environment andtraining the workforce. Third, their approach needs to be sufficiently detailed,with a high level of agility and adaptability to seize the opportunity in what willbe a fragmented marketthis is a country of more than 135 ethnic groups,where the population is spread across the country with few population centres,and infrastructure connections between regions are currently limited. Finally,partnering with local companies could provide a platform for more rapid growthand improved access to local talent.* * *The triple transformation on which Myanmar has embarkedtowards democracy,towards peace, and towards a market economyis as demanding a reformagenda as a country can aspire to implement. There is much to do if Myanmaris going to realise its potential and create a prosperous and inclusive society. InChapter 1, we examine the countrys past economic performance and assessthe potential advantages it could leverage to drive future growth. In Chapter 2,we explore the potential for Myanmar to accelerate GDP growth, looking at thepotential of key sectors of the economy by 2030. In Chapter 3, we examine fourareas that will be crucial to realising this growth aspiration, but which we believehave not received sufficient attention to date. Finally, we conclude in Chapter 4with a discussion of the implications for the government and the private sector. 22. 12Myanmar is in the throes of remarkable change.11Authoritarianism is giving wayto political and governmental reform, a peace process could bring an end todecades of civil war, and the government is opening its economy up to the worldafter years of isolation. This country of 60million people in the heart of Asia iseager to make its place in the world, and there is considerable excitement inpolitical, business, and economic circles around the globe about what the countrycould achieve. But nobody should be in any doubt that the journey ahead will belong and challenging. Myanmar needs to seize its moment.Economic development and FDI in Myanmar will take off only if all parties remaincommitted to the reform agenda, the peace process and reconciliation betweenethnic and religious groups succeed, and the election in 2015 marks anotherpeaceful political transition. Among observers, including investors, there is stillconsiderable uncertaintyand even uneaseover Myanmars progress, andwhether the countrys leaders will maintain the breakneck speed of change andsustain reform (see Box 1, Myanmars reforms thus far).The country has a monumental task ahead. Myanmars transformation is at anearly stage, and the distance to travel if Myanmar is to close the gap with otherAsian economies is considerable. Myanmar has largely missed the economicrenaissance that is delivering enormous progress in growth, productivity, andreduction of poverty across emerging markets in general and many of Myanmarsneighbours in Southeast Asia in particular. As long as Myanmar stays the courseon political reform and economic transformation, it has a number of intrinsicassets and a highly favourable external environment in Asia that it can use asa platform for growth. The economy could develop at a pace that may surprisemany people and begin to put to rest any remaining nervousness about thecountrys prospects.11 The ruling military junta changed the name of the country from Burma to Myanmar in 1989,and this remains the official name today. For this reason, despite the fact that many partiesinside and outside the country do not recognise the nomenclature, we have opted to useMyanmar throughout this report.1.Myanmars new start 23. 13Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteBox 1. Myanmars reforms thus farA new chapter in Myanmars story began in November 2010. Since then, many developments havetaken place on the political, governance, and economic fronts:Politics and governance A parliament was elected for the first time in half a century with former military commander TheinSein selected as civilian president. Nobel Peace Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi was released from house arrest along with manyother political prisoners. Political opponents were allowed back into the country. The NationalLeague for Democracy (NLD), the main opposition party, boycotted the 2010 elections. PresidentThein Sein initiated a dialogue with the NLD, culminating in the NLDs participation and victory inApril 2012 by-elections. New laws have ended censorship and overturned bans on political gatherings. Transparency has increased, improving governance. The 2012 budget was debated for the firsttime in parliament and published in private newspapers. The auditor-general has been given a measure of independence. Public opinion has had some influence on government policy, leading to increases in the healthand education budgets and the cancellation of some controversial infrastructure projects. The government has made efforts to foster reconciliation with ethnic and religious minorities.Cease-fires have been renewed or put in place with some armed groups, including the SSA-South, UWSA, KNU, KNPP, and NMSP.1However, the cease-fires remain fragile, and renewedconflict has broken out with another group, the KIO. Serious sectarian and ethnic turmoil persists.2Economic The kyat, Myanmars currency, was floated in April 2012. The Central Bank of Myanmar was given a larger measure of independence. Myanmar has introduced tax reform, including abolition of the profit tax and reduction of the salestax to 5percent for most items (down from 90percent in some cases). Steps were taken to decentralise fiscal policy with the establishment of state and regional budgets. There has been some acceptance of the repatriation of profits, although parliament hasannounced limits on foreign ownership in some sectors. Special Economic Zones (SEZ) are being introduced.31 The Shan State Army-South, United Wa State Army, Karen National Union, Karenni National Progressive Party, andNew State Mon Party. This list is not exhaustive.2 Kachin Independence Organisation. See John Buchanan et al., Developing disparity: Regional investment in Burmasborderlands, Transnational Institute Burma Centre Netherlands, February 2013.3 Interim strategy note for the Republic of the Union of Myanmar for the period FY1314, International DevelopmentAssociation (IDA) and International Finance Corporation (IFC), October 30, 2012; Myanmar in transition: Opportunitiesand challenges, Asian Development Bank, August 2012; Myanmar: Storm clouds on the horizon, International CrisisGroup, Asia Report number 238, November 12, 2012.. 24. 14Myanmar has experienced a century of economicstagnationThe 20th century was one of the most dynamic in history in terms of economicchange and progress. Between 1900 and 1990, the world economy grew atan average rate of 3percent a year, lifting global GDP from $1.9 trillion to $27trillion.12Between 1981, when the World Bank began comprehensive monitoringof global poverty, and 2005, 650million people left extreme povertydefined asliving on less than $1 a daythereby cutting the global tally by half.13Over thecourse of the century, life expectancy doubled from 31 years to 66.14Prior to the 1930s, Burma, now Myanmar, was fully part of this global economicprogress. Indeed, Myanmar was one of the worlds fastest-growing economies inthe late 19th and early 20th centuries and one of the most developed economiesin Asia (Exhibit 1). Rangoon, now Yangon, was one of the regions most importantports, Burmas banking system was relatively developed, and, for the time, thecountrys transport and communications networks were also rather advanced.Myanmar was a major exporter of such commodities as rice, timber, andpetroleum products.151870 1913 1950 1990 2011Myanmars economy was on a par with other Asian economies until theearly 20th century, after which it remained stagnant while Asia surgedSOURCE: 18701990 figures from Angus Maddison, Historical statistics of the world economy: 12008 AD; 1990 and 2011figures are from the International Monetary Fund figures (PPP); McKinsey Global Institute analysisMalaysia 663China 530Thailand 608Indonesia 578Myanmar 5049005806855528411,5594488178033964,7997962,9101,5437868,3879,3984,6661,39916,240Per capita GDP, purchasing power parity (PPP)1990 International Geary-Khamis $Exhibit 112 1990 Geary-Khamis (PPP) US dollar. See Angus Maddison, Historical statistics of the worldeconomy: 12008 AD, 2008.13 Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion, An update to the World Banks estimates ofconsumption poverty in the developing world, briefing note, Development Research Group,World Bank, January 2012.14 Angus Maddison, The world economy: A millennial perspective, Development CentreStudies, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2001.15 Thant Myint-U, Where China meets India: Burma and the new crossroads of Asia, Farrar,Straus and Giroux, 2011. 25. 15Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteAs the century progressed, however, a succession of devastating eventsundermined this impressive economic performance. In the 1930s, Myanmarseconomic output contracted largely because of falling rice prices, whichhit farmers hard.16World War II then raged on Myanmars territory, virtuallydestroying the countrys infrastructure.17War was followed by an unsteady periodas the newly independent country grappled with civil conflict and economicself-determination.18By the early 1950s, Myanmars per capita GDP was lessthan one-third of that in Thailand and the Philippines.19After the coup dtat in1962, Myanmar descended into military authoritarianism and isolation from theworld. All industries except agriculture were nationalised and economic and socialdevelopment stagnated.20Looking at 1900 to 1990 as a whole, Myanmars overall economy appears tohave barely progressed even while the global economy surged. Economic datain Myanmar today are not complete or reliable, and it is therefore difficult to arriveat a full and accurate picture of the economys long-term growth recordor eventhe current population and GDP (see Box 2, What are Myanmars population andGDP?). However, the data that are available suggest that real GDP growth duringthis 90-year period averaged a strikingly low 1.6percent per year, around half ofthe global growth rate of 3percent per year in the same years.Between 1900 and 1990, our best estimate is that Myanmars populationgrew at a compound annual rate of 1.5percent, close to the global averageof 1.4percent. While incomes fluctuated, they fell over this period as a whole.Per capita GDP was virtually unchanged in 1990 from its level in 1900, witheffectively an annual growth of a marginal 0.1percent a year. This was one of theslowest growth rates in the world. In stark contrast, global average per capitaGDP quadrupled in this period, after growing at a compound annual growth rateof 1.6percent (Exhibit 2). In short, while the world underwent an unparalleledtransformation, Myanmar virtually stagnated.16 Anne Booth, The Burma development disaster in a comparative historical perspective,SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research, volume 1, number 1, spring 2003.17 Ian Brown, Tracing Burmas economic failure to its colonial inheritance, Business HistoryReview, volume 85, issue 4, December 2011.18 Thant Myint-U, quoted in ibid., Interim strategy note, IDA and IFC, 2012.19Ibid.20 Myanmar: The politics of economic reform, International Crisis Group, July 2012. 26. 16Box 2. What are Myanmars population and GDP?In the past, Myanmar had a rich tradition of data recording and analysis. However,in recent decades the accuracy of official economic and social data has beenquestionable.1The current government has begun to make a serious effort toimprove data gathering, reporting, and analysis, but there is still a lack of clarity oneven the most basic statistics such as total population, GDP, and GDP growth. Werecognise that the assumptions we make about these basic statistics affect a rangeof others used in this report such as per capita GDP and labour productivity. Webelieve that using multiple sources to compare data offers the best way of ensuringthat the statistics in this report are based on the most reliable data currentlyavailable to us.Population. The last census was in 1983, and estimates of the size of the currentpopulation are subject to a high degree of uncertainty. The government puts thepopulation at around 60million in 2010. Most international organisations, includingthe Asian Development Bank, IMF, United Nations Population Fund, and WorldBank, use similar estimates.2However, figures aggregated by the Myanmar Ministryof Health using the observations of health professionals on the ground suggesta number closer to 48million.3Only when the results of the 2014 census arepublished is there likely to be a greater degree of clarity. For all analyses that includepopulation data in this report, we take the more commonly used population estimateof about 60million in 2010. We assume that the population will grow at an averageannual rate of 0.9percent as projected by the United Nations population division inthe period to 2030, taking the population to around 72million at that date.4GDP and GDP growth. Estimates of these two metrics have been highlyquestionable. In the decade to 2010, official government statistics report averageannual real GDP growth of 12percent, but several academic publications and anumber of global economic institutions have raised issues with this estimate.5TheIMF and the EIU have questioned official estimates of GDP growth by examiningthe relationship between GDP growth and other indicators such as trade patterns,private consumption, and energy demand. Our interviews with local experts as wellas officials at the IMF, Asian Development Bank, and World Bank suggest that it isunlikely that Myanmar posted double-digit GDP growth during this decade. Eventaking account of the fact that Myanmars economy was starting from a lower base,it seems unlikely that growth over the past decade was higher than that of Chinaand other Asian economies. We compiled a revised time series of historical GDP forMyanmar using revised estimates of GDP and GDP growth from the IMF and BurmaEconomic Review. Throughout this report, we use GDP data from 1990 to 2010 andextrapolate through 2030 using the following two denominations: real US dollarsusing 2010 as the base year and real US dollars corrected for PPP with 2005 as thebase year (see the technical appendix for more details about our methodology).1 U Myint, Myanmar economy: A comparative view, Institute for Security and DevelopmentPolicy, 2009.2 Statistical yearbook 20102011, Central Statistical Organisation, Myanmar.3 Township health profile 2011, Ministry of Health, Department of Health Planning, Myanmar.4 US Census Bureau/United Nations Population Division, Revision 2.5 Appraising the post-sanctions prospects for Myanmars economy: Choosing the right path, AshCenter for Democratic Governance and Innovation, Harvard Kennedy School, January 2012;ibid., U Myint, Myanmar economy: A comparative view, 2009. 27. 17Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteIndexed per capita GDP (1990 PPP $)100 = 19000501001502002503003504004501900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990MyanmarAsiaGlobalSOURCE: Angus Maddison, Historical Statistics of the World Economy: 12008 AD; International Monetary Fund;McKinsey Global Institute analysis0.11.6In 1990, Myanmars per capita GDP was close to its 1900 level, but duringthis period per capita GDP more than quadrupled in Asia and globallyExhibit 2Compound annualgrowth rate, 190090%1.7Myanmars growth has picked up in the past 20 yearsbut still lags behind that of a resurgent AsiaIn 1900, Asia accounted for 30percent of global GDP, but by 1950 this haddropped to 20percent.21Today we are witnessing a decisive shift in the worldseconomic centre of gravity back towards Asia, and at a speed and scale neverbefore witnessed. Chinas economic transformation is happening at over 100times the scale of the first urban nationthe United Kingdomand at ten timesthe speed.22However, Myanmar has not matched the surging labour productivityand rising incomes of other Asian economies.Myanmars anaemic growth rate did pick up somewhat after 1988 when therewas a measure of economic liberalisation. Between 1990 and 2010, we estimatethat Myanmars GDP grew by about 4.7percent per year on average, surpassingaverage global annual growth of 3.2percent but significantly weaker than theclose to 6percent average growth rate of its Asian neighbours.23On a per capitabasis, too, Myanmar has significantly lagged behind the rest of Asia. Myanmarsper capita GDP grew at a compound annual growth rate of 2.7percent, abovethe global growth rate of 1.9percent but well below the average of Asianbenchmark countries of 4.2percent (Exhibit 3). For instance, in this 20-yearperiod, Indonesian per capita GDP grew at 3.2percent per year, Cambodias at5.2percent, and Vietnams at 5.9percent.21 Ibid., Angus Maddison, Historical statistics of the world economy, 2004.22 Urban world: Cities and the rise of the consuming class, McKinsey Global Institute,June 2012.23 We compiled a revised time series of historical GDP for Myanmar from 1990 to 2010 usingrevised estimates of the size of GDP and GDP growth from the IMF and Sein Htay, BurmaEconomic Review 20052006, Burma Fund, 2007. 28. 18Since 1990, GDP growth rate has picked up but remains at the lower end ofbenchmark countries1.62.33.23.43.53.63.64.04.44.85.25.98.50.12.7Globalaverage1.9Asiaaverage4.2SOURCE: International Monetary Fund; Conference Board Total Economy Database; McKinsey Global Institute analysisExhibit 3Per capita GDP growth (PPP), 19902010Compound annual growth rate (%)ChinaVietnamCambodiaIndiaTaiwanSriLankaSingaporeBangladeshMalaysiaThailandIndonesiaMyanmar,19902010PakistanPhilippinesMyanmar,190090Myanmars relatively weak growth performance in this period can be partiallyascribed to a number of economic shocks both man-made and natural. In 2003,Myanmar experienced a banking crisis that resulted in an estimated zero GDPgrowth that year. Faced with a run on banks, the Central Bank of Myanmar placedrestrictions on withdrawals and forced banks to recall loans from borrowers. Thispolicy response effectively froze Myanmars financial markets and brought growthto a halt. In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis killed an estimated 140,000 people anddevastated agricultural and industrial production as well as large parts of thecountrys already weak infrastructure. Estimates suggest that the cyclone wipedout more than 3percent of GDP growth in the subsequent year and cost theeconomy an estimated $4billion.24However, such shocks are only part of Myanmars weak growth story between1990 and 2010. More fundamental was the fact that the economy washandicapped by isolation and ineffective economic policies.2524 Sean Turnell, Wylie Bradford, and Alison Vicary, Burmas economy 2009: Disaster, recovery and reform?, Macquarie University, Australia, September 2009.25 Lex Rieffel, The Myanmar economy: Tough choices, Global Economy and Development,working paper 51, the Brookings Institution, 2012. 29. 19Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteMYANMAR HAS LAGGED BEHIND ASIA INLABOUR PRODUCTIVITYLow labour productivity rather than a low employment rate explains Myanmarsrelatively weak performance in per capita GDP.26Myanmars official employmentdata indicate that 50percent of the total population is working, slightly higher thanthe average of 45percent in neighbouring economies. While it is not possible toverify the accuracy of these employment data, this relatively high employment rateappears to be reasonable given that most households face economic pressureto participate in the workforce and given the high proportion of the populationthat is working in farming. However, labour productivity is very low. On average, aworker in Myanmar adds only $1,500 of economic value in a year of work, around70percent less than the average of seven other Asian countries (Exhibit 4). 2.50.8MyanmarVietnam 1.2India 1.4Philippines 2.0Sri Lanka 2.3Indonesia 3.0China 4.4Thailand 4.8-69%5055403633455757 47+7%1.5-71%2.23.65.56.86.57.88.4 5.3SOURCE: Economist Intelligence Unit; The Conference Board Total Economy Database; McKinsey Global Institute analysisMyanmars weak per capita GDP is due to low labour productivityExhibit 4Decomposition of per capita GDP (real), 2010Per capita GDP2010 $ thousandEmployment/population%Labour productivity2010 $ thousandNOTE: Not to scale. May not sum due to rounding.=The modest acceleration in Myanmars GDP growth between 1990 and 2010 waslargely due to an expanding population rather than higher labour productivity. Inthis period, increases in the population and in the share of working-age peoplein that population accounted for 64percent of GDP growth. Just 5percentcame from changes in workforce participation and employment rates, and only31percent from growth in labour productivity (Exhibit 5). The contrast with otherAsian economies over the same period is stark. In China, 90percent of GDPgrowth came from productivity. In Thailand, the contribution was 72percent, inBangladesh 59percent, in Malaysia 55percent, and in Cambodia 52percent.Myanmars labour productivity growth of 1.4percent between 1990 and 2010 was26 A countrys GDP can be seen as the number of working people multiplied by the countryslabour productivitythe economic value of a years work of the average working person. Wedefine labour productivity as the ratio of economic output over labour inputs, or the efficiencyat which labour is used. In simple terms, we define labour productivity as the economicoutput per worker. For all comparisons of labour productivity, we use real US dollars.Similarly, Myanmars per capita GDP can be decomposed into the share of the countryspopulation in employment, multiplied by labour productivity. 30. 20the second weakest in the region; the weakest growth during this period was inJapan at 1.06percent, but Japans productivity was already very high.27Growth has been driven largely by labour inputs rather than productivity45911718GDP, 2010Productivityeffect3Employmenteffect2Demographics1GDP, 19901 Growth of population and share of working age population (1564 years) in total population.2 Includes changes in workforce participation and employment rates.3 Productivity effect is growth in labour productivity, measured by real GDP per employee.564 31Labour inputsReal GDP, 199020102010 $ billionSOURCE: International Monetary Fund; Asian Development Bank; McKinsey Global Institute analysisExhibit 5Contribution to GDP growth%We see the increase in Myanmars labour force continuing to make a contributionto GDP growth but at a decelerating rate in the period to 2030. Between 1990and 2010, employment grew by 3.2percent a year, driven mainly by the growthin the working-age population. However, growth in that population is expectedto weaken between 2010 and 2030 to a compound average rate of only1percent.28It is therefore vital that Myanmar acts decisively to boost growth inlabour productivity.27 Ibid., Angus Maddison, Historical statistics of the world economy, 2004.28 We calculated this figure using growth rates for the working-age population from the USCensus Bureau/United Nations Population Division, Revision 2. We assumed constant 2010employment and labour force participation rates. 31. 21Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteMyanmars weak productivity has been driven both bythe concentration of output in low productivity sectorsand low productivity within sectorsOverall, Myanmars labour productivity was below the average of Thailand,Indonesia, Vietnam, China, and India. There have been two key drivers of thisweak performance. The first has been the lack of a significant shift out of low-productivity agriculture and into manufacturing and services. The second wasa failure to boost productivity within individual sectors of Myanmars economy,especially in comparison with other Asian economies.MYANMARS ECONOMY REMAINS HEAVILY DEPENDENTON AGRICULTUREMyanmars economy has not yet made the usual structural shift from agricultureto manufacturing and services that economies undergo, and has remainedlargely dependent on agriculture. In 2010, agriculture in Myanmar generated44percent of GDP. The economic structure of other Asian economies has shiftedin the opposite direction with the contribution of agriculture to GDP falling to orbelow 15percent in Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia as thecontribution of manufacturing and services grew strongly (Exhibit 6). Agriculturedominates employment in Myanmar, accounting for around 52percent of all jobsin 2010 (Exhibit 7).29In contrast, the employment share of Thailands agriculturesector stood at 50percent in 1994 and had dropped to 38percent by 2010.4438183513523959392139473113561538124543324523292744104149422712335531381043352747SOURCE: World Development Indicators, World Bank; Myanmar in 2010, Central Statistical Organisation, Myanmar;McKinsey Global Institute analysisAgriculture continues to dominate Myanmars economy, butother countries have shifted towards industry and servicesExhibit 6Sector share of GDP%Indonesia Malaysia PhilippinesThailandMyanmar China South KoreaAgricultureServicesIndustry1965 2010 1965 20101965 2010 1965 2010 1965 2010 1965 2010 1965 20103NOTE: Numbers may not sum due to rounding.29 Integrated household living conditions survey in Myanmar (20092010), UNDP et al.,June 2011. 32. 22SOURCE: Economist Intelligence Unit; International Monetary Fund; Asian Development Bank; The Conference Board TotalEconomy Database; UNDP, Integrated household living conditions survey, McKinsey Global Institute analysisA shift out of agriculture can drive higher productivity1 Includes hunting, forestry, and fishing.Labour productivity2010 $ (real), roundedExhibit 7Sectors of Myanmars economy by labour productivity andshare of employment, 2010Share of employment%ServicesIndustryAgricultureMining ($10,590; 2%)Manufacturing ($5,550; 6%)Transportation and communication ($5,500; 4%)Utilities ($3,630; 1%)Construction ($1,720; 4%)Agriculture1 ($1,270; 52%)Financial services($590; 0.2%)Labour productivity in Myanmars dominant agriculture sector is low at only about$1,300 per worker. Therefore, even a modest and gradual shift in the structure ofMyanmars economy out of agriculture and into higher productivity sectors wouldmake a significant difference to its labour productivity.MGI has found that the shift from agriculture to manufacturing and services, andthe corresponding shift from a rural to an urban economy, is one of the mostcritical drivers of growth in most countries.30Roughly, each 15percent increase inthe manufacturing and services share of GDP is associated with a doubling of percapita GDP.31In the case of Vietnam, a movement of workers from agriculture intoother sectors accounted for about one-third of Vietnams growth between 2005and 2010. From 2000 to 2010, the share of agriculture in Vietnams employmentdropped by 13percentage points, while the share of workers employed inindustry rose by 9.6 points and in services by 3.4 points. In the same period,Vietnams per capita GDP (PPP) more than doubled. Average labour productivityin Vietnams industry today is almost six times as high as in agriculture, andservices productivity is four times as high. As the share of these high-productivitysectors increased, agricultures contribution to Vietnams GDP fell by half, from40percent in 1995 to 20percent in 2010.32In these same years, Vietnams realGDP grew by 7percent a year from $38billion to $106billion.30 Sustaining Vietnams growth: The productivity challenge, McKinsey Global Institute, February2012; ibid., Urban world: Cities and the rise of the consuming class, McKinsey GlobalInstitute, June 2012.31 Lions on the move: The progress and potential of African economies, McKinsey GlobalInstitute, June 2010.32Ibid.; Sustaining Vietnams growth, McKinsey Global Institute, February 2012. 33. 23Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteMYANMARS SECTORS HAVE SIGNIFICANT PRODUCTIVITYGAPS AS COMPARED TO THOSE IN OTHER ASIAN COUNTRIESNot only is Myanmars labour force concentrated in low-productivity sectors,but labour productivity is also low in all sectors compared with other Asianeconomies.33The available data suggest that Myanmar lags behind its regionalpeers in productivity across all major sectors. For example, the labour productivityin Myanmars manufacturing sector is about 50 to 75percent lower than theweighted average of manufacturing labour productivity in China, India, Indonesia,Thailand, and Vietnam.34In agriculture, a small improvement in labour productivitywould have a large economic impact simply because the number of workers inthe sector is so large. This underlines the importance of rural development inMyanmar. Across sectors, closing labour productivity gaps between Myanmarskey economic sectors and other Asian economies would greatly improve thecompetitiveness of the economy.Only 4percent of Myanmars citizens are membersof the consuming class, compared with 35percentworldwideThis rise of the consuming class in emerging markets in recent decades hasbeen a dramatic transformation and source of economic growth. The consumingclass consists of consumers with incomes of more than $10 a day measured on aPPP basis, sufficient for spending not just on basic necessities such as food andshelter but also on discretionary goods and services. As recently as 1990, outof a total global population of roughly fivebillion, the consuming class had aboutonebillion members, the vast majority of whom were in North America, WesternEurope, and Japan. But over the past two decades, surging incomes have morethan doubled the size of the consuming class to 2.4billion people, or 35percentof the worlds population in 2010. In that year, onebillion of these consumers livedin Asia.35By 2025, MGI research suggests, the global consuming class will growto 4.2billion consumers, or more than half the predicted global population of7.9billion. Of these consumers, 2.5billion are expected to live in Asia.3633 Because Myanmars sector employment includes informal workers, it understates Myanmarslabour productivity in sectors with high informal labour (e.g., agriculture, construction) whencompared with figures of other countries. However, even in agriculture and construction,based on interviews and bottom-up analysis, labour productivity in these sectors is low.34 We use data from Myanmars Central Statistical Organisation, Myanmar, IHS Global Insight,and the ILO.35 McKinsey Global Institute Cityscope 2.0 database.36Ibid., Urban world: Cities and the rise of the consuming class, McKinsey Global Institute,June 2012. 34. 24The rise of the consuming class globally and in emerging economies has been asignificant driver of consumption and economic growth, but it is a developmentfrom which Myanmar is yet to benefit. A century of structural economic stagnationmeans that Myanmar currently has a very small consuming class of 2.5millionpeople, amounting to only around 4percent of the population.37In 2006,Myanmar households spent a very high proportion of their income71percenton the basic necessities of food and beverages.38In 1985, before Chinaseconomic opening, the share spent by Chinese households on food andbeverages was 62percent; today, it has fallen to 27percent. In Vietnam,households spent only 44percent on food and beverages in 2010, and Indonesiareduced that share from 63percent in 1990 to 48percent in 2010.39Myanmar has intrinsic strengths, a favourable externalenvironment, and a greenfield advantageAlthough Myanmars economic development is at an early stage and manychallenges lie ahead, there is an undeniable opportunity to accelerate growth.Despite the years of stagnation and underdevelopment, Myanmar has a numberof intrinsic strengths. Moreover, the external environment is favourable. ASEAN,of which Myanmar is a member, is in a dynamic phase of integration; thereis intense interest in Myanmar among international investors; and Myanmarcurrently enjoys the full support of international development partners. Myanmaralso has a greenfield advantage. The fact that the economy is at such an earlystage of development affords an opportunity to leapfrog over some intermediatestages of economic evolution and go straight to highly productive and efficientinfrastructure. The fact that Myanmar is embarking on its developmental journeyin the digital age is an undoubted opportunity to accelerate growth in a way thatincludes even the poorest families in the most remote communities.MYANMAR HAS MANY INTRINSIC STRENGTHSMyanmars home-grown strengths include its location at the heart of Asia; richendowments of natural resources; and a growing labourforce.40Strategic location at the heart of AsiaMyanmar has long been cut off from political, economic, and trading relationshipsand has not been able to participate in regional integration and capitalise on itsideal position in the worlds fastest-growing regional economy. Now that Myanmarseconomy is opening up, there is potential to become a major exporter, especiallyof agriculture and food products, to many of its regional neighbours that areexperiencing strong demand and rapid growth. Consider the fact that Myanmarborders Bangladesh, China, India, Laos, and Thailandhome to 40percent ofthe worlds population.41Bangladesh alone has a population of 150million, and37 We use income distributionpercentage shares from the McKinsey Global Institute Cityscope2.0 database and apply them to statistics on the total population from the Myanmar CentralStatistical Organisations Statistical yearbook 2010-2011. We define the consuming class asindividuals with an annual net income of above $3,600 ($10/day) at 2005 PPP.38 Statistical yearbook 20102011, Central Statistical Organisation, Myanmar.39EIU.40Ibid., Myanmar in transition, Asian Development Bank, August 2012.41 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 35. 25Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteThailand and Laos have a combined population of 75million people. ChinasYunnan province to the north-east of Myanmar is home to an additional 46millionpeople. The Indian provinces bordering Myanmar as well as those across theAndaman Sea have 240million more people. Taking all of this together, Myanmaris close to a market of more than half abillion people and, by 2025, will be within afive-hour plane ride of 2.5billion members of the consuming class.42In addition to this export potential, observers have often suggested thatMyanmar could become a trade hub on the crossroads of Asia. However, itremains questionable whether the land routes across Myanmar can attract asubstantial share of regional trade transit, given that Chinas demand centrestend to be by the coast and that sea freight is substantially cheaper. For instance,transporting a ton of freight by ship from Chennai to Shanghai is ten timescheaper than shipping it to Myanmar and then trucking it overland to Chinaseasternseaboard.43Rich endowment of resourcesMyanmar has many natural resources. Gas is the countrys most importantsource of export revenue. BP estimates that proven natural gas reserves inMyanmar total 7.8 trillion cubic feet, giving Myanmar a worldwide rank of 46th.While its value is less significant, Myanmars endowment of precious and semi-precious stones is remarkable. Myanmar accounts for 90percent of the globalvalue of jade production and ranks among the top producers in the world of gemsincluding rubies and sapphires.44Myanmar also has a favourable climate for agriculture and valuable landresources. It is the 38th-largest country in the world by total area, but with12.25million hectares of arable land and permanent crops, the 25th largest interms of agricultural land.45In the past Myanmar was known as the rice bowl ofAsia, but its agriculture sectors output has fallen far behind its potential. Effortsto revive the sector would be well timed to take advantage of the soaring globaldemand for food. Recent MGI research projected that worldwide demand forfood, feed, and fuel in 2030 could require 175million to 220million hectares ofadditionalcropland.4642 All figures are for 2010 and sourced from the United Nations and Chinas National Bureau ofStatistics, except for the population of the Indian provinces, which come from Indias censusin 2011.43 Transporting by rail instead of truck from Myanmar to Shanghai would reduce the cost tofour times that of sea freight compared with ten times. Our estimates of freight costs fromChennai to Shanghai via Myanmar by ship and by overland routes consist of the followingelements: sea shipment from Chennai to Yangon at a rate of $0.003 per kilometre per ton,and land transport from Yangon to Shanghai by way of the Muse/Ruili border crossing at arate of $0.05 for trucking and $0.02 for rail. We use Chinese benchmark costs for the wholejourney. We used data from Drewry Shipping Consultants, China Railway, and the ChinaFederation of Purchasing and Logistics.44 Expert interview; Stephen Webb and Robert Edel, Mining in the Asia Pacific: A legaloverviewMyanmar (Burma), DLA Piper, July 31, 2012.45 We use the sum of the Food and Agricultural Organizations arable land and permanentcrops categories. See Resource Revolution: Meeting the worlds energy, materials, food,and water needs, McKinsey Global Institute and McKinsey Sustainability and ResourceProductivity Practice, November 2011.46Ibid. 36. 26Water is becoming an increasingly critical resource for many countries around theworld, and Myanmar is well placed on this front. It has an estimated 24,164 cubicmetres per person per year, more than ten times the per capita endowment ofChina and India, around four times that of Thailand and the Philippines, and morethan double the per capita endowment of Vietnam, Indonesia, or Bangladesh.47Myanmars water resources also mean that it has considerable potential to usehydropower more extensivelyhydropower already accounts for three-quartersof electricity-generating capacityalthough there are social and environmentalchallenges in developing this power source.48Large working-age population and a significant number of semi-skilled migrant workersAlthough Myanmar cannot count on positive demographics to continue to buoygrowth in the long term, the country does have the advantage that trends in theworking-age population are likely to remain a positive contributor to growth atleast until 2030.49This is in contrast to many economies whose GDP growthis already constrained by an aging population. We estimate that Myanmarsworking-age population numbers 46million or 76percent of the population.50Thisis among the highestpercentages in ASEAN.51Estimates suggest that Myanmarsworking-age population will continue to grow at an average annual rate of1percent to reach a total of 57million in 2030.52Myanmar could potentially further benefit from attracting home a significantnumber of skilled members of its diaspora and a large migrant labour forcecurrently working abroad. This group is estimated at between threemillion andfivemillion people, or more than 10percent of Myanmars current workforce.The majority of these people are believed to be working in Thailand, althoughthe Thai authorities report that only about 537,000 workers from Myanmar havehad their nationality verified.53Anecdotal evidence suggests that Myanmarsmigrant workers are employed mainly in low-skilled and semi-skilled positions inlabour-intensive manufacturing, seafood processing, dockyards, construction,agriculture, and services such as shops, restaurants, hotels, and domesticservice.54Many of these workers have useful skills that probably currently outstripthose of the majority of Myanmars domestic population. If there were moreeconomic opportunities and a guarantee of political stability in Myanmar itself, ashare of members of the diaspora and migrant workers might choose to return.Their skills would be a valuable resource as emerging sectors grow.47 AQUASTAT database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2011.48Ibid., Myanmar in transition, Asian Development Bank, August 2012.49 We assume that participation and employment rates stay equal to 2010. We use statisticsfrom US Census Bureau/United Nations Population Division, Revision 2.50 The EIU and the World Bank indicate that 77percent of Myanmars population is of workingage, defined as ages 15 or over. Multiplied by the total population of roughly 60million, thisyields a working-age population of just over 46million.51 The working-age population numbers 55million in Thailand, 40million in South Korea, and20million in Malaysia. All figures are 2010 data from the United Nations Economic and SocialCommission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).52 US Census Bureau/United Nations Population Division, Revision 2.53 Andy Hall, Migration and Myanmar: Exploratory report on recruitment channels, MahidolMigration Center, Thailand, December 2012.54Ibid. 37. 27Myanmars moment: Unique opportunities, major challengesMcKinsey Global InstituteMYANMARS EXTERNAL CONTEXT IS HIGHLY FAVOURABLEMyanmar can also take advantage of powerful external trends. ASEANintegration has entered an active phase, and there is already intense interest inMyanmars prospects among investors, companies, and foreign governments andintergovernmental organisations. Many countries are setting up embassies in thecountry after numerous years of absence. Myanmar will be in the internationalspotlight as host of the World Economic Forum in June 2013, host of the 2013Southeast Asian Games in December, and chair of ASEAN in 2014.Dy