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(1) Theories of C to ivil-Military Relations as Japan and a Comparison wi Germany’s Case Masaki MIYAKE Professor of International History, School of Poli and EconQmics, Meiji University, Tokyo, Jap 1 9θ34 にり6 Contents Constitution, Democracy and Military Inte in Politics in Japan Huntington’s Theory of Civil-Military Relat Finer’s Theory of Political Culture Perlmutter’s Theory of Praetorianism and th Pre-War Army Berghahn’s Theory of the Two Types of Mil Mounting Militarism in Japan Notes 1.Constitution, Demoeraey and Milita Politics in Japan Imagine that the German Empire, founded 1871,had survived the First World War and until 1945-such a senario might make it easi political development of modern Japan, for founded in 1868 by the Meiji Restoration, fo this hypothetical course of German history and Germany had in common a constituti totally lacked c量vilian control over the army system existed in Germany effectively only it lasted until 1945. Hirobumi It6, the most in among the founding fathers of moderll Japan, the Prussian Constitution of 1850. The Pru prerogative of the supreme command, whi (212) 212

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Page 1: Masaki MIYAKE - core.ac.uk

(1)

Theories of C

to

     ivil-Military Relations as related

Japan and a Comparison with

      Germany’s Case

Masaki MIYAKE

Professor of International History, School of Political Sci.ence

     and EconQmics, Meiji University, Tokyo, Japan

1

    の   つ

9θ34

サ  ロ

にり6

Contents

Constitution, Democracy and Military Intervention

in Politics in Japan

Huntington’s Theory of Civil-Military Relations

Finer’s Theory of Political Culture

Perlmutter’s Theory of Praetorianism and the Japanese「

Pre-War ArmyBerghahn’s Theory of the Two Types of Militarism

Mounting Militarism in JapanNotes

1.Constitution, Demoeraey and Military Intervention in

   Politics in Japan

   Imagine that the German Empire, founded by Bismarck 童n

1871,had survived the First World War and continued to exist

until 1945-such a senario might make it easier to understand the

political development of modern Japan, for the Japanese Empire,

founded in 1868 by the Meiji Restoration, followed a path which

this hypothetical course of German history suggests. Both Japan

and Germany had in common a constitutional system which

totally lacked c量vilian control over the army and the navy. This

system existed in Germany effectively only unt量11918;in Japan

it lasted until 1945. Hirobumi It6, the most influentiai politician

among the founding fathers of moderll Japan, introduced to Japan

the Prussian Constitution of 1850. The Prussian system of the

prerogative of the supreme command, which was independent

(212) 212

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(2) Theories of Civi1・Milltary RelatiQns as related to Japan

from the control of the civil government, was also introduced to

Japan by Japanese political leaders, especially by Tar6 Kdtsura,

who had studied for a long time in Berlin. As is well known,

the prerogative of the supreme command was established by

Katsura’s efforts to detach the gelleral stafεfrom the control of

the Army Minister. These e仔orts were made well before the

Meiji Constitution was granted by the Meiji Emperor. The Prus-

sian Constitution of 1850, the Meiji Constitution of 1889 and the

Constitution’of the German Empire had in common not only the

prerogative of the King or the Emperor of the supleme command,

but also the elements of parliamentarism, or at least the possibility

of promoting such a system. One Japanese historian had Suggested

that each of these three constitutions had two souls:that of the

absoluteness of the monarch, and that of parliamentarism.(1)

   If the German Empire were to survive beyond 1918, and if

the German Emperor William II, or his successors, were to behave

as passively as he did during the First World. War toward the

armed forces, the intervention of the Germall military in politics

would have been more frequent and more tenacious than during

the short interlude of military dictatorship under Genelal Erich

Ludendorff(1917-18). It would have been very di伍cult, not only

for the Parliament and for the civilian premiers, but also for the

German Emperor himself, to control military intervention in politics

within the flamework of the German Constitution.

   Generally speaking, German generals and o缶cers were less

interested in politics and political intrigues than their Japanese

counterparts. Generals who showed much interst in politics, such

as Alfred Graf von Waldersee or Ludendor仔, w6re rather excepti’on-

al in the German Empire. The Japanese Army, however, produced

lnany Waldersees, if not Ludendor任s. Ever since the early days

of the Meiji Era, many of its generals and oMcers had been fond

of political intrigues, as the‘Monday Club’A仔air exempli丘es.(2}

Katsura, one of the founders of the Japanese Army, himself later

became a politician and was appointed Prime Minister three

times, However, if the German Empire had enjoyed a lohger life一

211 (211)

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Theories of Civi1-Military Relations as related to Japan (3)

span, it might also have produced many more Waldersees. The

examples of the political generals in the Weimar Repubilc such as

Hans v6n seeckt and Kurt von schleicher supPort this assumptiqn.

   As mentioned above, the collstitutional system of these two

Empires also had the potelltial of developing parliamentarism. In

Japan, parliamentarism developed to the extent that the ‘party-

responsible cabinet’became a general rule from 1918 until 1932.

This period is called the period of‘Taish6 Democracy’accofding

to the name.of the Emperor Taish6 under whose reign(1912-

1926)this democratic trend began and came to full blossom. This,

however, was a political phenomenon within the framework of

the Meiji Constitution. The most representat玉ve political ideologue

of‘Taish6 Democracy’was Sakuz6 Yoshino. Yoshino was pro・

fessor of political history in the Faculty of Law at Tokyo Imperial

university. He wrote.articles in the most influential periodicals

in Japan and preached the necessity of controlling the m量litary

and banishing their interference.with・politics. Yoshino’s journa1-

istic activities demonstrate in a clear-cut way the soul of parlia-

mentarism as contained in Japa耳’s.Prussian-derived Constitution・

His role can be Iikended to activists such as Eugen Richter and

Friedrich Naunlann.in the German Empire. It is signi丘c4nt that

during the First World War, Yoshino quoted a parllamentary

speech l)y Friedrich Naumann and praised highly Naumann’efforts

to curtail military meddling in politics.(3)        ・

   AJapanese philosoph.er, Osamu Kullo, calls the system of the

Japanese state as devised by It6 ‘the state as a work of art’,

using a phrase from Jacob Burckhardt’s description.of the city-

states of Renaissance Italy.(4) After It6,s assassination in Korea

in 1909, a new・situation arose, alld the system which had the

Emperor at the centre began to lose玉ts unity. Kuno says of the

new developments: ・    .         -

      Two thinkers appeared who reread and reinterpreted the copstituaion

   that Itδhad made. From It6,s constitution, that is, the emperor,s Japan,

   they drew the opposite c6nclusion that it(should l)e) the peQple’s

   emperor, the people’s Japan and sought to make this the principie of a

   new uhity.。.One was Yoshino Sakuzσ, the othεr Kita Ikki。 Yoshino

 (210)                                               210

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(4) Theories of Civil-Military Relations as related to Japan

planned to achieve(the new con丘guration)on the basis of parliament

and responsible party cabinet, while Kita planned to achieve it through

military dictatorship. They aimed in the same direction in that both

tried to eliminate the organs that stood between emperor and people, and

to make a govermnent directly connected with the people,「 盾氏@one hand,

and with the emperor, on the other. They moved in opposite directions

in that one relied on public opinion and mass movements, the other on

violence and coup d’6tat.(5)

Kita’s ideas, had they been carr玉ed out thoroughly, without being

stopped l〕y the failure of the premature coup d’6tat of February

1936,might have given Japan something Iike fascism in Italy or

National Socialism in Germany.(6)

   Yoshino’s political ideas of liberal reform soon lost appeal for

Japanese intellectuals. Solne of them began to be attracted by

Marxism, newly introduced by Kazuo Fukumoto among others.

Fukumoto studied ill Germany and France in the years 1922-24

and was influenced by Karl Korsch and Georg Luk合cs, ‘Fukumoto・

ism,was received by left-wing intellectuals ill Japan as a new

gospel of genuine Marxism. Soon after his return from Europe

Fukumoto became one of the most prominent leaders of the Com-

munist Party of Japan. Although Fukumoto lost his in伽ence

mainly due to his theory being discredited by Bukhari且in Moscow

in 1927, Marxism remained influential among Japanese intellectuals.

We can easily trace Marxist trends in the articles,(7)which tried

to explain why Hitler came to power. As I once dlscussed in

another article, both the Japanese opinion leaders with their

strong Marxist tendency and the Japanese charg6 d’affaires in

Berlin equally underestimated Hitler’s power and his skill as a

politician. The most influential writers of the leading contempo・

rary periodicals in Japa且were Marxist or leftist intellectuals.

The fact that one of the same periodicals published the complete

translation of Hitler,s speech on the occasion of the Funeral of

the German President Paul von Hindenburg in 1934, is a token of

aturn in editorial policy or in the intellectual climate, or both.(8)

In the same year,1934, the Japanese Army published the so-called

‘1~ikugun-Pamψhlet’(War Ministry Palnphlet). I will discuss the

209 (209)

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Theories of Civi1-Military Relations as related to Japan (5)

meaning of this pamphlet in the following section of this chapter.

   The Japanese Army’s interference in politics became in-

creasingly stronger, especially after the Manchurian Incident of

1931. At the same time a factional feud within the Japanese

Ar血y aggravated the situation. The February mutiny of 1936

was an outcome, not only of Kita’s political ideas, but also, to a

considerable extet, of this factional feud. It goes without saying

that the origins of this mutiny also existed in the economic

misery in the rural districts of Japan caused by the World Eco-

nomic Crisis since 1929. This mutiny and its failure would have

been a chance for the civilian  politicians to regain political

leadership, but this opportun量ty was not utilized by them. Thus

the failure of the mutiny, instead of preventing the military from

further interference in politics, strengthened it under the pretext

of purging from the army the defeated faction、Kδdb-ha(‘Imperial

Way’faction). By reforming the law on the selection of military

ministers in 1913, not only generals or admirals on the active list,

but also retired ones were enabled to serve as military ministers.(9)

Shortly after the mutiny, this reform, which was a product of

‘Taish6 Democracy’, was annulled upon pressure by the military.

The military ministers were limited again to general or admirals

on the active list as in the days before 1913,

   In connection with the subjects discussed above, I should like

to examine theoretical apProaches to military intervention in

politics and to the problem of militarism. These are two distinct

characteristics of Japanese domestic and foreign policy in the

period from 1931 to 1945 and such a theoretical discussion may

help us explain the phenomeIlon of military intervention in Japa-

nese politics, especially in foreign policy・(lo)

2. Huntington,s Theory of Civi1・Military Relations

   When Samuel P. Huntington, one of America’s foremost

political scientists and Professor of Government at Harvard Uni-

versity, published The Soldier and the States’ The Theo「y and

(208) 208

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 (6) Theories of Civi1-Mllitary Relations at related to Japan

Politics qズCivil・1レfilitaり21~61ations in 1957,(11) the history of the

theories of civil-military relations entered a new stage. Before

this work was published. Harold Lasswell, another political

scientist, who saw dictatorships being set up one after another in

Italy, Germany, and Spain in the 1930s, had conceived the theory

of a‘garrison state’, which was made public in 1941.(ユ2) Because

this theory is discussed in detail in.Mili彦α7ゴ∫〃z’ The Histo乳y(ゾan

lnternational 1)ebαte 1861-1979, we need not discuss it further

here.(13) Although Lasswell’s theory is important as a historical

testimony characteristic of the age, we might say that Huntington’s

work represents a classical theory in every sense of the word. A

classical theory means, for example, that a researcher who intends

to make a coherent statement on civil-military relations, cannot

avoid a confrontation with the theory, whether he or she agrees

with it or not.

   Let us view Huntington’s thery brieHy in order to re-examine

it in the light of Japanese experiences..The most important basic

concept ill his theory of civil-military relations is‘professionalism’.

He clearly states that‘the modern o缶cer corps is a professional

body and the lnodern military o缶cer a professional man’.(14)

Professionalism as an antonym of amateurism separates o缶cers of

the modern world from soldiers in older periods. Just as the

special character of physicians and lawyers lies in their profession-

alism, so does this form the character of modeln o缶cers. He

declares that essential component factors of professionalism are

‘expertise㌧‘responsibility’, and ‘corporatedness’.(15) In the case

of physicians and lawyers, these are three factors which form

their professionalism. In the case of of五cers, however, these

factors are endowed with the following special features:

   (1)   ‘  ”

207

(2)

(3)

The expertlse’of o缶cership ls‘the management ofviolellce,.(16)

An o価cer’s‘responsibility’is the military security of

his client, i. e. society.(17)

The‘corporate character’of of丑cers means that they

form an ‘automonous social unit, which is separated

                                            (207)

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Theories of Civil-Military Relations at related to Japan (7)

         from the rest of society.(18)

   Aphysician’s professional skill is diagnosis and treatment.

His responsibility means the health of the patients who are his

clients. Physicians form a physicians’society as an organization

of professionals who are distinguished from amateurs in medical

affairs. Professional o缶cers possesses in a similar way the above

three special characters. According to Huntington, professionlism

of this sort could not have been established among of丑cers of the

military forces of Japan before 1945(hereafter designated as the

former forces of Japan). They were dragged about by a sort of

spiritualism named‘Bushid6’, which is the warrior’s ethic, and

they were not taught to manage violence but to participate in the

battle as their idea1.(19》 Huntington asserts:

The professional military ethic draws a distinction between the military

virtues and the warrior virtues. For the Japanese, however, the ideal

o{丑cer was a warrior-a丘ghter engaging in violence himself rather than

amanager directing the employment of violence by other. This was a

feudal, not a professional, ideal.(20)

   The key term which丘gures in Huntington’basic concepts,

next to professionalism or parallel with it, is‘civilian control’.

How are these two,‘professionalism’and‘civilian control’, related

to each other P According to Huntington, the establishment of an

o伍cer corps which met the above-lnentioned three de丘nitions can

be found in Prussia in the midst of the NapoleonicWars. He

declares that this establishment of the military profession is

Prussia’s unique contlibution to the culture of Western society.(21)

Before the establishment of such modern o缶cer corps-a move

which France and England soon followed-there was only ‘sub-

jective civilian control’as a way of attaining civilian authority.

‘Subjective civilian controP nlealls that military forces wele

suppressed by maximizing the power of civilians. However, this

could not be extended to all civilians, but rather, was limited to

the power of speci丘c civilian groups. But, when modern o缶cer

corps were estal)lished, one could achieve‘objective civilian con-

trol’by developing, promoting a且d maximizing the professionalism

(206) 206

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(8) Theories of Civil-Military Relations as related to Japan

of the oMcer corps.(22) This view of‘objective civilian control’

has been severely criticized by other theorists of civil-military

relations, especially by Amos Perlmutter and Samuel E. Finer.(23)

According to Huntington, raising the degree of professionalism of

the military neutralizes its intervention in politics. Therefore,

the maximization of the professionalism of the lnilitary is according

to him the only road toward achieving ‘civilian control’ in the

most desirable form. Thus, he believes that if one is dedicated to

the professional spirit, one will give less thought to politics and

political intrigues。

    Huntington asserts that the Japanese of丑cer corps was‘the

major lnilitary body in the world most lacking in professional

spirit’。(24) This assertion seems to be a logical conclusion drawn

from his theory of professionalisln, rather than an inductive con-

clusion extracted from close examination of the former forces of

Japan. That these forces of Japan intervened very frequently in

politics is an evident fact, the examples of which are abundant.

Some examples will be discussed below. To insist that the same

forces were fully equipped with professionalism would undermine

Huntington’s theory completely. So he is obliged to state that

the Japanese o田cer corps was‘most lacking in professional spirit’.

This is a logical necessity. But Huntington’s observations of the

former forces of Japan suggest that his theory of professionalism,

or, more precisely, his theory that the maximization of military

professionalism Ieads to the minimization of military interventioll

in politics, is very vulnerable.

    We will examine Finer’s fundamental critique of Huntington’s

theoretical reasoning in the following section of this article. For

now it should be noted that the historical facts which Huntington

marshals are treated by him in too generalized a way. He says

for example:

   In contrast to the professionl military view that war is generally

undesirable and that it is the last resort of national policy, the Japanese

feudal warrior tended to praise violence and glorify war as an end in

ltself. The Japanese Ministry of War declared that:‘War is the Father

of Creation and the Mother of Culture. Rivalry for Supremacy does for

205 (205)

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Theories of Civil・Military Relations as related to Japan (9)

the state what struggling against advers玉ty does for the individual. It is

such impetus, in one case, as in the other, that prompts the birth and

development of life and Cultdral Creation’. With this philosophy of

war in general it is not surprising that the Japanese military in spec董丘c

circumstallces favored、.war as a means of achieving national goals.(26)

    Huntington quotes this aforementioned‘War Ministry Pamphlet’

from K. W. Kolegrove’s work. This pamphlet was published on

10ctober 1934. The political circumstances which necessitated the

publication at that time are wholly neglected by Huntington.

The draft of this famous panlphlet was prepared by Sumimasa

Ikeda, then Lieutenant-Colonel and Staff of the Military Affairs

Bureau(Gunmu-kyoku)of the War Ministry. His memoirs state

that this pamphlet was prepared as an ideological counterattack

by the 7bsθゴーha (‘Colltrol’faction) of the army against the

vehement ideological attack of theκσ4δ・ha(‘Imperial Way’fac-

tion). Ikeda’s draft was examined and approved by Malor・General

Tetsuzan Nagata, the head of the Bureau, who was to be murdered

by Lieutenant-Colonel Sabur6 Aizawa, a zealot of Kδd∂-ha who

resented Nagata as an outstanding figure of TOsei-ha. The

assassination occured on 12 August 1935, about one year after the

publicatioll of the pamphlet. Such historical context is not taken

into consideration by Huntington.(27)

    Ishall discuss only one more example here of the other too

sweeping assertions by Huntington on Japanese history. He says:

                                              tt      The one possible weak point which existed in th’e military struture

   of authority was the division of responsibility among a large number of

   military o岱ces. In this respect Japanese organization resembled pre-

   World War I German organization. The army was headed by the‘Big

   Three’:the Minister of War, the Chief of the Army General Sta∬, and

   the Inspector General of Military Training_The potential rivalry of these

   various organizations was curbed by the mutual feeling that they could

   all increase their power by working together. In 1931, for instance,

   when the political parties were increasing in importance, the Big Three

   of the army reached an understanding that all signi丘cant personnel

   appointments would only be made with their mutual concurrence. Subse-

   quently, the War Minister became more powerful and, in 1935, asserted

   his authority over the Inspector General of Military Training. The

   understanding of 1931 was abrogated, and the minister assumed full

   authority with respect to appointments. The Minister of War thus

(204) 204

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(10) Theories of Civil-Military Relations as related to Japan』

tended to become丘rst among equals. Either cooperation among the

military authorities, or the subordination of one to another, prevented

civillans from bene丘ting by the profusion of military o缶ces,(28)

      There are many mistakes in this assertion. First of all,it

   was in 1913, and not in 1931, that the Big Three of the army

   reached an understanding that personnel appointments of lieu・

   tenant-generals and generals would only be made with their

   mutual concurrence. This regulation was made by the‘A∬ange-

   ment between the War Ministry and the General Sta仔’(‘Sh6-bu-

   ky6tei-jik6’)of 1913. This arrangement was a counteroffensive

   of the army agaillst the new regulation introduced on 13 June

   1913,which extended the qualification of war and navy ministers

   -as we have seen above-to reserve o缶cers of the rank of general

   or admira1, including lieutenant-general or vice-admiral,(29)

   Huntingtoll says that ever since 19000nly a general or lieutenant-

   geernal of the army on active service could be minister of war in

   Japan.(30) Yet is was not in 1912 as he says, but in 1913, that

   ‘this restriction was limited so as to permit the appointment of

   reserve o缶cers of comparable rank’.(31> As we have also seen,

   this new regulation, which might have been helpful in establishing

   some sort of civilian control over the military by a civilian prime

   minister, was abolished in 1936, shortly after the military mutiny

   in February. Moreover, this system of the Big Three was not a

   weak point of the army, as Huntington says. Rather this system

   was used or abused to strengthen the army’s political standpoint.

   According to Yoshio Matsushita, a specialist of the Japanese

- military system, this new arrangement among the Big Three was

   abused at least three times:

      (1)War Minister Giichi Tanaka utilized the conference of

            the Big Three in order to prevent the appointment of

            Masatar6 Fukuda as his successor. Fukuda was recom-

            mended by Field Marshal YOsaku Uehara, who was

            Tanaka’s rival. Tanaka succeeded in this way in

            appointing Kazushige Ugaki as his successor(July 1924).

      (2)War Minister Ugaki in his turn utilized the conference

203 (203)

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Theories of Civi1-Military Relations as related to Japan (11)

     of the Big Three in order to prevent the appointment

     of Nobuyoshi Mut6 as Chief of the General Staff and

     to realize the appointment of his favorite, Hanz6

     Kanaya. Again it was Uehara who recommended Mut6

     (February 1930).

(3)When Ugaki was appointed Prime Minister, the army

     prevented him from forming his cabinet by means of

     the conference of the Big Three. The conference decided

     not to appoint a war minister. Uhaki was forced to go

     (January 1937). He was now the victim of the same

     institution which he had fully abused in the past.(32)

3 Finer,s Theory of Political Culture

   Theories of civil-military relations proposed by Samuel E.

Finer, Professor of Government and Public Administration at All

Souls College, University of Oxford, in The Man on Horseback

also deserve mentioning. According to the Random House English・

ノdPanese Dictionary this title sometimes means a military dictator,

based on the fact that General Boulanger often appeared on

horseback before the masses in Paris,

   Finer,s key terms are ‘military intervention五n politics’and

‘political culture’. Finer de丘nes‘military intervention in politics’

as‘ 狽??@armed forces’constrained substitution of their own

policies and/or their persolls, for those of the recognized civilian

authorities’.(33) Finer thinks that the military has a tendency by

itself to intervene in politics at any time and in any place.

According to Huntington, the factor which prohibits the desire

for intervention is the establishment of the military’s professional-

ism. However, Finer claims that there are many actual examples

which fundamentally disprove the assertion made by Huntington.

Finer says:

      In so far as professionalism makes the military look on their task as

   different from that of the politicians, and as self-su伍cient and full・time,

   it ought, logically, to inhibit the army from wishing to intervene. Yet

   it is observable that many highly professional o伍cer corps have intervened

(202) 202

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(12) TheQries of Civil・Military Relations as related to Japan

in politics-the German and Japanese cases are notorious. It is of no use

to retort that in such cases these armies cannot be described as‘fully’

professional. This is the whole weakness of Huntington’s thesis. All is

made to hallg upon a very special de丘nition of professionalism, and by

pure deduction from this, of a so-called‘military mind’. The argument

then becomes‘essentialist,,(34)

   One would not have to wait for Finer’s criticism in order to

realize that in carrying through his basic assertion that dedication

to professionalism is the biggest factor for the achievement of

civilian control, Huntington is forced to handle his accounts on

German and Japanese military in a very abstruse manner. Upon

reading Huntington’s The Soldier and the State, one is immediately

aware of the di仔iculty.

   Concerning the German military, Huntington attempts to

structure his theory by丘nding the finest model丘gure 6f professiona1-

ism since the early nineteenth century in the Prussian Army,

which, in extended form, also comprised the German military in

the Second German Empire (1871-1918). Thus, all the more,

Huntington is greatly annoyed at the military dictatorship by

General Ludendor鉦during the First World War, and at the subse-

quent course of the German Reichswehr under leadership of

General Hans von Seeckt who was said to have aimed at creating

‘astate within the state’ln the Weimar Republic. Even Hunting-

ton cannot help but admit that the German military intervened in

politics during the period of the Ludendorff dictatorship, and to

some extent during the period of von Seeckt. Consequently, he can

do nothing but think that the same German military which had

achieved the most ideal way of existence from the viewpo三nt of

the realization of civilian control, changed its character to the

worst and most undesirable in a very short period. One must

say that assuming such a sudden change and discontinuity is

against common understanding of history and involves considerable

di伍culty.(35)

    In the case of the Japanese military, it is a clear fact that

the military, especially the army, was highly political in nature

from the very beginning and that their frequent intervention in

  201                                                       (201)

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        Theories of Civil-Military Relations as related to Japan (13)

politics reached an extreme in the early half of the Shδwa era

(1926-45).Thus, in order to make his theory tenable, Huntington

declares that the Japanese army did not establish professionalism

at alL As we have see11, Finer fully rejects such efforts by

Huntington on the Japanese and German military.(36)

   Finer thinks that there have been many cases where pro-

fessionalism itself gave rise to a confrontation with civilian

authorities. He classi丘es these cases into three types. The second

type, with which we are concerned, is military syndicalism. It

can be found in the German and Japanese Armies until the out-

break of the Second World War and in the French Army during

the Dreyfus period.(37)This‘military syndicalism’has something

to do with the fact that within the armed forces the laymen

outside the army are often called‘civvies’,‘frocks’, or‘p6kins’.(38)

Tee Japanese Army treated the world outside as‘local’and

civilians.as ‘Iocal people’(chih6-jin). Only the Army was

thought to be ‘central’.

   According to Finer intervention in politics by the military

involves the following four levels:

(1)

(2)

     1ner

levels are the four levels of

of the world

countrles

   (1)

   (2)

   (3)

   (4)

   Thus,

(200)

(3)

(4)

F’

the level of influence upon the civil authorities (consti-

tutional and legitimate);

the level of pressures, or’blackmail’(covers a wide

range from barely constitutional to clearly unconsti-

tUtiOnal CaSes);

the level of disPlace〃¢ent:

the level of sul)plant〃lent.(39)

asserts that those that closely co-relate to these four

                ‘political culture’, Various countries

    are classi丘ed into the following four groups of

of the level of ‘political culture,:

countries of a mature Political Culture∫

countries of a developed political culture ;

countries of a low political culture∫

countries of mini〃ial Political cultuγe.(40)

according to Finer’s classi丘catio11, Germany from the

                                               200

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(14) Theories of Civi1-Military Relations as related to Japan

Empire to Hitler,s seizure of power, Japan between the two World

Wars, France from the Third Republic onwards,.as well as the

U.S. S. R. fall into the second group.(40)What interests us is that

he recognizes something common among the Kapp riot in Germany

(March 1920), the 26 February mutiny in Japan(1936), and the

French rebellion in Algeria (April 1961):in all these rebellions,

the military took actioll independently, ignored the intentions of

civilians, then ultimately became isolated, and were eventually

forced to fail due to civilian resistance.

   Why did these rebellions by the military fail?While they had

their own reasons respectively, the ult童mate cause for their failure

lies in the political cultures of Germany, Japan and France, which

were fairly highly developed, or at least at the second level,

according to Finer’s schema. The German and Japanese military

which learned that military dictatorship(supplantment)through

rebellion would be impossible, gave up this approach, and, instead,

devoted themselves to intervention in politics from level(1)to

(2),namely, at the levels using influence by exerting pressure, up

to‘blackmailing’. Both the German Reichswehr and the Japanese

‘Control’ faction (7「δsθ∫一勿) realized high-level political inter-

vention by this means.(42)

   We can analyse the February mutiny in Japan from yet

another point of view. The Japanese Constitution of 1889(Meiji

Constitution)defined the Emperor as possessing both civilian and

military supreme power. The military supreme power of the

Emperor was called ‘T6sui-ken’(the Emperor’s prerogative of

supreme command). Because the civilian supreme power was in

reality entrusted to a civilian government, and furthermore be-

cause this government became increasingly dependent. on the

political parties within the parliament(the Lower House), it was

possible for parliamentary democracy to flourish under the Meiji

Constitution. This was a development in Japan under‘Taish6

Democracy’. Parallel with this development, Tatsukichi Minobe,

Professor of Constitutional Law at the Faculty of Law of Tokyo

Imperial University, elaborated a theory of‘the Emperor as an

199 (199)

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Theories of Civil-Military Relations as related to Japan (15)

organ of the state’.(43)His theory was based on that of勿万s∫ゴsc勿

Staα彦sperson(judicial person of the state)developed by the German

scholar Georg Jellinek. Minobe Inade a study trip to Germany and

introduced Jellinek’s theory to Japan, adapting it to Japanese              ロ

Sltuatlon.

    Emperor Hiroshito himself was inclined to the theory of the

Emperor as an organ of the state and intended to act as a con-

stitutional monarch who reigns, but does not govern. It is often

said that three times in his life, he acted, not as a collstitutional

monarch of this type, but as an absolute monarch in full posses。

sion of the Inilitary supreme command. The丘rst case concerned an

incident in Manchuria. He reproved Prime Minister Giichi Tanaka

vehemently when Tanaka reported to him(July,1929)falsely

that the assassination of General Chang Tso-ling (4 June 1928)

was not committed by any personnel of the Japanese Kwantung

Army. This report was made in order to conceal the fact of

assassination by the Japanese Colonel Daisaku K6moto, member of

the staff of the Kwantung Army. The Kwantung Army pressed

Tanaka to collceal the truth.(44) The second case occured during

the February mutiny in 1936. The third case was the Emperor’s

decision to end the war in August 1945. In the case of the

February mutiny, to‘suppress the rebels quickly’, the Emperor

issued orders against the resistance of hesitating generals such as

War Minister Yoshiyuki Kawashima and Chief Martial Law

Administrator K6hei Kashii, who sympathized with the rebels.

This is what the important source material, namely the Kidb

K砒雇Nikki, the diary of Marquis K6ichi Kido, who later in 1940

was appointed to the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal, reports.(45)

Another source says that the Emperor insisted on suppressing the

reわels even by commanding himself the Imperial Guard Division.(46)

According to these source, the rebellion failed, not because of the

high level of ‘political culture’of the Japanese people, but be-

cause of the Emperor’s own decision which has little to do with

the ‘political culture’of the governed people.

   More analogous to the rebellion of the French colonial army

 (198)                                                          198

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(16) Theories of Civi1・Military Relations as related to Japan.

in Algeria in 1961 are Colollel K6moto’s plot in 1928 and the

Kwantung Army’y plot in Manclluria in 1931, as these were also

rebellions by colonial armies. The former failed by the resistance

of the Emperor, but the latter succeeded to establish Japan’s

puppet state‘Manchukuo’in 1932. The February mutlny of

1936has little in common with these rebellions by colonial armies.

It seems to have more in commoll with the Kapp riot in Germany.

4. Perlmutter,s Theory of Praetorianism and the Japa-

   nese Pre・War Army

   T12e Military and P・litics・in・M・dern Times:On Pr()fessi・滋1s,

Praetorians, and、Revolutionary Soldiers,1977, by Amos Perllnutter,

Professor of Political Science and Sociology at the American Uni・

versity in Washington DC, is one of the most noteworthy works,

in terms of both quality and quantity, that appeared during the

period of twenty years after Huntington’s presentatioll of his

classical theory in The Soldier and the Sta te.(47) To avoid clutter-

ing the context of this article, I shall confine myself here to a

l〕rief summary of his work,

   Perlmutter accepts totally, even if only tentatively, Hunting-

ton’s three terms of professionalism in the military. However,

Perlmutter tries to revise Huntington’s theory to a large extent

by asserting that the increase in size of corporatedness-Perlmutter

calls it‘corporatism’-destroys sound civil-military relations.(48)

   He classifies the military in modern nation-states into three

types of‘military.corporatism’which correspond to the three

ways of modern nation-states:              層

    (1)

    (2)

(3)

   Concerning

regarding Prussia

197

aclassical type of professional soldler;

atype of corporate professionalism represented by the

praetorian soldier;

atype of professionlism represented by the noncorporate

revolutionary soldier.(49)

     (1),he follows Huntington’s way of thinking

       and France. The border between (1) and (2)

(197)

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Theories of Civi1-Military Relations as related to Japan (17)

is in flux. Thus:‘Japan was brought to the brink of praetori・

anism when the state, the society, and the forces of ideology all

converged in support of expansionism’.(50) And the German

Army showed the trend of praetorianism during the period of von

Seeckt in the 1920s.〔51) Form (2)reached its apex in Latin

America in the twentieth century and‘by the 1970s was the only

form of military organizational behavior in the Middle East,

North Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa’.(52) Form (3) is repre・

sented by the Chinese People’s Liberation Army and the Israeli

Forces. The military does not involve itself in politics in these

cases, although it forms the basis of both states.(53)

   Perlmutter’s analysis of Japanese civi1-military relations is, as

he admits in a footnote,(54)largely based on secondary works.

Much of his interpreta’狽奄盾氏@is based on James B. Crowley,s work.(55)

Although Crowley’s is a solid study of Japanese politics in the

1930s based on Japanese source materials, Perlmutter’s interPreta-

tion of the Japanese situation is a little one-sided. He overesti-

mates the predolninance of the members of the traditionary

military‘han’, namely local territorial states in Japan before

the reforln of 1871,0r clans, especially of the Ch6sh亘(army)and

the Satsuma(navy)clans.(56)This predominance was not able to

stand the test of time. The First World War taught the Japanese

Army that modernization and mechanization aimed at total

mobilization was an absolute necessity. On 270ctober 1921 in

Baden・Baden three Japanese o伍cers studying in Germany discussed

Ludendorff,s idea of total war and conspired to crush Ch6shU

predominace, reform Japan,s military institution, and work towards

total mobilization of the nation. The three o缶cers were Tetzuzall

Nagata, Toshishir60bata, and Neiji Okamura. They belonged

to the same generation and although their action ill Baden-

Baden was largely symbolic, were Iater to play important roles

within the army.〔57) Nagata was born in 1884,0bata in 1885,

Okamura in 1884.

    A second symbolic act was the appointment of Kazushige

Ugaki as War Minister in 1924. Although Ugaki’s appointment

(196) 196

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(18) Theories of Civil-Military Relations as related to Japan

tutional system of Japan began

civilian and military, after the

Kinmochi Saionji, the last‘genrδ’

personality. The rise of extreme

aroused misgivings in some army eircles, as described above, it

showed that the age of the Ch6sha clan was clearly over. Ugaki

came from Okayama prefecture, not from Yamaguchi prefecture

(the former Ch6shtt domain). The fading of Ch6shU predominance

in the army, however, resulted in the formation of a new and

extreme kind of militarism. As pointed out above, the Japanese

Emperor monopolized theoretically both civil supreme power and

supreme command of the army and navy according to the Meiji

Constitution. The former was entrusted to the civilian cabinet,

and the latter was entrusted to the general staffs of the army and

the navy. There was no constitutional body which could have

regulated these two authorities. There was only a group of

‘genrO’(elder statesmen), outstanding politicians who were also

the founding fathers of the new nation・state of Japan, such as

Hirobumi It6, Iwao Oyama, Masayoshi Matsukata, Kaoru Inoue,

and Aritomo Yamagata. Yamagata, born in 1838, survived alI

others and exerted the strongest power of all. To some extent,

these‘genrO’, especially It6 and Yamagata, Played the role of

regulating the two powers, civilian and military, which were

supposed to belong to the Emperor. To put it simply, the consti一

tumult surrounding the signing of the London N

Treaty (1930), or more specifically

Manchurian Incident(1931)discussed in Chapter 2

be directly attributed to the predominance

within the army. It must be noted that in the meantime

Democracy,had appeared and Ch6sh

not only within the army, but also in Japanese politics and society

at large. Ugaki symbolized this age of transition before the rise

of a new, and to some extent, modernized and extreme form of

militarism.(58)

to split lnto two authorities,

death of Yamagata in 1922.

was not such a strong Political

militarism in Japan after the

            aval Disarmament

   after the outbreak of the

             ,could no longer

          of the Ch6shtt clan

                    ,‘Taish6

  a’predominance faded away,

195 (195)

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Theories of Civil・Military Relations as.related to Japan (19)

5. Berghahn,s Theory of the Two Types of Militarism

    As is suggested above, the llew militarism of J4pan in the

Sh6wa period contained to some extent the modernizing elements,

as the convent of Baden-Baden demonstrates. In this respect, the

theory of the two types of militalism proposed in the previously

mentionedハ4ilitarism :The、History of an In彦ernational Debate 1861-

1979by Volker R, Berghahn, Professor of Modern History at

Brown University, attracts our attention. He begins his discussions

on the two types of militarism by reviewing the recent work of

Michael Geyer.(59)Berghahn says as follows:

General Hans von Seeckt, the father of the Weimar Army, held

impeccably conservative views about its organization and function in

society. His approach was elitist・exclusivist, hostile to the existing

parliamentary regime and with little appreciation of the lessons to be

learned frQm the First World War in the丘elds of technology and econQ・

mics。 In short, he stood for the ideas and principles of the old Prussian

Army.   What was true of Seeckt, was not necessarily true of the majors and

colonels ori his staff。 According to Geyer, Inuch of what has been written

about the Reichswehr since 1945 represents merely half the picture. His

evaluation of fresh archival material revealed a different and very

‘modern’image of the German army. He discovered that there had

been a number of younger o田cers in the planning and operations depart-

ments of the Ministry who had drawn their own conclusions from the

course of the First World War. Whereas many of their older comrades

were convinced that the war had been lost by Germany because of a

breakdown in her morale and ‘will power’, the ‘industrialization of

warfare’Ieft an indelible impression on the planners in the young

Republic’s military bureaucracy. These oHicers saw themselves as pro-

fessionals devoted to putting an end to the chaos and decentralization

which marked the organizatiQn of the Reichswehr in the early 1920s,

   So they began to improve the system of mobilizatiQn and to rational・

ize Iogistics in an attempt to gear Germany’s armed forces to the age of

h量gh mechanization and automation of warfare.(6e)

    Asimilar development in Japan parallel to this new trend in

the German Reichswehr can be seen in the effort of War Minister

Ugaki. He began to modernize the Japanese Army in May 1925

by abolishing four divisions and by newly estqblishing the tank

(194) 194

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(20) Theories of Civil・Military Relations as related to Japan

units, strengthening the army air force, and by modernizing, for

example, wireless communication. By abolishing the divisions,

he did away with about 34,000 men and allotted the budget thus

gained to the modernization of the army. These attempts are

called in Japan the‘Ugaki Disarmament’(Ugaki Gunshuku).(61)

In November 1925 a new Army Minister, Paul Painlev6, was

appointed in France. Painlev6 tried to modernize the French

Army by reducing the length of conscript service from a year

and a half to one year and by abolishing two divisions. Painlev6’s

idea seems to be closer to Ugaki’s than to von Seeckt’s. Anyhow

it will be an interesting task to study in comparison the military

and political ideas of von Seeckt, Painlev6, and Ugaki.(62)Although

Ugaki’s efforts to modernize the army were not fully realized due

to the stubborn resistance of the conservative o伍cers and generals,

              grees with Tim Mason’s argument that

ence of the Flrst World War and the collapse of the homefront in

1917/18played a major part in Hitler’s velvet-glove approach to

the working population,(63)and continues:

such as the cavalry generals,

them as the prime mover of the

are worth reassessing as those

time and under the pressure of

   Berghahn a

and although he was resented by

‘Ugaki Disarmament’, his efforts

modernizing the army in peace-

‘Taish6 Democracy’.

                   .‘the experi一

   This is the immediate hlstorlcal background to the guns-and・butter

policy which Hitler adopted in the 1930s. The regime did not dare to

make a choice between mainta圭ning living standards and fully-fledged

‘in-depth’rearmament. Instead it pursued a policy which providedわo漉,

but both, as it turned out, in insu伍cient quantities. By the late 1930s,

the economic e仔ects of the programme of rapid rearmament could befelt.(64)

wasmilitarism into these two types:old-style

reliance on sacrifice and tight discipline’(66)

logical militarism’.(67) He concludes:

According to Berghahn, Hitler’s escape from this dilemma

‘swift victories,by‘lightning attacks’.(65)Thus he classifies

Given that highly industrialized

consu血ptlon and hence』wi

193

militarism ‘with its

and the new‘techno一

societ三es are orientated towards

11not bear indefinitely the extended austerity

(193)

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        Theories of Civil-Military Relations as related to Japan (21)

   of a society permanently mobilized for total war, the attempt to do both

   at the same time will prove self。destructive. Since the new‘technological

   militarism’cannot operate without a skilled workforce which demands

   material appeasement, the old・style militarism with its reliance on

   sacri丘ce and tight discipline becomes counter・productive and tends to

   jeopardize the. stability of the entire system。(68)

   When we consider the nature of the militarism and the world・

view of the military in Japan, we may be allowed to insist with-

out going into the details of statistics that they fall into Berghahn’s

categorization of the first rather than the second type of militarism.

The military leaders i亘Japan always dema且ded from the Japanese

people austerity, sacrifice, and tight・discipline by utilizing Pro-

paganda appealing to the loyalty of the people to the Emperor.

The Emperor system(tenn6-sei)was fully exploited by them as

asource of propaganda. During the Paci丘c War, slogans quoting

the legendary founder of the Imperial Family, Emperor Jimmu,

were pasted at almost every corner of the streets in Japan. The

millitary leaders in Japan paid little attention to the welfare of

the working ciass and of the Japanese people in gelleral・ This

situation, again, has to do with the fact that the ‘Prussian’

system persisted in Japan up to 1945. Therefore, the quasi-military

dictatorship by General Hideki T616 during the years 1941-44 has

more elements in common with the Ludendorff dictatorship than

with Hitler’dictatorship.

6.Mounting Militarism in Japan

   The military intervention in Japan after the outbreak of the

Manchurian Incident in 1931 was essentially strengthened after

the February mutiny of 1936. The military impact was felt not

only in domestic politics, but also in foreign policy. One of the

results of military intervention was the conclusion of the Anti-

Comintem Pact with Hitler’s Germany in November 1936. The

military intervened strongly in Japan,s foreign policy to strengthen

the rather vague pact into a ful1-scale military alliance between

Japan, Germany and Italy, which also joined the pact in Novem.

 (192)                                                          192

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(22) Theories of Civil-Military Relatlons as related to Japan

ber 1937. But because the civil politicians and the top.Ieaders of

the Japanese Navy objected to a widening bf cooperation b’ ?狽翌??

Japan, Germany and Italy into a military alliance against, Great

Britaill and France, the negotiations with Germany and Italy

were hampered.(69)

   The diplomatic stalemate between・Japan and. Germany con-

cerning the military alliance after the shock of the German・Soviet

Non-Aggression Pact of August 1939,’was again activated in the

summer of 1940 after the victories of the Iightning attacks by

Hitler’s Germany. The key persons in the.making of the Tripartite

Allience Berlin-Rome-Tokyo were Foreign Minister Y6suke Matsu-

oka and his German counterpart Joachiln von Ribbentrop. They

cherished similar ideas of a quadruple pact Berlin-Rome-Moscow-

Tokyo. This coincidence appears to have been・instrumental in

the drafting of the Tripartite Pact of September 1940. It..seems

to me that it is necessary to pay more attention to these key

丘gures and also to the difference of diplomatic concepts existing

between von Ribbentrop and Hitler than has been done in research

up to now on this alliance.(70)                ・

   In pre-war days, the Soviet Union was a troublesome neighbour

for Japanese foreign policy decision-makers, including the military.

To the Japanese military attach6 in Berlin, Major・General Hiroshi

Oshima, the lessons of the secret treaty of Bj6rk6 in July 1905

hinted at an agreement between Japan and Germany against

Russia。(71) The harsh lessons of the local war in Nomonhan in

the summer of 1939 between the Kwantung Army of Japan and

the Red Army of the Soviet Union taught the leaders of the

Japanese Army the tremendous military strength of the latter.

The shock of the Nomonhan affair remains to be discussed much

more thoroughly by the historians.(72).Hitler’s Germany seem§to

have drawn a(lifferent lesson from the war between Finland and

the Sov.iet Union in the winter of 1939/40 and,come to the con-

clusion that the Red Army Was rather weak in comparison to the

German Army. Soon this conclusion proved. to be mistaken.

Anyhow, the development of the Gerlnan-Soviet relations was,a

191 (191)

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Theories of Civll-Military Relations.as related to Japan (23)

matt曾r of great concern for the Japanese leaders including the

military. The shock of the Non-Aggression Pact between Berlin

and Moscow misled the Japanese leaders, especially Foreign Minis-

ter Matsuoka, to believe that good relations between Berlin and

Moscow「would endure for a considerably long period of time.

This erroneus perception of German-Soviet relations was injurious

for the・destiny of Japan.

    Also injurious fbr Japan was the Prussian system of the

supreme command’s independence from civilian control. To show

to what extent this system troubled the civil government, I shalI

quote the memoirs of Prince Fumimaro Konoe who acted three

times as civilian Prime Minister with no power over the military:

The fact that the Supreme Command and State Affairs are indepen一

dent of each other has been a matter of anguish for cabinets from gener-

atlon to generatlon.

    During the present Japanese-American negotiations, too, the govern・

ment was conducing these negotiations with all its powers, but the

military was vigorously making preparations in case the neotiations should

be broken off:Moreover, as to what these preparations were, we did not

know at all, and it was not possible to have them go along step by step

with diplomacy. Since the military vigorously went about moving ships,

mobilizing troops, etc., and these things were discovered by the United

States, the United States would question the sincerity of our diplomacy,

so that we were frequently embarrassed because the relationship between

diplomacy and military matters was not smooth.

   In t,he pressing atmosphere since September last year(1941), when

we were either to have war with the United States or not, Prince Higashi-

kuni, who was one of the supporters of prudence, used to say that in

order to effect a break in this situat三〇n there was no other way but for

the EmperQr to stand丘rm, But.it is said that the Emperor-and this is

something that he also said to me-said a number of times to Higashikuni

too, that he was having a hard time of it because of the military. On

such occasions the Prince said to・the Emperor that it wouldn’t do for

him to say things that a critic might say, but if he were to feel that

anything was improper he should say so.

    The fact that the Emperor practically never expressed his opinlons,

so rarely that one would think he.was Qn the reserve side, was due, I

think, to Prince Saionji, Count MakinQ, and others, who, thinking of the

ρperations of a cQnstitution in the English style, said that the Emperor,

as far as possible, ought not to take the initiative and interfere in matters

aside from stating three items at the time of issuing a command to form

anew Cabinet, namely, repect for the constitution, not being unreasonable

(190) 190

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(24) Theories of Civil・Military Relations as related to Japan

by the Emperor, and

st1tutlon.

Supreme Command, the government has no power at all of raising its

voice, and the only person who may retain both the government and the

Supreme Command is the Emperor. Any yet, the fact that the Emperor

is on the passive side, acting in the English style, gives rise to numerous

d面culties in wartime, although it may be all right in peace. In the

Japanese-America negotiations, I bitterly felt the fact that it could not

be settled simply by the urgings and suggestions given, in the English

style, by the Emperor.(73)

in diplomacy, and not bringing about s血dden and great changes in the

丘nancial world.

   But the Japanese constitution is built on a framework of direct rule

                 is fundamenta11y di鉦erent from the English con-

    ’   Especially in reference to the problem of the authority of the

   Prime Min玉ster Konoe was replaced by General Hideki T6j6

in October,1941. T6j6 held also the posts of Home Minister,

War Misister, later Munitions Minister, a豆d i且1944 the post of

the Chief of the General Staff. The two prerogatives, civilian and

military, were thus uni丘ed by him. Asituation similar to the

Ludendorff dictatorship began in Japan. The politician Seig6

Nakano alone dared to criticize T6j6’s quasi・dictatorship openly.

In an article‘Senli saish6 ron’(On War-Time Premier)published

in the newspaper Asahi on l January 1943, Nakano criticized T6j6

quoting the example of Hindenburg and Ludendorff.during the

First World War. Nakano wrote that both Hindenburg and Luden-

dorff, though excellent as warriors in Tannenburg, degenerated

into super丘cial despots at the moment when they monopolized the

command of the whole German Army, and that they oppressed

the German people instead of relying upon them. T6j6 was

infuriated at Nakano’s art圭cle, and suppressed the edition of the

newspaper. But this punishment came after this edition had been

widely distributed and was not effective. Leslie Russell Oates, who

teaches Japanese language and East Asian history at the Univer・

sity of Melboume in Australia, describes this event as follows:

   Banning and censorship of Tδtairileu (Eastern Continent-Nakano’s

periodical) were intensi丘ed and even the New Year’s Dtiy 1943 issue of

the/lsahi(newspaper)was banned for carrying an article by Nakano on

wartime prime rninisters. Although this spoke through guarded historicaI

allusions some of these were rather telling, for example the point that

Generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff were great in the field, but when

189 (189)

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Theories of Civil-Military Relations as related to Japan (25)

placed in supreme control of the war failed to put a proper trust in the

people, instead restricting them and‘trampling on their patriotism by

imposing a servile drudgery,.㈹

    Although these comments may be interpreted as“guarded

historical allusions” as Oates does, Nakano’s comments on

Hindenburg and Ludendorff are highly interesting when we pay

attention to the similarily between the“Ludendorff dictatorship”

in Germany during the First World War and T6j6’s quasi-

dictatorship in Japan in the Second World War.㈹

Notes

(1)

))23

((

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

))89

((

Yukio Mochida, Hikale u kindai shi no ronri :2>ihon to Doitsu(The

Logic of a Comparative Study of Modern History:Japan and Germany)

(Kyoto,1970), pp.109 ff. MQchida is Professor of Western History at

Dδshisha University in Kyoto. The styling of the Japanese constitu。

tion after the Prussian model is discussed in:Masaki Miyake,‘German

Cultural and Political In舳ence on Japan,1870-1914’, John A. Moses

and Paul M。 Kennedy(ed.), Ger2nany in伽Pacific and Far East,

1870-1914(St. Lucia, Queensland,1977).

Miyake, ibid., p.164.

Yoshino quoted Naumann’s interpellation of 9 0ctober 1917 in the

German Reichstag and fully sympathized with it in his artlcle‘Gun-

batsu no gaik6 y6kai o nanzu’(I BIame the Military Crique’s Inter-

vention in Foreign Policy), in the Chti∂・KOron(the Central Revue)

of May,1918.

George M. Wilson,1~adical Nationlist in/apan’Kita llehi 1883-1937

(Cambridge, Mass.,1969), p.149.

Ibid., pp.151 f., translated and quoted.by Wilson from a chapter by

Oasmu Kuno, in Osamu Kuno and Shunsuke Tsurumi, Gendaiハrohon

犯oshisO’Sono itsutsu no uzu(Five Whirlpools of ContemporaryJapanese Thought)(Tokyo,1956), pp.138 f.

Cf. Masaki Miyake,‘Kita Ikki’s Political Ideas and February Mutiny

of 1936’, Janet Hunter (ed.), 1nterna彦ional Studies 1987/1∫’ ∠【spects

o/Pan・Asianism, Suntory Toyota International Centre for Economics

and Related Disciplines, London School of Economics and Political

Science(London,1987).

Cf. Masaki Miyake,‘Japan und die nationalsozialistiche Machtergreif-

ung’, Wolfgang Michalka(ed.), Die nationalsozialistische Ma cht〃-

greiノ擁π8・(Paderborn, 1984).

Ibid., p.309.

Testuo Najita, Hara Kei in the Po〃tics o/Co〃lpromise 1905-1915

(Cambridge, Mass.,1967), pp.178-182.

(188) 188

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(26) Theories of Civil・Military R61ations as relhted to Japan

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)、

(18)

(19)

(20)

(21)

(22)

(23)

(24)

(25)

(26)

(27)

(28)

(29)

(30)

On the phenomenon of military intervention in Japanese diplomacy, cf.

Masaki Miyake, Sino-Western Rapprochement and the Response o∫

the /aPanese 」Fo「eign  Policy 」Decision一ル∫akers 1928-1938’ ルfilitary

In彦ervention in Politics and /apanese 1)iplomacy, The Bulletin of

lthe Institute of Social Sciences, Meiji University, Vol。12, No.2,1989.

Samuel.P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State :The. Theory and

Politics o/Civil-。ハ4ilitary 1~elations. first.published by Belknap Press

of the Harvard University Press,(Cambridge, Mass.,1957), with a

new edition available since 1981 as’aHarvard paperback in the Belknap

Press series. Ava三lable also in a Caravelle Edition, Vintage Books, a

division of Random House, New York. This book has been recently

translated into Japanese by Ry6ichi Ichikawa as Gunブin to koleka,2

vols.,(Tokyo,1978-9).

Harold D. Lasswell,‘The Garrison State and the Specialists on Vio一

lence,,∠4〃terican /ournal oアSociology(January 1941),

Volker R. Berghahn,ルfilitaris〃1’The History oアα%

ヱ)ebateヱ861-1979,(Leamington Spa,1981), pp.43-46.

Huntlngton,アhe Soldieアand tゐθState, P.7.

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

pp.7-10.

P.11.

P.15.

P.16.

pp. 126 f.

p.126.

pp.30 f.

pp. 80-3.

pp.455-68.

International

Amos Perlmutter, Theルfili彦aryα%4 PoJ漉cs in Modern Times’OnP70ノ乙ss∫oηα1s, Praetorians, and Revolutionary Soldiers(New Haven

and London,1977), pp.5f. Samuel E. Finer, Theルtan on Horse∂acle :

丁加Role o∫the.Military in Politics, second, enlarged edition (Har・

mondsworth,1976), pp.21 f..

Huntington, The Soldier and the State, P.126.

Ibid., p.129.

Ibid.                     .

Masaki Miyake,‘Seigun kankel no shikaku kara mita.1930-nen dal no

Nihon’(Japan in the 1930s Reconsidered from the Aspect of Civil一

Military Relations), ln Kimitada Mlwa(ed.), S嫌δ

2enya’Nihon.no 1930-nen dai ron to shite(The Eve

War Reconsidered:As Discussions of Japan’s 1930s),

On the‘War Ministry Pamphlet’, cf. Michio Fujimura,

ku sen taisei to k亘deta keikaku’(The System of

and the Plans of Coup d’6tat), ibid., pp.88-91.

Huntington,7「he Soldier and彦he State, pp.132 f.

YoshiQ Matsushita,ハ硫o%gunsei to sθゴガ(The

of Japan and Japanese Politics)(Tokyo,1960), PP.

Huntington, The Soldier and the State p.131.

taiheiyδsensoof the Pacific

(Tokyo,1981).

‘Kokka s6ryo.

Total Mobilization

Military Organization  109f.

187 (187)

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く31)

(32)

く33)

(34)’

(35)

(36)

(37)

(38)

(39)

(40)

(41)

(42)

(43)

(44)

(45)

(46)

Ibid.

Matsushita, Nihon gunsei, pp.110 f.

Finer, The Man.01¢Horsseback, p.20.

Ibid., pp.21 f.

Ibid., p.21..

Ibid.

Ibid.,、 p.23.

James B.

and

On‘TState), cf.

no tenn∂-leilean-setsu

setsu:Three Types ofHistory

Political Science at Kyoto Unlversity

Meili Constitution by Sh   Uesugi, Mitsue Ichimura

as the three types of the theory of the Emperor as an organ of the

state. Uesugi and Minobe w.ere rivals in the same faculty of law of

Tokyo Imperial Univer5ity. These two professors interpreted the Meili

Constitution from.tWo totally d遜erent standpoints. Uesug董’s inter・

pretation resembled much the‘Divine Richt of Kings’theory. On the

prerQgat董ve Qf supreme command of the Japanese Emperor under the

Meiji Constitution, see Tomio Nakano, TOsui-ken犯o doleuritsu(The

Independence of.the Prerogative of Supreme Colnmand), first published

.in・.1934, and reprinted in 1974, Tokyo. Nakano was Professor of Wa-

seda University in Tokyo. See also Tsuguo Fujita,. Meiji leenpδron:

1(獅kenpδkara shin leenpδe(The Meli CQnstitution;From the Old

Constitution to the New Cons‡五tution)(Tokyo,1948);Tsuguo Fujita,

Guntai toブiya(The Military and Liberty)(Tokyo,1953), Fujita

taught Constitutional Law at Sophia University in Tokyo.

Masashi Nezu, Dai・Nihon∫ε伽々π%o hδkai’Tennb shδwa海ゴ,1(The

Fall of the Japanese Empire, VoL l of the Emperor Shδwa Chronology)

(Tokyo,1966), pp.88 ff. Nezu publlshed seven vQlumes of theハlihon

gendai shi(Colltemporary History of Japan)(Tokyo,1966)and also

translated V. Gordoll Child’s works,

K6ichi Kido, Kido](bichi niklei(The Diary of K6ichi Kido), Vol.1

(Tokyo,1966). Cf. Yale C. Maxon, Control o∫ノapanese、Foreign

Policy :AS彦udツof Cit/il-1レrilitary 1~ivalry 1930-1945, 0riginally pub・

lished in 1957, Berkeley, reprinted in.1983, Westport, Conn. pp.108-10.

Masashi Nezu, Hihanハlihon. gendai shi(Contemporary History of

Japan. A Critical Survey)(Tokyo,1958), p.138. Nezu quotes here

Ibid., p. 21。

Ibid., pp.77 f.

Ibid., pp.79 f.

Ibid., p. 79.

Ibid., pp.80-5.

        Crowley,ノaPan’s Quest/br Autono〃ty:National Secu7ity

    Foreign Policy 1630-1938(Princeton, New Jersey,1966), p.258.

      enn6-kikan-setsu’(Theory of the Emperor as an Organ of the

         Seitar6 Miyamoto, TennO・kilean-setsu no shtihen :Mittsu

                   to shδwa shi no shOgen(Around Tenn6-kikan・

                    Tenn6-kikan-setsu and the Testimony of the

       of the Sh6wa Era)(Tokyo,1980). Miyamoto, Professor of

                               ,demonstrates the theories on the

                     inkichi              and Ikki Kita

(186) 186

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(48)

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(51)

(52)

(53)

(54)

(55)

(56)

(57)

(58)

(59)

))01

魔∪ρ0

((

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(66)

(67)

(68)

(69)

(70)

185

the diary of General Shigeru Honjδto demonstrate his interpretation.

Honj6 was at that time Chief Aide・de・Camp to the Emperor. See

Hb勿δ”ゴ々々ゴ(The D三ary of Honl6)(Tokyo,1967), p.276.(Entry of

27 Februar 1936). Cf。 E〃ψθ707 Hirohito and his Chieノノ1ゴ4ε一1)e・

CamP, The HonノδDiary,1933-36, Translation and Introduction by

Mikiso Hane(Tokyo,1982), p.170.

See above, n.23. Cf, Amos Perlmutter and Valerie Bennett(eds.),

The Potitical lnfluence O∫theルrilitary.’AComParative 1~ead〃(New Haven and London,1980)。

Foreword to Perlmutter, Theハ石〃tary and P∂litics by Huntington, xi.

Ibid., preface, xv.

Ibid., p.75.

Ibid., p.55.

Ibid,, preface, xv,

Ibid,

Ibid., p.301, n.87.

See above, n.38.

Perlmutter, Theルfi〃tarアα〃4 P∂〃tics, P。74.

Masae Takahashi, Sん伽απo gun-batsu(The Military Clique of the

Sh6wa Era),(Tokyo,1969), pp.54 ff. The Sh6wa Era began on 25

December 1926 and ended on 7 January 1989. Takahashi focuses on

militarism in the first half of the Sh6wa Era until 15 August 1945.

Crowley,ノapan’5 Q〃est/b7∠4utonomy, pp.85 f. On‘genr6,see also

Roger F. Hackett,‘Political Modernization and the Meiji Genrδ’in

Robert E. Ward(ed,), P∂litica’Development inルfodern/apan(Princeton, New Jersey,1968), and, Hackett, Yamagata.4ritomo in

the 1~ise of Mod〃n/apan 1838-1922(Cambridge, Mass.,1971). The

TaishδEra begins on 30 July 1912.

Michael Geyer,‘Der zur Organisation erhobene Burgfrieden’, Klaus・

J丘rgen M荘11er and Eckardt Opitz(eds.),ル露〃tdr und Militarismus

in 4〃仰rei〃2arer Repub〃k(D廿sseldorf,1978).

Berghahn,ルtilitaris〃2, p.110.

Makoto Ikuta,ハ励oπrikugzan shi(History of the Japanese Army)

(Tokyo,1980), p.112.

Judith M. Hughes, To theルfaginot L吻,7’he.po1露ゴcs o/French

ルti〃tarpt Preparation in疏θ1920’s(Cambridge, Mass.,1971), p.200.

Berghahn,ハ4ilitaris〃霊, p.114.

Ibid,, p.115.

Ibid., pp.115 f.

Ibid., p.117,

Ibid., p.116.

Ibid,, pp. 116 f.

Masaki Miyake,‘Japans Beweggrund f廿r den AbschluB des Dreimti-

chtepakts Berlin-Rome-Tokyo:Zuln Forschungsstand in Japaガ, Geschi・

chte in Wissenscゐaノ’und こi勿terri’cht,(Stuttgart,1978/11).

Ibid. Cf. further Klaus Hildebrand,丁加、Foreig・πPo’ゴσy oノ’乃θThird

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(73)

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(75)

fi~eich, translated by A. Fothergill(London:1973).(German Origina1:

Deutsche Aussenpolitik 1933-1945’ Katletil oder 1)09〃la~, Stuttga「t,

1970).

D.C. B. Lieven, Russia and the Origins of the First World War(Lon・

don and Basingstoke,1983), p.28.

Cf. Masaki Miyake,‘Die Lage Japans beim Ausbruch des Zweiten

Weltkrieges’, Wolfgang Benz and Hermann Gram1(eds)., So〃zmer

1939:Die G70β〃thchte und der EuroPtiische Krieg(Stuttgart,1979),

pp.714-6.

Hearings be/bre the loint Co〃1〃litteθon thθ lnvestigation o/ the

pearl」lfarbor A〃ασ鳥 Congress of the Unted States, Seventy・Ninth

Congress, Washington D. C.1946, Part 20, Joint Committee Exhibits

Nos.173 through 179, Exhibit No.173,‘Memoirs of Prince Konoye’,

p.4014.

Cf・LR・Oates, Populist 1>ati・nalism・in Prewar/apan’A・Bi・9ノ妙勿

o/Naleano Seigo,(Sydney-London-Boston,1985), p.104.

Quite recently a critical survey on the theories of civil-military rela.

tions developed by Huntington, Finer, Perlmutter and Yale・Maxon was

published:Atushi K6ketsu,‘Seigun kankei ron ni kansuru ichi k6satsu:

Huntington no“nij通seifu ron”ochtishin to shite’(A Study of Civil-

Military Relations:the History of an International Criticism),1, II,

Seiiikeizaishigaleza(The Journal of Historical Studies:The Politico-

Economic History), No,288, April 1990 and No.289 May 1990. K6ketsu

criticizes these theories, especially the theory of“dual government”

developed by Huntington. His crit五cisms are based on his own periodi-

zation in丘ve stages of modern Japanese h童story 1868-1945.

(184) 184