lynne rudder baker - social externalism and first-person authority

8/12/2019 Lynne Rudder Baker - Social Externalism and First-person Authority

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Social Externalism

--fromErkenntnis 67 (2007): 287-300

Social Externalism and First-Person Authority

Lynne Rudder a!er

"ni#ersity of $assac%usetts &m%erst

Abstract' Social Externalism is t%e t%esis t%at many of our

t%ou%ts are indi#iduated in art *y t%e linuistic and social

ractices of t%e t%in!er+s community' &fter defendin Social

Externalism and aruin for its *road alication, turn to t%e

!ind of defeasi*le first-erson aut%ority t%at .e %a#e o#er ouro.n t%ou%ts' /%en, resent and refute an arument t%at uses

first-erson aut%ority to disro#e Social Externalism' inally,

arue *riefly t%at Social Externalism1far from *ein

incomati*le .it% first-erson aut%ority1ro#ides a c%ec! on

first-ersonal ronouncements and t%us sa#es first-erson

aut%ority from *ein simly a matter of social con#ention and

from collasin into t%e su*ecti#ity of .%at seems ri%t is

ri%t'4

Social Externalism and First-Person Authority

Externalism is t%e t%esis t%at t%e contents of t%ou%ts are often

determined in art *y #arious features of t%e t%in!er+s en#ironment'

5irst-erson &ut%ority,+ as am usin t%e term, names t%e t%esis t%at

.e tyically %a#e a riori !no.lede of t%e contents of our o.n

t%ou%ts, .%ere a riori !no.lede is indeendent of ustification *y

emirical e#idence' /%ere is a rima facie conflict *et.een t%ese t.o


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Social Externalism

t%eses: o. can .e !no. a riori .%at .e t%in! if t%e contents of

our t%ou%ts are artially determined *y external features of our

en#ironment1features t%at can *e ustified only *y emirical

e#idence9 s%all try to ans.er t%is uestion' ut first, .ant to

formulate and exlore a secific t%esis of externalism, and to exlore

t%e t%esis of irst-erson &ut%ority' /%en, s%all arue for t%e

comati*ility of t%e t%eses as construe t%em' Since t%ere are

already acres of articles and *oo!s on t%ese issues, all can %oe to

do is to so. a ne. seed or t.o into t%is .ell-tilled field'

n ' s%all set out my o.n construal of Social Externalism and

arue for its *road alication' n 2' s%all turn *riefly to t%e !ind of

defeasi*le first-erson aut%ority t%at .e %a#e o#er our o.n t%ou%ts'

n 3' s%all resent and refute t.o aruments t%at urort to s%o.

t%at Externalism and irst-erson &ut%ority are incomati*le' inally,

in ;' s%all suest t%at Social Externalism1far from *ein

incomati*le .it% first-erson aut%ority1ro#ides a c%ec! on first-

ersonal ronouncements and t%us sa#es first-erson aut%ority from

*ein simly a matter of social con#ention or from collasin into t%e

su*ecti#ity of .%at seems ri%t is ri%t'4

1. Social Esternalism

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Social Externalism

Externalism is usually understood as a t%esis a*out %o.

contents of t%ou%ts are indi#iduated' /%ere are t.o .ays to

understand t%is t%esis1or rat%er t.o .ays t%at en#ironmental

features may contri*ute to t%e content of a erson+s t%ou%t: /%e

first interretation focuses on t%e t%ou%t:


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Social Externalism

contain or are made u of concets' E'', t%e t%ou%t t%at sno. is

.%ite contains t%e concet =sno.= and t%e concet =.%ite=' do not

intend for my use of 5t%ou%t+ or 5concet+ to carry muc% t%eoretical

.ei%t' (or simlicity, +ll ut aside sinular t%ou%ts t%at contain

indi#iduals, if t%ere are any')2 So, concets ma!e u t%ou%ts'


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Social Externalism

%a#e a term t%at %as not already *een aroriated *y t%e literature'

Lettin 5S+ rane o#er t%in!ers, say:

S %as a concet ? if and only if (i) S is a*le to aly ? correctly

in a sinificant rane of cases@ and (ii) S %as some

(er%as artial) understandin of ?+s conditions of

alication'

Af course, t%e extent of t%e sinificant rane of correct

alication of ? and t%e deree of understandin reuired are *ot%

#aue, *ut +ll try to use examles t%at are not contro#ersial' Bo. let

me introduce a name for t%e concets contained in t%ou%ts to .%ic%

Social Externalism alies' ?all t%em 5SE-concets+' /%en:

?oncet ? is an SE-concet if and only if: or any S, if S %as ?,

t%en %oldin constant S+s %ysical %istory and %ysical

internal states, if S %ad *een in a community .it%

rele#antly different social or linuistic ractices, S .ould

%a#e failed to %a#e ?'

.%ere a erson+s %ysical %istory includes all t%e nonintentional

interactions t%at a erson %as .it% %ysical entities in t%e

en#ironment, and %ysical internal states are nonintentional states

(li!e *rain states)'3 So, a concet ? is an SE-concet ust in case:

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Social Externalism

.%et%er or not someone %as t%e concet ? deends on t%e social or

linuistic ractices of %er community'

&n SE-t%ou%t is a t%ou%t containin an SE-concet' &

t%ou%t is an SE-t%ou%t if and only if it contains an SE-concet, and

a concet is an SE-concet if and only if .%et%er or not someone %as

it deends on social and linuistic ractices' /%en: Social

Externalism is t%e t%esis t%at many of our t%ou%ts are SE-t%ou%ts'

$ost eole, susect, are reared to reard social, olitical, and

leal concets as SE-concets' o.e#er, t%e scoe of Social

Externalism is far *roader t%an ust t%e t%ou%ts containin t%e

o*#iously SE-concets'

Sometimes, it is erroneously assumed t%at Social Externalism

alies only to t%ou%ts in#ol#in concets t%at t%e t%in!er artially

misunderstands' ure made clear t%at communal ractice is a

factor'''in fixin t%e contents of my attitudes, e#en in cases .%ere

fully understand t%e content'4 (ure, >7>, ' 8C') Ar aain:

DE#en t%ose roositional attitudes not infected *y incomlete

understandin deend for t%eir content on social factors t%at

are indeendent of t%e indi#idual, asocially and non-

intentionally descri*ed' or if t%e social en#ironment %ad *een

aroriately different, t%e contents of t%ose attitudes .ould

%a#e *een different'4

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Social Externalism

artial understandin is a sufficient *ut not a necessary condition for

t%ou%ts to .%ic% Social Externalism alies' Let me illustrate .it% a

case of someone .it% full understandin of a concet t%at is not

intuiti#ely a social concet, *ut .%ic% turns out to *e an SE-concet:

Suose t%at Sam *elie#es t%at *oulders are %ea#y and t%at Sam

exresses %is *elief in Enlis% *y sayin, oulders are %ea#y'4 /o

see t%at 5*oulder+ exresses an SE-concet, consider an alternati#e

linuistic community t%at %as a .ord t%at sounds li!e 5*oulder+ t%at

includes only lare roc!s found on dry land (in fields or on

mountains), and not to lare roc!s found in or near *odies of .ater,

say'

/%en, Sam, .%o ma!es no mista!e a*out t%e concet =*oulder=

in our community, and *elie#es t%at *oulders are %ea#y .ould not

%a#e t%at *elief in t%e alternati#e linuistic community t%at uses .%at

sounds li!e 5*oulder+ to refer only to land *oulders' f Sam %ad *een

*rou%t u in t%e alternati#e community and uttered .%at sounds li!e

5oulders are %ea#y,+ %e .ould not t%ere*y %a#e exressed a *elief

t%at *oulders are %ea#y, *ut rat%er a *elief t%at .e s%ould translate

.it%out usin our .ord 5*oulders+' /%e concet t%at .e exress *y

5*oulder+ in our community %as different alication conditions from

t%e concet t%at is exressed *y .%at sounds li!e 5*oulder+ in t%e

alternati#e community' /%e concets so exressed t%us differ in t%e

t.o communities' Sam1.it%out any internal4 difference or

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Social Externalism

difference in %ysical %istory1.ould %a#e different *eliefs in t%e

different linuistic communities' Suc% *eliefs are t%ou%ts to .%ic%

Social Externalism is alica*le' /%e concet =*oulder=, t%ou% not

an intuiti#ely social concet, is ne#ert%eless as SE-concet'

E#en natural-!ind concets turn out to *e SE-concets'

Limestone is calcium car*onate (?a?A3)@ sandstone is silicon dioxide

(SiA2)'; Limestone is usually *uff-colored, and sandstone, t%ou%

usually reddis%-*ro.n, can *e *uff-colored as .ell' Limestone and

sandstone are comosed of different !inds of molecules, and are of

different natural !inds' .ant to arue t%at t%e concet =limestone=

and t%e concet =sandstone= are SE-concets, desite t%e fact t%at

t%ey are natural-!ind concets'

?onsider someone, call %im 5Foe+, .%o li#es in a community

.%ere t%ere is a lot of limestone and no sandstone' Foe sea!s t%e

local lanuae and !no.s a lot a*out limestone' e !no.s t%at

limestone %as a *uff color and is sometimes used as a *uildin

material' Foe %as ne#er seen any limestone, nor *een in %ysical

contact in any .ay .it% limestone' ut %e %as learned a*out

limestone from *oo!s and classmates in sc%ool' Foe %as t%e concet

=limestone= in t%e sense secified: (i) Foe is a*le to aly t%e concet

=limestone= correctly in a sinificant rane of cases (indeed if %e .ere

to come across some limestone, %e mi%t .ell infer t%at it .as

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Social Externalism

limestone)@ and (ii) Foe %as some (er%as artial) understandin of

t%e alication conditions of =limestone'= So, Foe %as t%e concet

=limestone='

Bo. suose t%at Foe %ad ro.n u in an alternati#e

community, .%ere t%ere .as no limestone, *ut a lot of *uff-colored

sandstone' n t%e alternati#e community, Foe sea!s t%e local

lanuae and !no.s a lot a*out sandstone' e !no.s t%at sandstone

%as a *uff color and is sometimes used as a *uildin material' Foe

%as ne#er seen any sandstone, nor *een in %ysical contact in any .ay

.it% sandstone' ut %e %as learned a*out sandstone from *oo!s and

classmates in sc%ool' n t%e alternati#e community, suose t%at Foe

%ad exactly t%e same %ysical interactions .it% exactly t%e same

eole and ot%er t%ins t%at %e %ad in t%e actual community'


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Social Externalism

/%e concet =sandstone= is a different concet from t%e concet

=limestone=' /%e t.o concets %a#e entirely different alication

conditions' Bo., #aryin only Foe+s community, .e can #ary .%ic%

concet %e %as--=limestone= or =sandstone=--.it%out c%anin any of

%is internal states or any of t%e eole or t%ins t%at %e %ad

interactions .it% or any of t%e nonintentional .ays t%at %e interacted

.it% t%em' e did not e#en %a#e any false *eliefs a*out t%e

alication conditions of eit%er of t%e concets =limestone= or

=sandstone=@ %e %ad no false *eliefs a*out t%e c%emical comosition of

eit%er since %e %ad no *eliefs a*out c%emical comosition1any more

t%an our ancestors .%o %ad t%e concet =limestone= did'

So, =limestone= is a natural-!ind concet t%at satisfies t%e

definition of an SE-concet' Granted, in addition to t%e different

social or linuistic ractices of t%e t.o communities, t%ere is a

%ysical difference as .ell (t%ere is no limestone in t%e alternati#e

community)' ut t%is is irrele#ant to .%et%er or not =limestone= is an

SE-concet' &n SE-concet is one suc% t%at .%et%er someone %as it

or not deends on t%e social and linuistic ractices of t%e community'

Let me entertain an o*ection:


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Social Externalism

o*ection oes' t only deends on t%e difference of natural-!inds'

Social and linuistic ractice is irrele#ant to .%ic% concet Foe %as'4

%a#e t.o resonses: () n t%e story as told, Foe .ould not

%a#e eit%er concet =limestone= or =sandstone= excet for t%e social

and linuistic ractices of t%e t.o communities' e %as ne#er %ad

any interaction .it% eit%er limestone or sandstone@ indeed, t%e

existence of samles of a natural !ind is ne#er enou% for someone to

%a#e t%e concet of t%e !ind' Social and linuistic ractice is t%e

reuired intermediary for %a#in s%ared concets at all'C So, social

and linuistic ractice is not irrele#ant to .%ic% concet Foe %as'

(2) $oreo#er, and t%is is my second resonse, for uroses of

understandin t%e acuisition of concets, ractices s%ould *e

indi#iduated *roadly, so t%at .%at counts as a social or linuistic

ractice includes features of t%e en#ironment t%at et referred to'

/%is is so, *ecause concets are indi#iduated *y t%eir alication

conditions' & concet t%at alies to s is distinct from a concet t%at

alies, not to s, *ut to Gs' So, ractices t%at under.rite t%e

concet =limestone= concern calcium car*onate, and are distinct from

ractices concernin silicon dioxide' &ain, t%e mere existence of

limestone in a community is ne#er sufficient for someone to %a#e t%e

concet =limestone='


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Social Externalism

Af course, t%e 5=limestone=+ examle is a sli%t #ariation on

ure+s old story' tell it aain to em%asiIe t%at it is not ust

intuiti#ely social concets li!e =seed limit= or =dri#er+s license= t%at

are SE-concets, *ut also natural-!ind concets li!e =.ater= or

=limestone= are SE-concets as .ell' Gi#en t%e .ay t%at %a#e

secified .%at mean *y 5SE-concet,+ .%at ma!es a concet an SE-

concet is not a matter of .%at indi#iduates t%e concet@ it is a matter

of .%at is necessary for someone to %a#e t%e concet' /%e fact t%at a

concet is indi#iduated indeendently of linuistic or social ractices

(as is t%e concet =limestone=) is irrele#ant to .%et%er or not it is an

SE-concet' & concet is an SE-concet if one+s %a#in it deends on

linuistic or social ractices, reardless of %o. t%e concet is

indi#iduated ' (f comlete mastery of indi#iduatin conditions of a

concet .ere reuired to %a#e a concet, most of us .ould *e

.oefully s%ort of concets')6 So, Social Externalism, as construe it,

alies to concets .%ose ossession deends on social or linuistic

ractices' Bo. .e can see .%y distinuis%ed at t%e outset *et.een

t.o .ays of understandin social externalism: /%e t%esis t%at alies

to t%e %a#in of concets is t%e one t%at interests me (and, t%in!,

ure)'

n s%ort, t%e rane of Social Externalism is #ast' Social

Externalism alies, not only to t%ou%ts containin concets t%at are

intuiti#ely social concets, *ut to t%ou%ts containin natural-!ind

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Social Externalism

concets (li!e =limestone=) .%ose indi#iduation is indeendent of

social or linuistic ractices'


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Social Externalism

o.n t%ou%ts' So, let me ust ma!e a fe. comments a*out %o.

intend (&) to *e understood'

irst and most imortant, claims to first-erson aut%ority are

not infalli*le' 7@ Bis*ett and Ross >80) An t%e one %and, irst-

erson &ut%ority is t%e default osition4 in mundane cases1li!e our

!no.in t%e contents of our standin attitudes and of t%ou%ts of

.%ic% .e are currently conscious' /o dou*t someone+s first-erson

ronouncements a*out %er o.n t%ou%ts, one needs some secial

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Social Externalism

reason' An t%e ot%er %and, t%ere are numerous defeatin conditions

for claims to first-erson aut%ority'

So, first-erson aut%ority is extensi#e, *ut claims to first-erson

aut%ority are defeasi*le' ndeed, it is defeasi*ility t%at romotes our

*eliefs a*out .%at .e t%in! to !no.lede' /%e fact t%at .e can ma!e

errors, and t%at our errors can *e corrected *y ot%ers, i#es

leitimacy to our claims to !no. our o.n t%ou%ts'

Second, in order to %a#e irst-erson &ut%ority o#er one+s

t%ou%ts, one must meet se#eral conditions:

(i) Ane must %a#e conscious t%ou%ts1t%ou%ts t%at can

occuy t%e attention of t%e t%in!er'4 (eacoc!e, >>2, ' C2) o#er

.%ic% to exercise first-erson aut%ority'

(ii) Ane must %a#e a first-erson ersecti#e in order to

reconiIe t%ou%ts as %er o.n' (n a!er, 2000, arued t%at first-

erson ersecti#es are .%at distinuis% ersons from all ot%er !inds

of *eins') irst-ersonal !no.lede of my o.n t%ou%ts reuires

t%at *e a*le to reconiIe my t%ou%ts as my o.n' must *e a*le to

attri*ute t%em to myself'

(iii) Ane must %a#e concets of rele#ant roositional

attitudes' n order to !no. t%at one *elie#es, desires, intends, %oes,

or fears somet%in, one must %a#e concets of *elie#in, desirin,

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Social Externalism

intendin, %oin or fearin' So, it is not t%e case t%at one must %a#e

a concet of *elief in order to %a#e any *eliefs (ace Ja#idson

(>7C)),8 *ut one does %a#e to %a#e a concet of *elief in order to

%a#e first-erson aut%ority o#er one+s *eliefs'

f .ere to de#elo a full account of first-erson aut%ority,

.ould .ant to a#oid *ot% a ercetual model t%at ta!es us to *e

sectators of our o.n minds, and a deflationary account t%at denies

t%at .e %a#e a riori !no.lede of our t%ou%ts' (o%ossian, >8>)'>

n ot%er areas, .e can !no. or ma!e correct udments a*out matters

of fact .it%out any ustification *y o*ser#ation' &fter all, .e !no. t%e

ositions of t%e lim*s of our *ody .it%out o*ser#ation

(roriocetion)'0 &nd, as


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Social Externalism

3. Arguments Against Social Externalism and First-Person

Authority

&t t%e *einnin, raised t%e uestion: o. can .e !no. a

riori .%at .e t%in! if t%e contents of our t%ou%ts are determined *y

external features of our en#ironment1features t%at can *e only

!no.n emirically9 Bo. .ant to ans.er t%e uestion .it% resect

to t%e t.o t%eses, as %a#e construed t%em1Social Externalism and

irst-erson &ut%ority' ere aain are t%e t.o t%eses:

(SE) $ost of t%e contents of a erson+s t%ou%ts are

determined (in art) *y social and linuistic ractices of

t%e erson+s community'

(&) & erson !no.s a riori t%e contents of %er o.n t%ou%ts'

+ll consider and reect t.o aruments aainst t%e comati*ility of

Social Externalism and irst-erson &ut%ority'

/%e first arument is t%at Social Externalism, toet%er .it%

irst-erson &ut%ority, leads to t%e imlausi*le conclusion t%at .e

%a#e a riori !no.lede of emirical facts' /%e t%in!in oes li!e

t%is: f Social Externalism is true, t%en t%e contents of our t%ou%ts

are determined *y social and linuistic ractices@ if t%ere are social

and linuistic ractices, t%en t%ere exist ot%er eole' /%e facts t%at

t%ere are social and linuistic ractices and t%at t%ere exist ot%er

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Social Externalism

eole are emirical facts t%at follo. from Social Externalism' So, it

seems to follo. from Social Externalism t%at if .e !no. a riori t%e

contents of our o.n t%ou%ts, .e must !no. a riori t%at t%ere are

social and linuistic ractices and ot%er eole'

ure dismisses t%is line of t%ou%t, *y aruin t%at one may

!no. somet%in .it%out !no.in t%e *ac!round ena*lin

conditions4 t%at ma!e t%at !no.lede ossi*le' or examle, your

!no.lede of your t%ou%t t%at .ater is a liuid does not reuire

!no.lede of t%e conditions t%at ma!e t%e t%ou%t ossi*le1e'', t%e

existence of 2A' (ure, >88, ' 8)' &lt%ou% t%in! t%at ure

is ri%t a*out t%is, .ant to ta!e anot%er tac!' ?onsider &rument &

1an illustration of t%e a*o#e line of t%in!in aainst t%e conunction

of irst-erson &ut%ority and Social Externalism:

Argument A

() !no. a riori t%at *elie#e t%at *oulders are %ea#y'

(irst-erson &ut%ority)

(2) !no. a riori t%at: f *elie#e t%at *oulders are %ea#y,

t%en t%ere exist ot%er eole' (utati#ely Jeduci*le from

Social Externalism)

So, (3) !no. a riori t%at t%ere exist ot%er eole'

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Social Externalism

s%all assume t%at *ein !no.n a riori can *e transferred from (

) to , and %ence t%at &rument & is #alid' So, t%e uestion is

.%et%er t%e remises are true' /%e first remise is an instance of t%e

t%esis of irst-erson &ut%ority and %ence is acceta*le' &ccordin to

t%e second remise, .%at is alleed to *e !no.n a riori is a

conditional t%at is suosed to follo. from Social Externalism:

() f *elie#e t%at *oulders are %ea#y, t%en t%ere exist ot%er

eole'

Granted, if Social Externalism is true, t%en () is true' ut do !no.

() a riori9 & riori !no.lede of () is suosed to follo. from a

riori !no.lede of Social Externalism' n t%at case, !no. a riori

t%at () is true only if can ustify Social Externalism a riori' s my

ustification for Social Externalism a riori9 don+t t%in! so'

/%e ustification for Social Externalism rests on t%ou%t

exeriments of t%e sort t%at %a#e resented' &s /imot%y


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Social Externalism

Fo%nson %ad !ic!ed Geore er!eley, %e .ould %a#e !ic!ed a *is%o+

is *ot% a osteriori and continent'4 (


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Social Externalism

(


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Social Externalism

/%e anti-externalist %as an arument for remise (;)1cases

*ased on slo.-s.itc%in4' (o%ossian, >8>) ere is suc% an anti-

externalist arument for (;): Suose t%at et% tra#els *et.een t.o

linuistic communities1ours, in .%ic% t%e .ord 5red+ exresses t%e

concet =red=, and anot%er, in .%ic% t%ere is a .ord t%at sounds li!e

5red+, *ut it exresses t%e concet t%at .e .ould call =red-or-orane='

So, .e s%ould translate t%e .ord in t%e ot%er community (t%e .ord

t%at sounds li!e 5red+) not as 5red+ *ut as somet%in else, say, 5ored+'

/%ere is no sinle Enlis% .ord t%at is a synonym for .%at sounds li!e

5red+ in t%e ot%er community' Bo. et% li#es in &ustralia for many

years, t%en mo#es to t%e ot%er community' S%e does not notice t%e

difference in t%e linuistic ractices of t%e t.o communities@ as it

%aens, s%e ne#er %ears oranes called (.%at sounds li!e) 5red+'


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Social Externalism

1sincerely, *ut un.ittinly1exresses a different *elief (#iI', t%at

roses are ored)' Since s%e .ould not *e a*le to tell t%e difference

*et.een %er oriinal *elief and %er ne. *elief, s%e .ould not !no.

t%e content of %er o.n *elief a*out roses' ence, t%e anti-externalist

says, et% does not !no. t%e contents of %er o.n t%ou%ts'

ure, t%in!, .ould reect t%e examle of et%, and reect

remise (;)' &fter li#in in t%e alternati#e community for decades,

et% does come to sea! t%e ot%er lanuae' 88,

' 8) er t%ou%ts a*out t%e color of roses contain t%e concet

t%at %er community uses, a concet t%at .e translate as 5=ored=+'7

So, years after t%e s.itc%, .%at s%e !no.s .%en s%e !no.s t%e

contents of %er o.n mind is t%at s%e *elie#es t%at roses are ored'

ence, on t%is urean #ie., s%e does !no. t%e contents of %er o.n

mind, and t%e t%esis of irst-erson &ut%ority is not t%reatened *y

Social Externalism'

23


24/34

Social Externalism

E#en if ure is correct %ere, et% is still inorant of t%e fact

t%at s%e %as underone a c%ane of *elief' S%e falsely *elie#es t%at

s%e still %as t%e same *elief t%at s%e exressed 2C years ao *y sayin

.%at sounds li!e Roses are red'4 &nd s%e cannot disco#er t%at t%is

*elief is false .it%out recourse to emirical information' o.e#er,

%er inorance of t%e difference in t%e t.o concets exressed *y .%at

sounds li!e 5red+ does not t%reaten t%e t%esis of irst-erson

&ut%ority' et% !no.s t%at s%e %as a *elief t%at %er *elief a*out t%e

color of roses is unc%aned@ .%at s%e doesn+t !no. is t%at %er *elief

t%at %er *elief is unc%aned is false' ut not !no.in t%at a *elief

a*out a *elief is false is irrele#ant to t%e t%esis of irst-erson

&ut%ority'

n order for et%+s case to *e a c%allene to irst-erson

&ut%ority, t%e anti-externalist needs to add a condition on !no.lede,

suc% as t%e follo.in' ?all it 5t%e Jiscrimination rincile+:

(J) & erson !no.s t%at only if s%e can distinuis% %er

situation from rele#ant alternati#e situations in .%ic% is

false'

f .e accet (J) and ta!e t%e near-dulicate cases to *e rele#ant

alternati#es, t%en .e s%ould say t%at et% !no.s t%at s%e *elie#es

t%at roses are ored only if s%e can distinuis% %er situation from

rele#ant situations in .%ic% it is false t%at s%e *elie#es t%at roses are

2;


25/34

Social Externalism

ored'8 ut since et% cannot distinuis% %er ored4 situation from

%er former red4 situation, anti-externalists .%o accet (J) may

deny t%at s%e !no.s t%e contents of %er o.n t%ou%ts'

ut t%ere is reason not to accet aeal to (J) in suc% cases

.%ere t%e situations are exactly t%e same excet for a difference in

social or linuistic ractices: /%e Jiscrimination rincile .ould rule

out too muc% of .%at .e reasona*ly t%in! t%at .e !no.' /%in! of

concets li!e =disa*ility=, =sexual %arrassment=, =rofessor=' or

many, if not most, of t%e concets t%at %a#e, for examle, you could

ma!e u near-dulicate cases t%at could not distinuis% from t%e

actual .orld, *ut in .%ic% t%ere .ere closely related concets, *ut not

t%e concets t%at %a#e' n t%at case, if .e acceted (J) as a

constraint on .%at can *e !no.n, and too! near-dulicate cases to *e

rele#ant alternati#e situations,4 could not %a#e any t%ou%ts

containin t%ose concets' &n anti-externalist may *ite t%e s!etical

*ullet and deny t%at .e !no. any roositions containin any suc%

concets' /%at is surely t%e .ron resonse: ?oncets li!e

=disa*ility=, =sexual %arrassment=, =rofessor= are social on t%eir face

and %ence do deend on community ractices' &nd am confident

t%at %a#e t%ou%ts containin all of t%em and t%at !no. t%e

contents of t%ose t%ou%ts' ut if (J) .ere a lausi*le constraint,

.ould not %a#e t%ou%ts containin any of t%ose concets' /%us, .e

%a#e ood reason to rule out t%ese near-dulicate cases as rele#ant

2C


26/34

Social Externalism

alternati#es in t%e context of t%e Jiscrimination rincile, or to reect

t%e Jiscrimination rincile altoet%er'

So, dismissin t%e rele#ance of t%e Jiscrimination rincile to

et%, .e can conclude t%at et% !no.s t%e contents of %er o.n

t%ou%t t%at s%e exresses *y sayin .%at sounds li!e Roses are

red,4 and t%e fact t%at s%e is una.are of %er c%ane of *elief is no

t%reat to irst-erson &ut%ority'

/o sum u t%e resonse to &rument : /%e arument in fa#or

of remise (;) falls s%ort' /%e case of et% ro#ides no reason to

t%in! t%at (;) is true' (&nd dou*t t%at any *etter arument for (;)

.ill *e fort%comin') ence, see no reason to dou*t t%at t%e t%esis

of irst-erson &ut%ority is comati*le .it% Social Externalism'

ndeed, no. .ant to suest t%at, far from clas%in .it% irst-

erson &ut%ority, Social Externalism suorts it'

4. Social Externalism in Suort o! First-Person Authority

Social Externalism allo.s for conruence *et.een .%at

t%ou%ts you attri*ute to me and .%at t%ou%ts *elie#e t%at %a#e'

f tell you t%at *elie#e t%at *oulders are %ea#y, t%en you can !no.

.%at *elie#e' /%e content of my *elief1t%at *oulders are %ea#y1

%as a u*lic meanin' Social Externalism suorts t%e claim t%at our

t%ou%ts are intersu*ecti#ely !no.a*le, t%at .%at t%in! to myself

26


27/34

Social Externalism

can *e !no.n *y you' /%e first *enefit of Social Externalism is t%at it

ma!es a lace for first-erson aut%ority .it%out solisism'

$oreo#er, Social Externalism ro#ides t%e *asis for an

intersu*ecti#e standard of correctness' C-6) Social externalism t%us *rins

toet%er first-erson and t%ird-erson oints of #ie. .it%out

collasin eit%er into t%e ot%er'20

27


28/34

Social Externalism

Some %iloso%ers ta!e t%e %allmar! of mental states sto *e t%e

a*sence of any distinction *et.een aearance and reality a*out t%e

contents of one+s mind'2 t%in! t%at suc% a #ie. is *adly mista!en'

Bot only are self-deceti#e cases counterexamles to t%e claim, *ut

also t%e claim %as disastrous conseuences for t%e reality of mental

states' f t%ere is no difference *et.een aearance and reality, t%en,

as 8>)' ?ontent and self-!no.lede' %iloso%ical

/oics, 7, C-26

ro.n, F' (200;)' &nti-indi#idualism and !no.lede, ?am*ride, $&:

$/ ress)

ure, /' (>7>)' ndi#idualism and t%e mental' (n '&' renc%, /'E'

"e%lin, Fr', ' O'


29/34

Social Externalism

studies in %iloso%y P (' 73-2)' $inneaolis: "ni#ersity of

$innesota ress)

ure, /' (>88)' ndi#idualism and selff-!no.lede' Fournal of

%iloso%y, 8C, 6;>-663 (Rerinted in ' Ludlo. and B' $artin (Eds'),

Externalism and self-!no.lede (' -27)' Stanford: ?SL

u*lications)

Ja#idson, J' (>7C)' /%ou%t and tal!' (n S' Guttenlan (Ed'), $ind

and Lanuae' (' 7-23)' Axford: ?larendon ress)

Jrets!e, ' (>70)' Eistemic oerators' Fournal of %iloso%y, 67, '

007-023

Goldman &' (>86)' Eistemoloy and conition' (?am*ride, $&:

ar#ard "ni#ersity ress)

Le.is, J' (>>6)' Elusi#e !no.lede' &ustralasian Fournal of

%iloso%y, 7;, C;>-C67'

$oran, R' (200)' &ut%ority and estranement: an essay on self-

!no.lede' (rinceton: rinceton "ni#ersity ress)

Bis*ett, R'E' and


30/34

Social Externalism

Bis*ett, R'E' and Ross L' (>80)' uman nference: Strateies and

S%ortcomins of Social Fudment' (London: rentice all)

eacoc!e, ?' (>>2)' & study of concets' (?am*ride, $&: $/

ress)

Smit%, ' ?' (>>8)' An !no.in one+s o.n lanuae' (n ?'


31/34

?oncets are distinct if t%ey differ in t%eir otential informati#eness' or

furt%er discussion, see eacoc!e (>>2)'

2E#en if t%e content of a sinular term is determined *y t%e t%in!er+s

causal relations, and is indeendent of social or linuistic features, t%e t%ou%t

containin t%e sinular term may .ell *e an SE-t%ou%t' E'', t%e t%ou%t

exressed *y 5/%at is a do+ contains t%e SE-concet =do=' See *elo.'

3Say t%at x (an entity, roerty, t%ou%t, anyt%in) is intentional if and only

if eit%er x is a roositional attitude or t%e existence or occurrence of x imlies

t%at t%ere exist *eins .it% roositional attitudes'

;&ccordin to t%e "'S' Geoloical Sur#ey, *ot% limestone and silicon are

sedimentary (i'e', t%ey %a#e layers) and *ot% are cementatious (i'e', t%ey are

formed *y tremendous ressure, *ut not enou% to roduce crystalliIation)'

$ar*le, li!e limestone, is also made of calcium car*onate@ *ut it %as underone

metamor%ic recrystalliIation'

C/%e fact t%at natural-!ind terms are riid desinators is a matter of

linuistic ractice' & term+s reference deends on %o. it is used'

6ndeed, t%in! t%at


32/34

8&lt%ou% non-lanuae users (e'', non%uman animals) may %a#e *eliefs

and ot%er t%ou%ts, t%e rane of t%ou%ts t%at t%ey can %a#e is se#erely

circumscri*ed'

>$oran (200, ' 6) oints out t%at o%ossian+s arument for t%e

conclusion (t%at if externalism is correct, t%en .e can+t %a#e introsecti#e

!no.lede of our o.n t%ou%ts) resuoses a ercetual model of

introsection'

0or fuller discussion of !no.in one+s o.n *asic mo#ements and *odily

osition .it%out %a#in to o*ser#e anyt%in, internally or externally, see $oran,

200, ' >-20'

or a comre%ensi#e treatment of t%e aruments for t%e (in)comati*ility

of Externalism and irst-erson &ut%ority, see ro.n (200;)'

2 am rateful to ilary Oorn*lit% for *rinin t%is address to my

attention'

3Bote t%at t%e relation *et.een antecedent and conseuent is not causal'

;


33/34

C/%at is, all our undefeated t%ou%ts1.%ere a t%ou%t is undefeated if

t%ere is no nonar*itrary condition t%at exemts it from *ein !no.n a riori'

6/%e internalist .%o ta!es t%ou%ts to contain internal concets t%at a

t%in!er can %a#e indeendently of social and linuistic factors denies t%at

c%ane of lanuae results in c%ane of *elief' /%e externalist %olds t%at our

only access to t%e contents of our t%ou%ts is *y t%e sentences exressin t%em@

so, t%ou%ts %ad *etter matc% u .it% sentences exressin t%em, on ain of

inco%erence' /%e oint at issue %ere, %o.e#er, is not .%et%er t%e internalist or

externalist is correct o#erall, *ut .%et%er Social Externalism (.%ic% allo.s t%at

c%ane of lanuae may result in c%ane of *elief) recludes irst-erson

&ut%ority'

7/%is is a loical or semantic claim, not a syc%oloical or

neuro%ysioloical claim' /%is claim is rounded in t%e need for co%erence, not

in any emirical t%eory'

20/%is is a maor conclusion of Ric%ard $oran inAuthority and

Estrangement.


34/34

2Jescartes .as er%as t%e most famous of suc% %iloso%ers' f seem

to %a#e a *elief t%at , t%en do %a#e a *elief t%at ' /%is line of t%ou%t may

also moti#ate ositin sense data: f seem to see somet%in red, t%en t%ere is

somet%in red (i'e', a sense datum) t%at am seein'

22$any t%an!s to Gottfried Poserau, my commentator at t%e conference

on $ental ?ausation, Externalism, and Self-Ono.lede at t%e "ni#ersity of

/*inen, 3-C Acto*er, 200C' am also rateful to ilary Oorn*lit% and

Garet% $att%e.s for commentin on a draft and for discussion of t%ese issues'

lynne rudder baker - social externalism and first-person authority

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