lu8 stf1053 biodiversity - how can biodiversity be sustained cyl8.5 1

18/11/2015

1

STF1053 BIODIVERSITY

LU 8:HOW CAN

BIODIVERSITY BE SUSTAINED?

Part I

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the role and selected articles under Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

2. Differentiate in‐situ and ex‐situ conservation.

3. Compare 3 levels of biodiversity conservation: Genes, Species & Ecosystems.

4. Discuss the role of CITES.

5. Define cladistic prioritization.

Convention on Biological

Diversity (CBD)

Opened for signature at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992).CBD entered into force on 29 December 1993. Currently has 196 Parties (168 Signatures).

It has 3 main objectives: The conservation of biological diversityThe sustainable use of the components of biological diversityThe fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of

genetic resources

42 Articles

Maintaining Biodiversity

• History commitment by nations of the world.

• Articles in the convention ‐ useful framework for maintenanceinto the future.

• Maintenance touches on many of human activities.

• Prevent individual species from becoming extinct or provisionof nature reserve and other protected areas for conservation.


Diversity (CBD)

General measures for conservation and sustainable useeach contracting party shall in accordance with itsparticular conditions and capabilities .

a. Develop national strategies, plan and programmes forthe conservation and sustainable use of biologicaldiversity or adapt existing strategies plan orprogrammes.

b. Integrate appropriate conservation and sustainableuse for biological diversity into relevant sectorial orcross‐sectorial plans programmes and policies.


Diversity (CBD)ARTICLE 6

In‐situ conservation

Each contacting party shall as far as possible:

a) Established a system of protected areas or areas where specialmeasures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity

b) Develop guidelines for selection, established and management ofprotected areas where special measures needed to conservebiological diversity.

c) Manage biological resources important for conservation.

d) Promote the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats andmaintenance of viable populations of species in naturalsurrounding.


Diversity (CBD)

ARTICLE 8

18/11/2015

2

e) Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development inareas adjacent to protected areas.

f) Rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystems and promote therecovery of threatened species through management strategies.

g) Established or maintain to regulate manage or control the risksassociated with the use and release of living modified organismfrom biotechnology:• adverse environmental impacts

• affect conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity

• taking into account the risks of human health

h) Prevent introduction, control or eradicate alien species whichthreaten ecosystems, habitats or species:• prevention of invasion is much less costly than control once established.

• effective quarantine measures are vital.

• eradication of established introductions is sometimes possible particularfrom island or small areas.

• Provide conditions needed for compatibility between present use and theconservation of Biological diversity and sustainable use.

• Subject to national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge,innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities – relevantfor the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

• Encourages equitable sharing of benefits arising from utilization of suchknowledge, innovations and practices.

• Develop or maintain necessary legislation /regulatory provisions forprotection of threatened species populations

• Cooperate in providing financial and other support for in‐situconservation particularly in developing countries.

• Poorer countries need financial support.

• Damage to ecosystem direct impact to the poor‐suffer pollutedenvironment, loss of productive lands, collapse of fisheries, loss oftraditional sources of food, fodder, fuel and fiber when forest are cutdown.

In‐situ conservation (cont..)ARTICLE 8

Existing protected areas

• Protected area systems required as a central plan of national strategy for conserving biodiversity.

• Existing protected areas = 20,000 in world wide recognized by IUCN

• Estimated 13.2 million km2;

• Marine covers 1.3 million km2

A protected area is a clearly defined geographical space, recognised,dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, toachieve the long term conservation of nature with associatedecosystem services and cultural values. (IUCN Definition 2008)

Protected areas such as national parks, wilderness areas, communityconserved areas, nature reserves and so on – are a mainstay ofbiodiversity conservation, while also contributing to people’s livelihoods,particularly at the local level.


Organisms or populations are maintained in their own place.

This step is crucial in order for organisms to reproduce without disturbance from human

activities.

The conditions – suitable –National Park, Forest Reserve and wildlife sanctuaries.

Wild life sanctuaries –wild species

Taman Negara – elephants e.g. Taman Negara Pahang

National Parks – commercial and non commercial tress eg. belian, ramin

Bird sanctuaries – e.g Kuala Gula Bird Sanctuary

Some of the existing protected areas in Malaysia

IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, helps the worldfind pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment anddevelopment challenges.IUCN’s work focuses on valuing and conserving nature, ensuringeffective and equitable governance of its use, and deploying nature‐based solutions to global challenges in climate, food and development.IUCN supports scientific research, manages field projects all over theworld, and brings governments, NGOs, the UN and companies togetherto develop policy, laws and best practice.

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ provides taxonomic,conservation status and distribution information on plants, fungi andanimals that have been globally evaluated using the IUCN Red ListCategories and Criteria. This system is designed to determine the relativerisk of extinction, and the main purpose of the IUCN Red List is tocatalogue and highlight those plants and animals that are facing a higherrisk of global extinction (i.e. those listed as CriticallyEndangered, Endangered and Vulnerable). The IUCN Red List also includesinformation on plants, fungi and animals that are categorizedas Extinct or Extinct in the Wild; on taxa that cannot be evaluated becauseof insufficient information (i.e., are Data Deficient); and on plants, fungiand animals that are either close to meeting the threatened thresholds orthat would be threatened were it not for an ongoing taxon‐specificconservation programme (i.e., are Near Threatened).

18/11/2015

3

Each contracting party shall as far as possible :

• Adopt measures for the purpose for ex‐situ conservation ofcomponents of biological diversity, preferably in the countryof origin.

• Establish and maintain facilities for ex‐situ conservation andresearch on flora fauna and micro‐organism, preferably in thecountry of origin of genetic resources.

• Adopt measures for the recovery and rehabilitation ofthreatened species and for their reintroduction in the naturalhabitats under appropriate conditions.

Ex‐situ conservation


Diversity (CBD)

ARTICLE 9

• Regulate and manage collection of biological resources from naturalhabitats for ex‐situ conservation purposes as not to threatenedecosystems and in‐situ population of species.

• Cooperate in providing financial and other support for ex‐situconservation in developing countries.

• Ex‐situ conservation measures may include seeds bank, sperm and ovabank, culture collections (plant tissues), artificial propagation of plantsand captive breeding of animals.

• The costs and benefits of ex‐situ conservation have been much debated.This particularly true with regard to large mammals.

• Key issues – short term and long term viability of both wild and captivepopulations

* Ex‐situ conservation plays a secondary role to in‐situ conservation.

Ex‐situ conservation (cont..)ARTICLE 8 Ex‐situ conservationPopulation of particular organisms are moved from their place of origin and nursed at experimental plot

or fenced areas.

Ex‐situ conservation is an alternative and compliment of in‐situ approach.

Semenggoh Wildlife Center

Zoos

e.g. endangered species in zoo, try to breed them, and reintroduce their offspringsin the jungle. (done in case of pandas, orangutans etc.)

Botanical Gardens/Arboretum

propagation of rare and threatened indigenous plants

Each contracting party shall as far as possible and as appropriate:

a. Integrate consideration of conservation and sustainable use ofbiological resources into national decision making.

b. Adopt measures relating to the use of biological resources toavoid or minimised adverse impacts on biological diversity.

c. Protect and encourage customary use of biological resourcesin accordance with traditional cultural practices that arecompatible with conservation or sustainable use requirement.

Sustainable use of Components of Biological Diversity


Diversity (CBD)

ARTICLE 10c) Support local populations to develop and implement remedial action in

degraded areas where biological diversity has been reduced.

d) Encourage cooperation between its governmental authorities and itsprivate sector in developing methods for sustainable uses of biologicalresources.

• To live sustainably human population must be able to use the biologicalresources sustainably within the biosphere's regenerative capacity‐drawing natural capital without depleting the capital stock.

• Example of present unstable use of particularly high economic value:mahoganies, horn from rhinoceros ivory from elephants, whaling ‐focuses on short term economic gain rather than long term sustainability.

• Sustainable use requires the support of local people and protection andencouragement of customary use in one way to achieve this.

ARTICLE 10 Sustainable use of Components of Biological Diversity (Cont….)

18/11/2015

4

INCENTIVE MEASURES

• Biodiversity loss is driven by majority economic forces.

• Each contracting party shall as far as possible and as appropriate :

– Adopt economically and socially sound measures that act as incentives forconservation and sustainable use of components of biological diversity

– Obligation to adopt measures that encourages conservation and sustainableuse.

– Interaction between society and the environment are complex, ‐ requirescareful analysis to determine full consequences of particular actions.

A casual framework for examining these interactions adopted by EuropeanEnvironment agency is DPSIR which provides a useful basis for working throughsuch complexities

RESPONSES TO CONVENTION

• Convention have produced biodiversity strategies andaction plans.

• Implementing the changes requires to conservebiodiversity effectively and to exploit it in a sustainablefashion – is difficult.

• The way forward – employed by other treaties andagreement is to establish and agree targets for eachparty to achieve in fulfillment of the convention, andprotocols for reporting progress so that this can bevigorously assessed.

SUMMARY

• Convention on biological diversity is one of the main goal attempts to setagenda formaintaining biodiversity and provides a useful framework.

• Main objectives: conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable useof its components and the fair ad equitability sharing of the benefitsarising from utilization of genetic resources.

• Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity will not emergefortuitously in each nation, but will require the establishment of explicitmechanism. Information need to cross check whether the strategies,programmes and plans are appropriate.

• Conservation need network protected areas for in‐situ protection andalso ex‐situ conservation measures.

• Sustainable use will only be attained by its integration into nationalplanning, to minimize the adverse impacts of use on biodiversity.

References

• Gaston, K.J. & Spicer, J.I. 2004. Biodiversity –an Introduction. Second edition. BlackwellPublishing, UK. QH 541.15 B56 G256 2004.

• Melchias, G. 2001. Biodiversity andconservation. Science Publishers, Inc. UK. QH541.15 B56 M518

Class Activity (Think‐pair‐share):

• What are the major THREATS of human activities onbiodiversity?

• What are the CONSERVATION efforts that can bedone to sustain the biodiversity?

STF1053 BIODIVERSITY

LU 8:HOW CAN

BIODIVERSITY BE SUSTAINED?

Part II

18/11/2015

5

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY PRESERVATION

Protection of biodiversity from any kind of human activity

• Nostalgia• Human benefits – value of human society• Needs

Protection of biodiversity for sustainable utilization.

CONSERVATION

Philosophy of managing theenvironment in such as way thatit does not despoil, exhaust orextinguish it or the resources andvalues it contains.

Emphasis on management shouldbe redirected towards the overallconservation of worldbiodiversity and ecosystemsrather than to single targetspecies.

CONSERVATION (cont…)

• The ecosystem functions in dynamic equilibrium that not onlyserve as life‐support systems for the Earth but also critical tothe continuing survival of human kind.

• Conservation applies the principles and results of diversedisciplines such Ecology, Biogeography, Population Genetics,Economics, Sociology, Anthropology, Geology, Philosophy andmany others.

• Therefore becomes a synthetic field to develop scientificprinciples and then apply them to developing technologiesfor the maintenance of biological diversity.

CURRENT PRACTICE IN CONSERVATION

• Conservation of biodiversity can be attempted at 3levels: Genes, Species and Ecosystems.

Genetic diversity

Species diversity

CURRENT PRACTICE IN CONSERVATION

Level: Ecosystem

Maintenance of ecosystem diversity impliesconservation of species which constitute thatecosystem, although it is feasible to conserve a speciesindependent of the ecosystem of which it is a normalcomponent.

18/11/2015

6

What is genetic diversity?

• Genetic diversity is the combination ofdifferent genes found within a population ofa single species, and the pattern of variationfound within different populations of thesame species

Level: Genes (Conservation of Genetic Diversity)

CURRENT PRACTICE IN CONSERVATION (cont.)Why genetic diversity matter?

• From a biological viewpoint, genetic diversity is needed toensure present‐day and future adaptability of the speciesas well as their continued evolution.

• Genetic diversity is key to the long term survival of aspecies.

• Species must have available pool of genetic diversity ifthey are to survive environmental pressures exceeding thelimits of developmental plasticity.

• If a population has low level of genetic diversity(genetically homogenous), when a virulent form ofdisease arises, all individuals may be susceptible anddie.

• But as a result of natural genetic diversity withinpopulation, they may be some individuals that areresistant and are able to survive and thus perpetuate thespecies.

• From a human and development perspective, geneticdiversity is a vital to maintain and potential for geneticimprovement to meet changing end use requirementsand dynamically evolving environmental conditions.

Why genetic diversity matter? (cont..)

• All genetic conservation strategies and actions should be compatible with three conservation goals and on three time‐scales of concern:

– Maintenance of viable population in the short term in order to avoid extinction – SHORT TERM FITNESS

– Maintenance of the ability of the population to continue to undergo adaptive changes –ADAPTATION

– Maintenance of the ability of the population for continuing speciation – SPECIATION


• Population seems to be the most reasonable level at whichgenetic conservation can be attempted. The reasons are asfollows:

– The population and not species is the ecologically and evolutionarilysignificant (i.e. functional) units (ESU)

– Genetic changes take place in the population over generations

– Local adaptive changes likewise occur in the population

– Geographically and genetically isolated populations offer greatestpotential for speciation

– Conservation at species level will overlook the dynamics and attributesof individual populations within it as well as their ecological functions

– Conservation at a level of below populations, say at the allelic level, isimpractical


• How many individuals in a population are needed forconservation of genetic diversity?

– “50/500 Rule” – A genetically effectively population size(Ne) of at least 50 individuals is necessary for conservationof genetic diversity in the short term and to avoidinbreeding depression.

– A Ne of 500 is needed to avoid serious genetic drift in longterm.


18/11/2015

7

Genetic conservation has its own limitations:

• Very young science or still in the developmentalstage.

• Many genetic techniques useful in assessinggenetic diversity are not cheap are not easilylearned, can be misused and misapplied.

CURRENT PRACTICE IN CONSERVATION (cont.)

Level: Species

• Conservation of species diversity will take care tosome extent of both ecosystem maintenance andgenetic maintenance.

• Loss of species diversity is more obvious andquantifiable than genetic or ecosystem diversity loss.

• Conservation based on species maintenance is calledSpecies –based approaches.

Conservation of Species Diversity

• One of the main players in conservation conceptually,biologically and legally is the SPECIES.

• Many powerful legislations on conservation at the world andnational levels are focused on species.

• CITES, Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)

• Loss of species diversity is also very obvious and more easilydetectable and quantifiable than either loss of genetic orhabitat diversity.

• Even conservation approaches based on habitat orecosystems depend on an intimate understanding of thebiology of their constituent species.

Level: SpeciesCITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention)

www.cites.org

Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

CITES was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members ofIUCN (The World Conservation Union). The text of the Convention was finally agreed at ameeting of representatives of 80 countries in Washington, D.C., the United States ofAmerica, on 3 March 1973, and on 1 July 1975 CITES entered in force.

The CITES speciesRoughly 5,600 species of animals and 30,000 species of plants are protected by CITES againstover‐exploitation through international trade. They are listed in the three CITES Appendices.The species are grouped in the Appendices according to how threatened they are byinternational trade.

Appendix I Appendix II Appendix III

FAUNA

Mammals300 spp. (incl. 11 popns) + 23

sspp. (incl. 3 popns)501 spp. (incl. 16 popns) + 7

sspp. (incl. 2 popns)45 spp. + 10 sspp.

Birds154 spp. (incl. 2 popns) + 10

sspp.1278 spp. (incl. 1 popn) + 3

sspp.25 spp.

Reptiles80 spp. (incl. 8 popns) + 5

sspp.673 spp. (incl. 6 popns) 40 spp.

Amphibians 17 spp. 126 spp. 3 spp.

Fish 16 spp. 87 spp. ‐

Invertebrates 63 spp. + 5 sspp. 2162 spp. + 1 sspp. 22 spp. + 3 sspp.

FAUNA TOTAL 630 spp. + 43 sspp. 4827 spp. + 11 sspp. 135 spp. + 13 sspp.

FLORA 301 spp. + 4 sspp. 29592 spp. (incl. 162 popns)12 spp. (incl. 2 popns) + 1

var.

GRAND TOTAL 931 spp. + 47 sspp. 34419 spp. + 11 sspp. 147 spp. + 13 sspp. + 1 var.

(updated on 2 October 2013)

Appendix I lists species that are the most endangered among CITES‐listed animals andplants. They are threatened with extinction and CITES prohibits international trade inspecimens of these species except when the purpose of the import is not commercial, forinstance for scientific research. In these exceptional cases, trade may take place provided itis authorized by the granting of both an import permit and an export permit (or re‐exportcertificate).

Appendix II lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but thatmay become so unless trade is closely controlled. It also includes so‐called "look‐alikespecies", i.e. species whose specimens in trade look like those of species listed forconservation reasons. International trade in specimens of Appendix‐II species may beauthorized by the granting of an export permit or re‐export certificate. No import permit isnecessary for these species under CITES.

Appendix III is a list of species included at the request of a Party that already regulatestrade in the species and that needs the cooperation of other countries to preventunsustainable or illegal exploitation. International trade in specimens of species listed inthis Appendix is allowed only on presentation of the appropriate permits or certificates.

18/11/2015

8

Conservation of Species Diversity (cont.)

• Management of conservation based on knowledge ofspecies‐area relationships, life‐history requirements ofthe species andminimum of individuals.

• Threatened species and those of actual or potentialresource value or keystone, dominant and crucialspecies required for well being of an ecosystem areselected on a priority basis for conservation such asthreatened species or exhibiting rarity.

• Species selected for conservation should be broadlyassessed for a range of factors leading to rarity such asENDEMIC TAXA.

Cladistic Prioritisation

• Method designed to assess, and to some extentquantify, the distinctiveness between taxaconsidered for conservation.

• Based on phylogenetic relationship between species,expressed as divergence since their most recentcommon ancestor.

• Any character ranging from morphological tomolecular.


Members of a group share a common evolutionary history, and are"closely related," more so to members of the same group than to otherorganisms. These groups are recognized by sharing unique features whichwere not present in distant ancestors.

What is cladistics?

Three basic assumptions in cladistics:1. Any group of organisms are related by descent from a common

ancestor [all life on Earth today is related and shares a commonancestor].

2. There is a bifurcating or branching of patterns [new kinds oforganisms may arise when existing species or populations divide intoexactly two groups or multiple lineages].

3. Change in characteristics occurs in lineages over time [It is onlywhen characteristics change that we are able to recognize differentlineages or groups].

Second category of species for conservation

• Directly harvested plants such as forest trees, medicinal taxa,spices, ornamentals, food and forages.

• Plants which are a source of propagating materials forplanting elsewhere.

• Plants that are sources of genetic variation useful for breedingand improvement programmes.


Third category of species for conservation

• Indicator species – Particularly sensitive to pollutants,human interferences, ecological instability and otherdisturbances.

• Umbrella species – Usually required larger space andthat provide protection for other species within theecosystems with scarce resources. Absence in smallerareas with residual vegetation.

• Keystone species – Important to maintain the ecologicalintegrity of the community and are essential to survivalof other species.

• Charismatic species – Significant for social, cultural oranthropomorphic standpoints and usually attractive.

• Recreational species – Popular for collection, growing orobservation.


Used in‐situ and ex‐situmethods

• Major advantage of the species‐based approach isthat it allows resource allocation to the most urgentcases – to species which are in danger of immediateextinction on the basis of priority analysis.

• Disadvantages:– Only an extremely small proportion of the world’sspecies can be adequately surveyed to setpriorities for conservation.

– Priorities are based on individual prejudices.


18/11/2015

9


Organisms or populations are maintained in their own place.

This step is crucial in order for organisms to reproduce without disturbance from human

activities.

The conditions – suitable –National Park, Forest Reserve and wildlife sanctuaries.

Wild life sanctuaries –wild species

Taman Negara – elephants e.g. Taman Negara Pahang

National Parks – commercial and non commercial tress eg. belian, ramin

Bird sanctuaries – e.g Kuala Gula Bird Sanctuary

Some of the existing protected areas in Malaysia

Ex‐situ conservationPopulation of particular organisms are moved from their place of origin and nursed at experimental plot

or fenced areas.

Ex‐situ conservation is an alternative and compliment of in‐situ approach.

Semenggoh Wildlife Center

Zoos

e.g. endangered species in zoo, try to breed them, and reintroduce their offspringsin the jungle. (done in case of pandas, orangutans etc.)

Botanical Gardens/Arboretum

propagation of rare and threatened indigenous plants

SUMMARY

• Conservation of biodiversity can be attempted at 3 levels:

Genetic diversity

Species diversity Short‐term

fitness Adaptation Speciation 50/500 rule

Easily detectable & quantifiable

CITES Cladistic

Prioritisation Second category

species Third category

species In‐situ & ex‐situ

methods

18/11/2015

10

• What is Aichi Targets

• Target 1 – 20

• Strategy goal A‐ E (5 groups)

• Present in 2 weeks as mind map – 5 min each group

ASSIGNMENT

lu8 stf1053 biodiversity - how can biodiversity be sustained cyl8.5 1

Documents