læring & medier (lom) – nr. 15 - 2016-05-19 issn: 1903

Læring & Medier (LOM) – nr. 15 - 2016-05-19 ISSN: 1903-248X

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ADesign-Basedintroductiontolearningcentres

AnneKristinePetersenAssociateprofessorCentreforTeaching&Learning,UniversityCollegeZealand

AstridHestbechAssociateprofessorCentreforPedagogy,UniversityCollegeZealand

PeterGundersenAssociateprofessorCentreforTeaching&Learning,UniversityCollegeZealand


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AbstraktKommunerplaceretiyderområderiDanmarkharidesenesteårtieroplevetaffolkningogøkonomisknedgang,ogdenneudviklingharmedvirkettiletcentraliseretuddannelsessystem,hvorvideregåendeuddannelsesinstitutionerflyttesfrayderområdertilstørrebyer.UniversityCollegeSjællandharigangsatetforskningsprojektisamarbejdemedtrekommuneriRegionSjællandogpartnerefradenordiskelande,somhartilformålatundersøgehvorvidtuddannelseskonceptetkommunalelæringscentrekanmedvirketilatløseuddannelsesudfordringerilandetsyderområder.Etkommunaltlæringscentererenfysisklokationsomejesafenkommune,somgennemlæringscenteretkangiveborgeremulighedforattageetkursusellerenuddannelseviasynkroneogasynkronekoblingertilenuddannnelsesinstitution.Artiklenpræsentererforskningsresultater,somviseratudviklingenafetøkosystem,somfordrersamarbejdemellemkommuner,videregåendeuddannelsesinstitutionerogprivatesåvelsomoffentligevirksomheder,erenforudsætningforatopnåenbæredygtigmodelforonlineuddannelseiyderområder.Artiklenpræsentererdesudenenrækketænketeknologieriformafmodellerogkategorier,somkananvendesiarbejdetmedatetablerelæringscentreogudviklelæringsdesigntilkonceptet.

AbstractInthelastdecades,outskirtareasinDenmarkhavesufferedfromdepopulationandeconomicdecline,adevelopmentthathasledtoacentralisededucationsystemwherehighereducationinstitutionsarevestedinacentralbodyinurbanareasratherthaninruralcommunities.UniversityCollegeZealandhasinitiatedaresearchprojectincollaborationwiththreemunicipalitiesintheregionofZealandandpartnersfromtheNordiccountries,whichinvestigatesthepotentialofmunicipallearningcentresasameanstosolveeducationalchallengesinoutskirtareas.Amunicipallearningcentreisaphysicallocationownedbyamunicipality,whichoffers(a)synchronouscoursesthroughdigitalcouplingstohighereducationinstitutions.Thepaperpresentsresearchfindingsshowingthatthedevelopmentofanecosystembasedoncollaborationbetweenmunicipalities,highereducationinstitutionsandprivateandpublicbusinessesispivotalforachievingasustainablemodelforonlineeducationinruralareas.Furthermore,thepaperpresentsaseriesofthinkingtechnologiesintheformofmodelsandcategories,whichcanbeusedastoolsforestablishinglearningcentresanddesigninglearningactivitiesforlearningcentres.

CentralisationofeducationandtheconsequencesthatfollowInrecentyears,citizensinDenmarkandotherEuropeancountrieshavewitnessedhowtheeducationsectorhasbecomeincreasinglycentralised.Thesnowballeffectofthisis


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ofnobenefittoruralareasandthepeoplelivingthere;citizensareeitherforcedtocommutelonghoursorleavetheirhometownsinordertostudy,andmanyofthosewhodoso,neverreturn.Asaconsequence,publicandprivatebusinesseshavedifficultiesrecruitingqualifiedemployeesforvacantpositions,whichaffectsopportunitiesfordevelopmentandgrowth.Onewayofeffectivelyfightingagainstthesetendencies,isbyprovidingeasieraccesstoeducation.Thiscanbedone,forinstance,throughonlinecoursessuchasMOOCs(MassiveOpenOnlineCourses),whichallowstudentstostudyfromtheconvenienceoftheirownhomes.However,studiesshowthatalthoughtheinterestinMOOCsisintense,thetypicalcompletionrateislessthan10%ofthetotalnumberofstudentsenrolled(Jordan2014;Pappano2012;Yuan&Powell2013).InlinewithDownes(citedinBuck2013,para.6),weacknowledgethatdifferentpeoplehavedifferentobjectivesforenteringaMOOC,andrecognisethatthepercentageofpeoplewhocompleteacourseisnottheonlysuccesscriterion.SomeofthenegativeattributesofMOOCs,however,maybeexplainedbythelackofthesupportingstructuresandthesocialenvironmentthatweassociatewithtraditionaleducationformatssuchasacademicguidance,studygroupactivities,socialactivitiesandtechnicalsupport.Tomeetthechallengesofonlineeducation,UniversityCollegeZealandandthreemunicipalitiesintheregionofZealand,Denmark,haveinitiatedaprojectthataimsatdevelopinganeweducationformatcalledthemunicipallearningcentre.Alearningcentrechallengesconventionaleducationformatsinthatitisownedbythelocalmunicipality,whodecideswhichcoursesareofferedthroughdigitalcouplingsbyoneormoreeducationinstitutions.Inthisway,themunicipalitybecomesanimportantstrategicplayerwithinitsregion,asthelearningcentrecanhelptoincreaseeducationopportunitiesforcitizens,minimisedepopulationand,atthesametime,makeiteasierforlocalpublicandprivatebusinessestorecruitqualifiedemployees.Inabroaderperspective,amunicipallearningcentremaythushelpnurtureeconomicgrowthanddevelopmentinruralareas.Thepaperisdividedintofourmainsections.First,welookintotheconceptoflearningcentresanddiscussitsunderlyingdesignprinciples.Second,wediscusstheconceptoflearningdesigninrelationtolearningcentresbyfocusingontwodifferentlevelsofgranularity,namelylearningcentresasaneducationformatandasaplacewheredesignsforlearningunfold.Finally,thedifferentlevelsofgranularityarediscussedinfurtherdetailintwoseparatesections,whicheachpresentsthinkingtechnologiesfordesigninglearningcentresasaformatandasaspacewherelearningdesignscanunfold.

MethodsThepaperisbasedonaone-yearresearchanddevelopmentproject,whichlookedintothepotentialsandchallengesofestablishinglearningcentresinDenmark.ThedatacollectedintheprojectincludeinterviewswithmunicipalstaffandlocalcitizensinthreemunicipalitiesintheRegionofZealand,Denmark,andinterviewswithstaffand


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studentsatlearningcentresinotherNordiccountries,particularlySwedenwhichhasexperienceinestablishinglearningcentresthroughoutthecountry.Inadditiontothis,thepaperdrawsonobservationscarriedoutatanumberofdifferentlearningcentresintheNordiccountries.InspiredbythegrowingfieldofDesign-BasedResearch,theprojecthasaimedatdevelopingneweducationaltheorythroughiterativetestingofprototypesdevelopedinclosecollaborationwiththeusers(Reeves,Herrington,&Oliver2005).Numerousdesignworkshopshavebeentosketchoutadiversepoolofpossiblelearningcentredesignsrootedinthelocalpremisesofeachoftheparticipatingmunicipalities.Theprojectfindingsdiscussedherearepresentedintheformofgeneralisedtheoryrelatedtotheeducationformatandthelearningdesignoflearningcentres,andourfindingsarethusapplicabletoothersimilarcontexts.

ADefinitionofLearningCentresOnthebasisthedatadescribedabove,theprojecthasdefinedfourdesignprinciples,whichillustratewhatcharacterisesalearningcentre:

a)Alearningcentreisaphysicallocation,wherecitizenscanmeetothercitizenswhoalsowishtostudy.Alearningcentredoesnotcompriseanonlineplatformoranonlineeducationportalonly.

b)Alearningcentreconnectstoeducationinstitutionsthroughdigitalcouplings.Thesecouplingsmaytakedifferentforms,includingsynchronoustelepresenceorasynchronouslearningplatforms.Thecentralpremiseisthatthecouplingsconnectthelearningcentretooneormoreeducationinstitutions.

c)Teachingatalearningcentretakesplacethroughthedigitalcouplingsdescribedabove.Thatis,theteachersarenotphysicallypresentatthelearningcentre,butvariousresourcestaffmembersmayworkthere,suchasmentors,careercounselorsandtechnicalassistants.

d)Alearningcentreisrootedinthelocalcommunityandownedbythemunicipality.Thismeansthatthemunicipalityisinchargeofrunningthelearningcentre,whereastheeducationinstitutionsareresponsibleforofferingcoursesbyconnectingdigitallytothelearningcentre.Themunicipalitydefinestheobjectivesandthedesignofthelearningcentreaswellasthefacilitiesavailable.

Thefourdesignprinciplesshouldbeseenasasetofgeneralguidelinesthatallowsforaflexiblecategorisationoflearningcentresandindividuallytailoreddesignsolutionsinwhichamunicipalitycandecideonthetargetgroup,thewayinwhichthedigitalcouplingsarecarriedoutandthenumberaswellastheprofileoftheresourcestaffmembersworkingthere.


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TheformatandlearningdesignoflearningcentresInthefollowingsectionwediscusslearningcentresinrelationtolearningdesign.Followingthefourdesignprincipleslistedabove,alearningcentrecanbeseenasbothaneducationformatandasaspacewherelearningdesignscanunfold.Thisfurtheraddstothecomplexityofanunsolvedchallengewithinthefieldofeducation:Thewayinwhichwemaintainandshareideasofhowtodesignstructuresaroundhumanlearning(Conole2013;Dalziel2015;Mor,Craft&Maina2015).Acoreactivityofprofessionalteachingpracticeistheconceptualpreparationofeducationalinterventionsintermsofactivities,sequences,lessons,units,modules,coursesorevenwholeprogrammes.Renewedattentionhasbeendrawntotheactivityofpreparationandplanning,whichislargelyduetoinnovationbroughtaboutbytheincreasinguseofdigitaltechnologiesthroughouttheeducationalsphere.InEuropethemostcommonlyadoptednameforthisfieldofresearch,whichisconcernedwithdevelopingshareablemodelsforteaching,isLearningDesign(Pozzi,Persico&Earp2015).MorandCraft(2012,p.86)definelearningdesignas:

‘(…)thecreativeanddeliberateactofdevisingnewpractices,plansofactivity,resourcesandtoolsaimedatachievingparticulareducationalaimsinagivencontext’.

(More&Craft2012,p.86)

Theemerginginterestinthefieldisexplainedbyashiftinattentionfromtransmittingknowledgetoapassiverecipienttostructuringtheengagementofthetargetedlearnerwiththeinsightsenablingthemtoconstructknowledgeontheirown(Laurillard2008,p.527).Laurillardprovidesanelaboratediscussiononlearningbydrawingonpsychology,cognitivescienceandneuroscience,andconcludesthatlearningcantakeplaceinanumberofdifferentwaysincludingacquisition,inquiry,practice,production,discussion,collaborationandwiththeaidofdifferentconventionalanddigitaltechnologies(Laurillard2012).UnfoldingtherichnessoftheframeworkpresentedbyLaurillardisbeyondthescopeofthispaper,butitshouldbementionedthatdesigningforlearninginvolvesmorethansimplyknowinghowknowledgecanbetransmitted;designingforlearninginvolvesacomplexanditerativeprocessinwhichtheteacherherselfbecomesalearnerthroughprogressiverefinement.Ausefulmetaphorforunderstandingtheaimoflearningdesignisthatofmusicnotation.Inthepast,ithasbeenarguedthatmusicnotationisimpossible,becausemusicistoo‘ethereal’(Dalziel2015).However,todaythereareseveraldifferentwaysoftranslatingmusicintoscoresthatallowforauniquepieceofmusictotravelfromonehandtoanother.Itcouldbearguedthatanimportantdifferencebetweenatypicalmusicalperformanceandaclassroomexperienceisthatmusicisusuallyreproduced‘asis’,whereasmanyeducatorswouldadaptandchangeanysharedideatobestsuittheirlearners.However,incertainmusicalgenres,jazzforinstance,improvisationand


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adaptationisapartofthemusicalexperience,eventhoughtheoutcomecanstillbenotated(Dalziel2015).Thedifferencebetweenthenotationandtheperformanceofapieceofmusiccanbecomparedtothedifferencebetweenalearningdesign(aplanforpotentialactivities)andtheimplementationofit,alsoreferredtoasarunninglearningdesignorarunningsequence(Dalziel2015).Thisdistinctionisimportantbecauseadescriptiveframeworkneednotdescribeeverythinginrelationtotheeducationalexperience.Rather,itshouldaimatprovidingsufficientinformationtoallowoneeducatortoreplicateeffectivelytheteachingandlearningideasofanothereducator.AspointedoutintheLarnacaDeclaration,whichwaswrittenatconferenceinLarnacain2012,teachingdoesnottakeplaceinavacuum(Dalziel,Conole,Wills,Walker,Bennett,Dobozy&Bower2013).RepresentedthroughtheLearningDesignConceptualMapinFigure1,theteachingcycleisinfluencedbyimportantfactorssuchaseducationalphilosophyandmethodologies,thecharacteristicsandvaluesofeducatorsandlearnersaswellasinstitutionsandthelevelofgranularityofthedesign.

Figure1:TheLearningDesignConceptualMap.FromDalziel,Conole,Wills,Walker,Bennett,Dobozy&Bower2013,p.14.Inthispaper,wewillfocusparticularlyonthelevelofgranularityasillustratedinFigure1.Stayingwithinthemusicalmetaphor,wefinditjustasimportanttoanalysetheformatthroughwhichthemusic(andlearning)istransmittedashowtodescribeit.


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Thereisindeedadifferenceinbeingexposedtomusicthroughthespontaneityofstreetmusic,goingtoaconcert,buyingarecordorstreamingmusiconline.Withtheevolutionoftechnology,thewaysinwhicheducationcanbeofferedareequallydiverse.Inaneducationalcontext,variouspayoffshavebeenpromisedwitheachnewwaveoftechnologicaladvancement.Fromhardware,suchastablets,whereaccesstounlimitedcontenthaspromisedstudentstoholdalloftheworld'sinformationintheirhands,tothecaseofMOOCs,whereteachersareabletoeducateahugenumberofstudentsacrosstheglobeatalowcostandwithseeminglyunlimitedscalability(Kolko2014).Distancelearningpromisesapayoffintermsofconveniencebyrenderingitpossibleforstudentsinremoteareasorstudentswithnon-academicobligations(e.g.families)tostudyathome.Itseems,however,thatwhenitcomestotechnologicaladvancementsineducation,thereisatendencytofocusone-sidedlyonefficiency-relatedpayoffsattheexpenseoftheuser’slearningexperience.AsKolko(2014)pointsout,designisoftenseenasaforgivableattributeinthatuserstendtoforgiveclunkyordownrightunappealingformsofdesignaslongasthepromisedpayoffisgreatenough.However,whenitcomestodesigningneweducationformats,thelearningexperienceitself,ratherthanthebenefitsofeaseandeconomy,shouldbeatthecenterofattention.Aswewillseeinthefollowing,learningcentreshavemanybenefitsofeaseandeconomyforruralareasandthepeoplelivingthere;citizensmayavoidcommutinglonghourstostudy,anditbecomeseasierforpublicandprivatebusinessestorecruitqualifiedemployees.Inourview,however,theformatofalearningcentreshouldnotcompromiseagoodlearningexperiencebecauseineducation,thisisalwaysanessentialandvaluablepayoffforthelearner.Inthefollowingtwosectionswepresentanumberofthinkingtechnologies(Staunæss&Bjerg2013)foreducationandlearningdesignersintheformofmodelsandcategories,whichcanbeusedastoolsforestablishinglearningcentresanddesigninglearningactivitiesforlearningcentres.Inthefirstsection,thethinkingtechnologiespresentedthusfocusonlearningcentresaseducationformatsrootedinalocalcommunityandinthesecondsectionaframeworkforlecturersdesigningonline(a)synchronousteachingatlearningcentresispresented.

TheeducationformatoflearningcentresASwedishsystemofideasreferredtoasthe3Mfunctions(motor,mediatorandmeetingplace)willbeintroducedinthefollowingtoelucidatehowdifferenttypesoflearningcentrescancreateeducationalandeconomicvalueinruralareas.The3MfunctionshaveshownusefulasageneraldesignframeworkforlearningcentresinSweden.Thetermswereoriginallymappedoutin2001(Grepperud&Thomsen2001)andasSwedishexperiencesshow,theycanbeusedfordesigning,developingandensuringthequalityoflearningcentres.The3Mfunctionsarepresentedherefortwo


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reasons:Firstly,itisassumedthatthethreefunctionsareequallyusefulasageneraldesignframeworkinaDanishcontext,whichisinmanywayscomparabletothatofourneighbouringcountry.Secondly,the3Mfunctionsservetoillustrateanimportantpoint,namelythatalearningcentreshouldbedesignedtostrategicallymeetthelocaleducationalneedsofthemunicipalityinwhichitislocated.

TheMotorThestrategicreasonsforestablishinglearningcentresinSwedenarefoundintheirpotentialcontributiontoregionalgrowthanddevelopmentinmunicipalitiesthatsufferfromdepopulation,decreaseinthelevelofeducationandjobcutsintheprivateandpublicsectors.Thus,theunderlyingvisionoftheconceptisthatthelearningcentremayserveasanorganisationalmotorthatdriveslocaldevelopment.Thismeansthatlearningcentresmustcollaboratewitharangeofpartnersincludingeducationinstitutions(e.g.universitiesoruniversitycolleges),libraries,employmentservices,unemploymentfundsandotherplayersinordertoestablishcommonvisions,goalsandstrategiesfortheestablishmentofaninfrastructure,whichcansupportadultskillsdevelopmentinthemunicipality.Itshouldbenotedthatthemotorofalearningcentrecanhaveatleastthreedifferentfunctions.Firstly,theeducationalactivitiestakingplaceinthelearningcentremaycreatealocalawarenessinthestudents’circlesofacquaintancesthatcanmotivateothercitizenstostartstudyingthemselves.Secondly,thelearningcentremayserveasamotorforgrowthwithinthebusinesssectorasanincreaseinthelevelofeducationwillmakeiteasierforlocalbusinessestorecruitqualifiedemployeesand,moreover,learningcentresmayofferskillsdevelopmentcoursestailoredspecificallytomatchthecompetencyneedsoflocalbusinesses.Thirdly,themotormayhaveapoliticallystrategicfunctionasanarenaofdevelopment,wherepoliticiansandbusinessescollaborateincreatingvisionsandsettinggoalsforthemunicipalityinordertogenerateeconomicgrowthandminimisetheemigrationrate.

ThemediatorThemediatorfunctioniswhatrenderslearningcentresuniquefromaDanishperspective,anditisalsowhatmakestheSwedishapproachinterestingintermsofregionaldevelopment.Themediatorfunctionservesthepurposeofmediatingbetweencompetenciesrequiredinthemunicipalityontheonehand,andeducationalneedsontheother.Thismediationcan,however,becarriedoutinmanydifferentways,anditisessentialtodistinguishbetweenapassivemediatorandanactivemediator(Hattinger,Hellsten&Snis2007).Alearningcentrebasedonapassivemediatorfunctionsimplyprovidese.g.informationoncoursesandmayinthissenseresemblealibrary,whereaslearningcentresthatactivelymediatewill,forinstance,mapouttheneedsforskilledlabourinthemunicipalityanditssurroundingareasincollaborationwiththeregionalcompetencycouncil,adulteducationinstitutionssuchasuniversitiesaswellaspublicandprivatebusinessesinthearea.Thismappingofthelocalneedsforskilledlabourthusdictateswhichcoursesareofferedbythelearningcentreaswellasthenumberof


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studentplacesallocatedforeachcourse.Inthisway,thereisahighprobabilitythatstudentswillindeedsucceedingettingajobintheareainwhichtheyliveoncetheygraduate.Itshouldbestressedthatalthoughlearningcentresassumingtheroleofanactivemediatormayseemtobedoingthejobofemploymentservices,thefunctionofthelearningcentresisradicallydifferent;theemploymentserviceseekstomatchavacantpositionwithaqualifiedjobseeker,whereasthelearningcentreseekstomatchapotentialfuturejobopportunitywitheducationalopportunitiesintermsofcoursesthatwilleventuallyresultingraduatesqualifiedforthefuturejobsidentifiedwithinthemunicipality.Consequently,educationbecomesameanstoregionalgrowth.

ThemeetingplaceThemeetingplacefunctioncoversboththeorganisationalandthepedagogicalaspectsofalearningcentre(Hattinger,Hellsten&Snis2007),aswellasthephysicalandvirtualplacesinwhichstudents,teachers,mentorsandotherresourcestaffmembersmeet.Whilealearningcentreissimilartoother(a)synchronouslycouplededucationformats,themeetingplaceoftheSwedishlearningcentresisuniquecomparedtoaDanishcontextinatleastonerespect:InSweden,learningcentresareownedbythemunicipalityinwhichtheyarelocated,andthemunicipalitiesratherthantheeducationinstitutionsdecidewhichcoursestooffer.Whilethe3MfunctionsdescribedaboveillustratethefunctionsoftheSwedishlearningcentresandareusefulasthinkingtechnologiesfordesigningtheformatofalearningcentre,thefunctionsdonotgiveusanyguidelinesastothekindoflearningdesignsthatcanbeappliedtotheconcept.Forthisreason,wearguethatthedesignframeworkoflearningcentresshouldincludenotonlythe3Mfunctions,butalsoconsiderthefunctionsoflearningdesign.Beforewemoveontodiscusstheactuallearningdesignoflearningcentres,wewillsumuptheprevioussectionsbyvisualisingthe3MfunctionsoflearningcentresasillustratedinFigure2.


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Figure2:The3Mfunctions(motor,mediatorandmeetingplace)ofthemunicipallearningcentre.Asalreadymentioned,learningcentresareuniqueinthewaytheyinteractwithagentsinthelocalcommunityand,asshowninFigure2,anextensivemappingneedstotakeplaceinordertoidentifyandmatchthecompetencyneedsofthepublicandprivatebusinesseswithrelevantcoursesthatwillgivecitizenstheopportunitytobecomequalifiedforfuturejobs.Furthermore,thelearningcentreseekstoguidelocalcitizenstochooseaneducationandconsequentlyafuturejobthatissuitableforthem,whichgivesthosewhowishtoremainintheareaarelativelysafecareerpath.Finally,thelearningcentremustcreatedigitalcouplingstohighereducationinstitutionsinordertobeabletooffertheteachingexpertiseneeded.Anobviousreasonforuniversitiesanduniversitycollegestogetinvolvedinthisisthechanceofincreasingstudentintake.However,wearguethatitisjustasimportantforeducationinstitutionsandeducatorstodevelopnewandmoreeffectivelearningdesignswiththeuseofnewtechnologywhenengagedindesigningneweducationformats.

NewsettingsandrolesforstudentsTobeastudentatalearningcentrerequiresotherprerequisitesandapproachesthanisrequiredinatraditionalclassroomsetting.Althoughstudentsatalearningcentredointeractwithlecturersaswellasotherstudents,theyoftendosodigitally,whichmeansthatlikeothere-learningstudents,theybecomecoordinatorsfortheirownstudies(Prak2007;Willging2015).Theadvantageofstudyingatalearningcentreisthefact



thatstudentscantakeexamplefromfellowstudentsintheclassroom,whichmakesiteasierforstudentstostructureandformanoverviewoftheireducationaswellastomaintainanddevelopself-motivation.Inthiscontext,self-motivationisseenasoccurringwhenstudentsareincontroloftheirownlearningprocessesandevaluatethemselves,whereasextrinsicmotivationreferstomotivationthatisdrivenbyexternalfactors,suchasotherpeople,passingexams,etc.(Sørensen2013).Itisoftenarguedthattherelativelyhighdrop-outratesassociatedwithonlineeducationarepartlycausedbythefactthatstudentsmustcoordinatetheirownstudiesandmotivatethemselves.However,empiricaldatacollectedfromalearningcentreinSwedenshowadrop-outrateofonly5%,whichindicatesthatstudentsaremorelikelytocompletetheironlinestudiesiftheyphysicallymeetwiththeirpeersonaregularbasis.Asmentionedpreviously,learningcentresarebasedonthepremisethathighereducationinstitutionsareresponsibleforconductingteaching,anditisthejobofthelearningcentretosupportthisbymakingsurethate.g.mentors,supervisorsandtechnicalassistantsareatthestudents’disposal.Alearningcentreis,inotherwords,notaneducationinstitution;itisaphysicalandvirtualmeetingplace.However,studentsandlecturersatlearningcentresstillfacenewchallenges.Thechannelsofcommunication,forinstance,differradicallyfromaconventionalclassroomsetting,anditisthusimportanttosupportsocialtelepresencetostrengthenthestudents’feelingsofmentalandsocialpresenceinaplacefromwhichtheyarephysicallydisplaced.Consequently,itisessentialtodeveloplearningdesignsthatenhancestudents’feelingsofactiveparticipationandthelecturermustbeabletosuccessfullyfacilitatethroughoneormorescreens.Surveysexploringfactorsthatinfluencee-learningshowthatthelecturer’sattitudeone-learninghasasignificantimpactonthenatureofhisorherteaching(McNaughton,Westberry,Billot,&Gaeta2014),anditshouldbestressedthat

‘(…)technologicalartifactsarenotneutralintermediariesbutactivelyco-shapepeople’sbeingintheworld:Theirperceptionsandactions,experienceandexistence’.

(Verbeek2011,p.8)

Inordertomeetthechallengesrelatedtoonlinelearningenvironments,anumberoflearningcentresinSwedenhaveintroducedtheconceptofmentors.Mentorsattendlessonsandotherstudyactivities,buttheyarenotlecturers,thatis,theydonotconductteachingorholdexaminations.Mentorsareparticularlyusefulwhenstudiesaredialogue-basedandrequirethepresenceofafacilitator,becausethementorscanphysicallyassistthedigitallycoupledlecturerbysupportingandfacilitatingstudents’dialogueatthelearningcentre.

LearningdesignsforlearningcentresInordertooffercoursestostudents,alearningcentremustdigitallyconnecttooneormoreeducationinstitutionsthroughtheuseofe.g.videoconferencing.InlinewithLuhmann(Luhmann2000;Rasmussen2007),wedefinedigitalcouplingsasarelation



ofdependencythatisestablishedbetweendifferentcontextswhicheithersharethesamepurpose/logic(e.g.inrelationtoteachingandlearning)orhavedifferentpurposes/logic(whichis,forinstance,thecaseforbusinessesandeducationinstitutions)(Christiansenetal.2014).Inalearningcentre,couplingscantakeplacebetweenanumberofdifferentpartners.Figure3illustrateshowalecturerwhoisphysicallypresentataneducationinstitutionisdigitallycoupledtotwodifferentgroupsofstudentsattwodifferentlearningcentresthroughsynchronousorasynchronouscommunicationchannels:

Figure3:Illustrationofalearningcentreinwhichtwodifferentgroupsofstudentsattwodifferentlearningcentresaredigitallycoupledtoalecturerthroughsynchronousorasynchronouscommunicationchannels.Itshouldbenotedthatgroupsofstudentscanbedigitallycoupledinmanydifferentwaysandthatnewchannelsofcommunicationrequirepracticeintermsoftechnicalaswellascommunicativeskills.Thedigitalcouplingscan,asillustratedabove,besynchronousorasynchronous,andthetwotypesofcouplingsleadtodifferentpossibilitiesintermsoflearningdesigns.ThetermssynchronousandasynchronousderivefromtheresearchfieldofComputer--SupportedCooperativeWork(CSCW),wheretheyareusedtodescribewhethercouplingsoccursimultaneouslyasinvideoconferencingoraretemporallydisplacedasisthecaseforthemessageboardofaLearningManagementSystem(LMS).Thetwoterms,synchronousandasynchronous,areoftenusedwiththetermssituatedanddistant,whichindicatewhetheractivitiestakeplaceinthesamelocationorindifferentlocations.Thisis,however,lessimportantinrelationtolearningcentresbecausetheyalwayscoupleatleasttwodifferentlocations,namelyaneducationinstitutionandoneormorelearningcentres.Thedesignofalearningcentredependsonthetypesofeducationalactivitiesthatstudentswilldigitallyengagein.Thismeansthatthechosentypesofsupportandtechnologyareinseparablyboundupwiththegroupofstudentsthatagivenlearning



centreseekstotargetthroughitsdesign.Thesedesignchoicesthusrequirecarefulconsiderationinordertocreateasuccessfullearningenvironment.Moreover,synchronousandasynchronouscommunicationchannelsresultindifferentaffordancesandrestraints(Christiansen&Gynther2013).Affordancerelatestothepotentialbehaviourencouragedbyagiventechnology,whereasthetermrestraintdescribesthebehaviourallimitationssetbyagiventechnology.Thedifferencesbetweensynchronousandasynchronousdigitalcouplingscanbeshortlysummarisedasfollows:

Synchronousdigitalcouplings Asynchronousdigitalcouplings

Contents Facilitatedinrealtime Materialsareeditable

Form Theformischangeablethroughoutthecourse,andprogressioniscontrolledbythelecturer

Theformisrelativelyfixed,andprogressioniscontrolledbythestudent

Interaction Interactionhappensinstantaneously

Interactionistemporallydisplaced

Time Teachingissetinreal-time TeachingistemporallyflexibleFigure4:Anoverviewofthedifferencesbetweensynchronousandasynchronousdigitalcouplings.Contents:Theacademiccontentsofsynchronousandasynchronousteachingaredefinedbyacurriculumandaneducationalexecutiveorder.Inasynchronousteaching,thelecturercanedithowthecontentsarefacilitated.Forinstance,videoscanbeeditedandthereistimetocarefullyconsiderthecontentsofassignmentsandpresentations.Insynchronousteaching,thecontentsarefacilitatedinreal-timeandanychangesoradditionsmustbemadeonthespotbythelecturer.Form:Inasynchronousteachingthestudentisinchargeofthecourseandhencethepaceofhisorherlearningprocess;thestudentcanconcentrateupondifficulttopicsandcanwatchvideosagainifnecessary.Ifsynchronouslessonsarerecorded,studentscanalsorewatchpartsofthelessons,buttheycannotcontrolthepaceinordertofocusonspecifictopicsduringtheactuallessons.Inasynchronousteaching,thelecturerdecideshowlessonsareconducted,whereasinsynchronouslessons,studentscaninfluencethewayteachingiscarriedoutbyinteractingwiththelecturerandbydiscussingtheteachingforms,whereasthisisrarelypossibleinanasynchronoussetting.Interaction:Insynchronousteaching,promptinteractioncantakeplaceinthatbothstudentsandthelecturerreceiveimmediatefeedbackontheircontributions.Thiskindofinteractionresemblesthekindofinteractionthatstudentsarefamiliarwithfroma



traditionalclassroomsettingandspecialprerequisitesarenotrequiredfromthestudents.Inasynchronousteaching,communicationismaintainedanditisthuspossibletowatchorlistentoresourcesseveraltimesandburyoneselfinspecifictopics.Theadvantageofasynchronousteachingisthefactthatitallowsforreflectiononanddiscussionofcomplextopics.Time:Synchronousteachingtakesplaceataspecifictimeandplace,whichmaybeadisadvantageifstudentshaveotherobligationssuchasajobandafamily.Asynchronousteaching,ontheotherhand,iseasiertofitintostudents’individualschedulesasitcanusuallytakeplaceanywhereandanytime.Accordingtotheempiricaldatacollected,theusersoflearningcentresaskprimarilyforsynchronouslycoupledtechnologiessuchasteachingthroughtelepresenceandguidancethroughonlinemeetings.Fastandreliablefeedbackisalsoconsideredimportant.Oneofthemajoradvantagesofsynchronousinteractionisthefactthatfeedbackcanbegiveninstantly,andempiricaldataconfirmthatstudentsconsiderinstantfeedbackparticularlycrucialinonlinelearningenvironments.Toexperienceinteractionwithalecturer(thatis,toexperiencepresence)andtobeawareofwhatotherstudentsarepreoccupiedwith(thatis,toexerciseawareness)isimportantinfeelingincluded.Furthermore,studentsarelesslikelytoexperiencefeelingsofisolationinsynchronousonlinelearningenvironmentsasopposedtoasynchronouslearningenvironments(McBrien,Cheng&Jones2009),andtheyfeelmoremotivatedtocompletetheirstudiesifcoursesinvolvecloseandfrequentinteractionwithotherpeople.Itshouldbementionedthatdifferentpartsofcoursesandtopicswithinasubjectmaybemoreorlesssuitableforsynchronousorasynchronousactivities.Forthisreason,itisessentialforlecturersandstudentstodiscusswhatkindofdigitalcouplingsandtechnologiesareappropriateinrelationtospecificpartsofacourse,topicswithinacourseandtherequirementsthatstudentsaretomeet(Christiansenetal.,2014).Educationinstitutionstendtooffercoursesthrougheithersynchronousorasynchronousdigitalcouplings,butthissimplisticapproachdoesnotallowustoachievethefullpotentialsofthetechnologiesavailabletoday.Wearguethatallteachingsituationsshouldbeplannedcarefullytoensurethatthemostsuitablelearningdesign,whichtakesintoconsiderationsuccessfulfacilitationoftheacademiccontentsaswellasthestudents’prerequisites,ischosen.Inthisway,studentsareofferedflexiblelearningconditionsandtheaffordancesandrestraintsofagiventechnologycanbetakenintoaccount,whichmeansthatthelearningapproachesandworkingmethodsofeachstudentmaybeconsideredwithinthelearningdesign.

ConclusionAmunicipallearningcentreisaradicaleducationalinnovationthathasthepotentialtosolvesomeofthesocio-pedagogicalissueswearecurrentlyfacingindeveloped



countries.Asadesignsolution,itisbasedonthepremiseofequalrightsforallcitizenstoaccesseducationregardlessofwheretheylive.Atthesametime,learningcentresareameansforruralareastoplayanactiveroleincounteringthecurrenttrendsofcentralisededucationanddepopulation.LearningcentreshavebeensuccessfullyimplementedinSweden,buttheconceptneverthelesshasunexploredpotentialsintermsofdevelopingeffectivelearningdesignsthat,giventherightcircumstances,canhelpfosterregionalgrowthinareasattheriskofeconomicdecline.Thethinkingtechnologiesdiscussedinthispapercanhelpnurturethecontinuousdevelopmentofneweducationformatsandeffectivelearningdesigns.Inrelationtothelatter,itiscrucialtoconsiderhowandwhentoemploysynchronousandasynchronousdigitalcouplingsbytakingintoconsiderationaspectssuchascontents,form,interactionandtime.Similarly,thethreemetaphoricalfunctionsofmotor,mediatorandmeetingplaceareusefulasstrategicthinkingtechnologiesforestablishing,sustaininganddevelopinglearningcentresinruralareas.Onaconcretelevel,thiscanbedonebyeffectivelymappingbusinessneeds,guidingcitizenstofuturejobsandbyofferingcoursesviasynchronousandasynchronousdigitalcouplingsbetweenthephysicalmeetingplaceofthelearningcentreandeducationinstitutions.Acknowledgingthatmanyaspectsoflearningcentresstillneedtobefurtherexplored,theaimofthispaperistoelucidateanemergingfieldofresearchonlearningcentresasaneducationformataswellasaplacewherelearningdesignsunfold.

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