lecture 7 research methodology in counselling
DESCRIPTION
overview of research methodology from compilation of different powerpoints from various people and some own input.TRANSCRIPT
Research Methodology (Theory of research)
& Research Design (The action
of Research): Method & Techniques
Dissertation Module
Kevin Standish
Learning outcomes
• Distinguish Research Methodology from Research methods
• Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
• Describe Variables and hypothesis
• Identify sampling methods
The Research Process
1. Identification of general problem/question
2. Literature review
3. Specify questions/hypotheses
4. Determination of research design/methodology
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis/presentation
7. Interpretation of findings
8. Discussion of findings
Research MethodologyThe Theory of Research
Research methodology
The way/science
Structure of Research
begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions
The "hourglass" notion of research
Deduction and Induction
Deduction
Induction
Research Methodology
• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
• It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
• In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them
Research methodology..• Research Methodology says the
howto do/conduct research
systematically & scientifically.
• Research methodology not only provides
the knowledge of various types of methods & techniques
for Sampling , data collection, data analysis & report writing etc.
but also guides
that which particular method or technique
for sampling/data collection/data analysis should be used or not
& why should /shouldn't do so.
Research Methodology
Research Methodology
• There are different ways of “knowing” and the epistemological standpoint will determine the nature of that knowing
• One may explore their reality using statistical data as evidence while another may have first-hand accounts of how the person has been effected, which is their reality.
• Each represents a particular Paradigm of knowledge. Neither is right or wrong it is just a different view.
Research MethodThe Action of Research: Design; Sample; Method; Collection; How Data will be analysed
Observational ResearchGathering data by observing people, actions and situations(Exploratory)
Experimental ResearchUsing groups of people to determine cause and effectrelationships(Causal)
Survey ResearchAsking individuals about attitudes, preferences or behaviors(Descriptive)
Three Research Approaches
Types of Research Designs
ExploratoryResearch
DescriptiveResearch
CausalResearch
Test hypotheses about cause and effectrelationshipsX causes Y
Gathers preliminary information to definethe problem and suggest hypothesesLiterature search, expert interviews, focusgroups, case studies, company audits,
qualitative research
Describes things as the market potential ofa product, consumer demographics andattitudesSecondary data analysis, surveys, observations,panels, simulations
Research Methods
Descriptive research
Analytical research
Applied research
Basic research
Research Methods
Quantitative research
Qualitative research
Conceptual research
Empirical research
The Right and the Left
• Quantitative research - numbers, numbers, numbers
• Qualitative research - words, words, words
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Assumptions about the World• Based upon the idea of “logical
positivism”, that is, there is a singular reality with stable, social facts that are separate from the feelings and beliefs of individuals.
• Based on the notion of “constructivism”, which assumes multiple realities that are socially constructed through individual and collective perceptions or views of the same situation.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Research Purpose
• Seeks to establish relationships and explain causes of changes in measured variables. That is, the goal of science is to explain and predict.
• Concern is with the understanding of the social phenomenon from the participants’ perspectives. This requires, to some degree, researcher participation.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Methods and Process• The scientific method, also
known as a priori or pre-established design.
• Use of emergent design utilizing constant comparison and revision.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Prototypical Studies• Experimental or correlational
designs are used to reduce error, bias and the influence of extraneous variables--control of bias is through design.
• Use of ethnography, which helps readers understand the multiple perspectives of the situation by the persons studied. Subjectivity in data analysis and interpretation is acknowledged.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Researcher Role
• Detachment from study in order to avoid bias.
• Immersion in situation and the phenomenon being studied.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Context
• Context-free generalizations • Generalizations are contextually-bound.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Precision
• Obtained through the use of measurement and statistics
• Provided by detailed description of phenomenon
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Verification
• Results replicated by others. • Extension of understandings by others.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Explanation
• Traditionally, parsimonious explanations were sought, but this may be changing due to technology.
• Summary through narrative--importance is placed on reducing complex realities to simple explanations.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Logical Reasoning
• DEDUCTIVE--What’s the classic example?
• INDUCTIVE--anyone have an example?
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Conditional Conclusions• Statements of statistical
probability.• Tentative summary
interpretations.
Types of Quantitative Studies
• Descriptive
• True experimental
• Quasi-experimental
• Correlational
• Predictive
Types of Qualtitative Studies
• Qualitative research gathers information that is not in numerical form:
• diary accounts,
• open-ended questionnaires,
• unstructured interviews
• unstructured observations.
• Qualitative data is typically descriptive data and as such is harder to analyze than quantitative data.
• Qualitative research is useful for studies at the individual level, and to find out, in depth, the ways in which people think or feel (e.g. case studies).
Types of Qualtitative Studies
• Qualitative paradigms offer the researcher an opportunity to develop an idiographic understanding of participants’ experiences and what it means to them, within their social reality, to be in a particular situation (Bryman, 1992).
• methods include: Content / thematic analysis (CA/ TA); Grounded Theory (GT);
• Discursive psychology / Discourse analysis (DA); • Narrative psychology (NA); • Phenomenological psychology methods such as
interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA).
Research Using Primary Data
• Cross-sectional
• Case Control
• Cohort
• Randomized controlled trial
Cross-sectional Study
• Data gathered at one point in time
• Often used for surveys
• Can not make inferences about causality
Case Control Study
• Start with the outcome- identify a sample with the condition of interest
• Identify a similar control group
• Look back to determine exposure
• Calculate the risk in the cases and controls- odds ratio used
• Can not use to establish prevalence
Cohort Study
• Start with an identified group
• Determine exposure in everyone at the same time
• Follow the group to determine who develops the outcome of interest
• Can be used to determine prevalence
• Association measured as relative risk (rate ratios)
Randomized Controlled Trial
• Gold standard for determining associations
• Identify a group
• Randomly assign individuals to exposure
• Only reliable way to control for confounding
Research Using Secondary Data
• Literature review
• Systematic review
• Metanalysis
• Analysis of existing data collected for another purpose
Literature Review
• Gather articles on a topic of interest
• Summarize the findings
Systematic Review
• Gather articles using a pre-defined search strategy- may include unpublished studies
• Develop a-priori objective criteria to evaluate the quality of the studies
• Summarize the quality of the data and the results
Metanalysis
• Do a systematic review
• Obtain the primary data if possible
• Summarize the data quantitatively
Research Method vs Methodology Comparison
Research Methods Research Methodology
• research methods are the methods by which you conduct research into a subject or a topic
• Research methods involve conduct of experiments, tests, surveys and the like
• research methods aim at finding solutions to research problems
• research methodology explains the methods by which you may proceed with your research
• research methodology involves the learning of the various techniques that can be used in the conduct of research and in the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys and critical studies search
• research methodology aims at the employment of the correct procedures to find out solutions
Research Method vs Methodology ComparisonExamples:-
research methods Research methodology
If the subject for Research is ‘employment of figures of speech in English literature’
then the research methods that are involved are study of various works of the different poets and the understanding of the employment of figures of speech in their works
If the subject for Research is ‘employment of figures of speech in English literature’
then the research methodology pertaining to the topic mentioned above involves the study about the tools of research, collation of various manuscripts related to the topic, techniques involved in the critical edition of these manuscripts and the like
Research Method vs Methodology Comparisonwith Examples cont…
research methods Research methodology
If the subject into which you conduct a research is a scientific subject or topic
then the research methods include experiments, tests, study of various other results of different experiments performed earlier in relation to the topic or the subject and the like
If the subject into which you conduct a research is a scientific subject or topic
then research methodology pertaining to the scientific topic involves the techniques regarding how to go about conducting the research, the tools of research, advanced techniques that can be used in the conduct of the experiments and the like
Research Method vs Methodology Conclusion
We can say that Research Methodology has many dimensions and Research Methods do constitute a part of the research methodology.
The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.
Variables
Meaning
• Known as a property of proposition being studied
• Also known as the constructs of a proposition
• A symbol to which we assign numerals or values
• Numerical value assigned to a variable is based on its
properties
• 3 types of Variables: Dichotomous; Discrete; Continuous
1. Dichotomous Variables
• These variables are so called because they have TWO values, reflecting presence or absence of a property.
• For example: pass or fail, exists or does not exist, employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no.
• The dichotomous variables can be assigned with a numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose.
2. Discrete Variables
• These are categorical variables.
• For example, the demographic variables race or religion are the examples of discrete variables.
• Religion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain can be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.
• The numerical values assigned to these variables will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7.
3. Continuous Variables
• These variables take on values with a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set.
• For example, test scores may range from 0 - 100, age may be 2.5 years, present income of a person could be £. 15000, you may disclose your property worth more than £.500,000.
Variables
• variable…• any observation that can take on
different values
• attribute…• a specific value on a variable
Examples
Variable Attribute
age
Examples
Variable Attribute
age 18, 19, 20, etc...
Examples
Variable Attribute
Gender or sex
Examples
Variable Attribute
Gender or sex Male, female
Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction
Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction 1 = very satisfied
2 = satisfied
3= somewhat satisfied
4 = not satisfied
5 = not satisfied at all
Types of Variables
• independent variable (IV)…• what you (or nature) manipulates in
some way
• dependent variable (DV)…• what you presume to be influenced by
the IV
Examples: Sports participation
IV DV
exercise participation
health status
attitude
social support
intervention
The purpose of the study was to…
• test whether the “Fair Play for Sport” curriculum is effective in promoting moral development in youth
• examine the relationship between age and VO2max.
• test whether there are gender differences the value placed on sport participation
• determine whether students’ perceptions of the amount of positive, negative, and informational feedback provided by their teachers is predictive of their self-esteem and level of achievement
IV, DV?
Types of Relationships
• correlational vs. causal relationships
correlation does not imply causation!(it’s necessary but not sufficient)
variables perform in a synchronized manner
one variable causes the other variable
Types of Relationships
• patterns of relationships…• no relationship
• positive relationship
• negative relationship
• curvilinear relationship
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Hypotheses
• hypothesis…• a specific statement of prediction
• types of hypotheses• alternative vs. null
• one-tailed vs. two-tailed
Hypotheses
• alternative hypothesis (HA)…• An effect (that you predict)
• null hypothesis (HO) …• Null effect
Hypotheses
hypothesis there is a relationship between age
and exercise participation
HA there is a relationship
HO there is not a relationship
this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no
direction is predicted
Hypotheses
hypothesis an incentive program will increase
exercise participation
HA participation will increase
HO participation will not increase or
will decrease
this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a
specific direction is predicted
Sample vs. Population
Population = collection of ALL possible observations
Sample = subset of a population
Random Sample
representative of a population
all observations have equal chance of being selected
Why Do We Use Samples?
Cost
Time
Inaccessibility of the population
Accuracy
Destruction of the observations
Steps in Developing a Sample Plan
Step 1: Define thePopulation of
Interest
Step 2: ChooseData Collection
Method
Step 3: ChooseSampling Frames
Step 4: Select aSampling Method
Step 5: DetermineSample Size
Step 6: Develop andSpecify Operational
Plan
Step 7: ExecuteOperational Sampling
Plan
Sampling Methods
• Probability vs. Nonprobability
• Probability• members in the population have a known
chance (probability) of being selected into the sample
• Nonprobability• the probability of selecting members from the
population is not known
Sampling Design Process
73
Define Population
Determine Sampling Frame
Determine Sampling Procedure
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience
Judgmental
Quota
Snow-ball
Determine Appropriate Sample Size
Execute Sampling Design
Classification of Sampling Methods
SamplingMethods
ProbabilitySamples
SimpleRandom
Cluster
Systematic Stratified
Non-probability
QuotaJudgment
Convenience Snowball
Sampling
• Once you are clear about your procedure, you need to locate participants will undergo the research procedure
• Quantitative methodology is concerned with representativeness of the sample
• The key question here is sample size as the bigger sample size the more precise the results
• Qualitative research is less focused on sample and generalizability. Sampling tends to mean a relevant case, theory base case, a critical case, an interview et cetera
Key questions to answer in your methodology• What kind of research methods are you going to use? Are they
mostly:
• Quantitative, or qualitative, or a mixture of both?
• What do you think your methods will enable you to discover?
• What might they prevent you from discovering?
• What kinds of research methods would be best suited to the kind of research you are undertaking and the research questions you are pursuing?
• What sort of problems do you envisage in setting up these methods?
• What are their benefits?
• What will you need to do to ensure they gather useful data?
Summary
• “Methodology” implies more than simply the methods you intend to use to collect data.
• It is necessary to include a consideration of the concepts and theories which underlie the methods.
• you have to show that you understand the underlying concepts of the methodology.
• When you describe your methods it is necessary to state how you have addressed the research questions and/or hypotheses.
• The methods should be described in enough detail for the study to be replicated, or at least repeated in a similar way in another situation.
• Every stage should be explained and justified with clear reasons for the choice of your particular methods and materials.