LAND USE AND TRANSPORT

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Related JournalsTransportation Research Part A, Policy and Practice Editor: P.B. Goodwin Transport Policy Editor: M. BenAkiva Land Use Policy Editor: G. Robinson Journal of Transport Geography Editor: Richard D. Knowles Transportation Research Part D: Transport and the Environment Editor: Kenneth Button

R

LAND USE AND TRANSPORTEuropean Research Towards Integrated Policies

Edited by STEPHEN MARSHALL Bartlett School of Planning, University College London, London, UK DAVID BANISTER Transport Studies Unit, Oxford University Centre for the Environment, Oxford, UK

Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo

Elsevier The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands First edition 2007 Copyright 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elseviers Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com. Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 9780080448916 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at books.elsevier.com Printed and bound in the United Kingdom 07 08 09 10 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Contents

Contributors Biographies 1 Introduction Stephen Marshall and David Banister Context Land Use and Transport: The Context David Banister, Stephen Marshall and David Blackledge Themes and Relationships Michael Wegener Policy Perspectives Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies Carlo Sessa Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport Philine Gaffron, Uwe Schubert, Franz Skala and Tina Wagner Promoting Cycling for Public Health Pascal J.W. van den Noort A LandUse Transport Vision Ann Jopson Policy Assessment Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development Kari Lautso and Michael Wegener Urban Sprawl and Transport Sylvia Gayda and Kari Lautso Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design Linda Steg, Judith de Groot, Sonja Forward, Clemens Kaufmann, Ralf Risser, Karel Schmeidler, Lucia Martincigh and Luca Urbani Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives Eric Monami, Sander Kooijman and Hugues Duchteau

vii ix 1

Part I 2 3

5 7 19

Part II 4

35 37

5 6 7

71 105 133

Part III 8 9 10

151 153 177 217

11

245

vi Contents Part IV 12 13 14 15 Policy Tools Arterial Streets: Towards an Integrated Approach se Svensson and Stephen Marshall Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task Kari Rauhala Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies Emanuele Negrenti Improving DecisionMaking for Sustainable Urban Transport Anthony D. May and Bryan Matthews Outcomes Lessons for Policy David Blackledge, Anthony D. May and Michael Wegener A Research Agenda David Banister, Stephen Marshall and Anthony May 275 277 293 313 335

Part V 16 17

363 365 375

Index

387

Contributors

DAVID BANISTER DAVID BLACKLEDGE HUGUES DUCHTEAU JUDITH DE GROOT SONJA FORWARD PHILINE GAFFRON SYLVIE GAYDA ANN JOPSON CLEMENS KAUFMANN SANDER KOOIJMAN KARI LAUTSO STEPHEN MARSHALL LUCIA MARTINCIGH

Transport Studies Unit, Oxford University Centre for the Environment, Oxford, OX1 3QY Transport and Travel Research Ltd (TTR), Minster House, Minster Pool Walk, Lichfield, Staffordshire, WS13 6QT, UK STRATEC s.a. Avenue A. Lacombl, 6971 B1030 Brussels, Belgium University of Groningen, Experimental and Work Psychology, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS Groningen, The Netherlands Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute, 581 95 Linkping, Sweden Hamburg University of Technology, AB 110 Transportation and Logistics, Schwarzenbergstr. 95, 21071 Hamburg, Germany STRATEC s.a. Avenue Adolphe Lacombl, 6971 B1030 Brussels, Belgium Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT FACTUM OHG, Danhausergasse 6/4, A1040 Wien, Austria BUITEN Consultancy, Economy & Environment, Achter St. Pieter 160, 3512 HT Utrecht, The Netherlands WSP LT Consultants, Heikkilntie 7, 00210 Helsinki, Finland Bartlett School of Planning, University College London, Wates House, 22 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0QB, UK DiPSADipartimento di Progettazione e Studio dellArchitettura, Facolt di Architettura Universit degli Studi Roma Tre, P.zza della Repubblica, 10 00185 Roma, Italy Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, 38 University Road, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK STRATEC s.a. Avenue A. Lacombl, 6971, box 8 B1030 Brussels, Belgium ENEA ENE TEC, C. R. CASACCIA , Via Anguillarese 301, S. Maria di Galeria 00060, Rome, Italy Asematie 14 B 9, FIN02700 Kauniainen, Finland FACTUM OHG, Danhausergasse 6/4, A1040 Wien, Austria Head of Social and Human Aspects of Transport Section, Transport Research Centre CDV, Vinohrady 10, Brno CZ 639 00, Czech Republic Institute for Regional Development and Environment, Department for Social Sciences, Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration, Nordbergstrasse 15, B/4 A1090, Vienna

BRYAN MATTHEWS ANTHONY D MAY ERIC MONAMI EMANUELE NEGRENTI KARI RAUHALA RALF RISSER KAREL SCHMEIDLER

UWE SCHUBERT

viii ContributorsCARLO SESSA FRANZ SKALA Institute of Studies for the Integration of Systems, Via Flaminia 21, 00196 Rome, Italy Institute for Regional Development and Environment, Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration, Nordbergstrasse 15, B/4 A1090, Vienna University of Groningen, Department of Psychology, Grote Kruisstraat 2/I, 9712 TS Groningen, The Netherlands Department of Technology and Society, Lund University, Box 118, SE22100 LUND, Sweden IBV Willi Hsler Ag, Olgastrasse 4, CH8001 Zurich, Switzerland Velo Mondial, KleineGartmanplantsoen 20, 1017 RR Amsterdam, The Netherlands Hamburg University of Technology, AB 110 Transportation and Logistics, Schwarzenbergstr. 95, 21071 Hamburg, Germany Spiekermann & Wegener, Urban and Regional Research (S&W), Lindemannstrasse 10, 44137 Dortmund, Germany

LINDA STEG SE SVENSSON LUCA URBANI PASCAL J.W. VAN DEN NOORT TINA WAGNER MICHAEL WEGENER

BiographiesDavid Banister is Professor of Transport Studies at the Oxford University Centre for the Environment. Until recently he was Professor of Transport Planning at University College London. He has also been Research Fellow at the Warren Centre in the University of Sydney (20012002) on the Sustainable Transport for a Sustainable City project and was Visiting VSB Professor at the Tinbergen Institute in Amsterdam (19941997). He will be a visiting Professor at the University of Bodenkultur in Vienna in 2007. He is a Trustee of the Civic Trust and Chair of their Policy Committee (20052009). Prof. Banister has authored and edited 18 books that summarise his own research and some of the international projects that he has been involved with. He has also authored (or coauthored) more than 100 papers in international refereed journals, together with a similar number of other papers in journals or as contributions to books. David Blackledge is Corporate Director of Transport & Travel Research Ltd, UK. He is a transport economist with more than 30 years experience in public transport planning and economics. He has worked with many local authorities in UK, providing advice and managing projects involving strategic planning, concessionary fares, alternative fuels, advanced vehicle technologies, personal security, and passenger information. He has directed a number of projects for the UK Department for Transport including research into information systems, Accessible Coaches and Kneeling Buses. He has also directed a number of collaborative research and demonstration projects involving cities across Europe, including CATCH (transport and environment), EDICT (evaluation and demonstration of Personal Rapid Transit) and PLUME (landuse and transport planning). Hugues Duchteau is Chief Executive Officer of STRATEC, Brussels. He graduated in Civil Engineering from the Facult Polytechnique de Mons and has almost 30 years of experience in leading transportation planning, travel behaviour studies, land use and regional planning, and environmental assessment of projects in Belgium as well as abroad. He started his career in the Department of Public Economy Studies at the Socit dEconomie et de Mathmatique Applique (SOBEMAP), which he left in 1984 to found STRATEC. Judith de Groot is a PhD candidate in Department of Psychology at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. Her main fields of expertise are social, traffic and environ mental psychology. She has conducted several studies on car use, and more generally, sustainable transportation. Her dissertation focuses on the relationship between values, attitudes and prosocial and proenvironmental behaviour. Judith de Groot is interested in applied as well as fundamental research. Sonja Forward is a Director of Research at The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute. She is Deputy Chairperson at the Swedish pedestrian association and a member of TRBs Pedestrian committee. Her main research interest includes the use

x Biographies of psychological models to predict modal choice and traffic violations but also how to modify deviant behaviours. Philine Gaffron is working as a senior researcher at the Transportation and Logis tics Group of the Hamburg University of Technology, Germany. She has moved from a degree in ecology via a postgraduate qualification as a landscape designer to a dissertation in transport planning. She has gathered research experience in national and international projects on implementation issues in (integrated) urban transport planning, interdependencies and evaluation of transport and space as well as infrastructure financing. She is also involved in teaching engineering and town planning students and is a member of the German association for regional and town planning (SRL). Homepage: http://www.vsl.tuharburg.de/vsl_2/1arbeitsbereich/ i_mitarbeiterx?welche_id=4&liste=0. Sylvie Gayda is Senior Project Manager in the consultancy company STRATEC based in Brussels, specialised in transport planning and urban/regional development. She has more than 15 years experience in the field of trip demand modelling and demand management policies. She has developed a thorough expertise in two fields: first, stated preference surveys and discrete choice models ; secondly, landuse/transport modelling and planning. In relation with stated preference, she led among others several studies on traffic forecasts for new High Speed Lines in France, the mode choice modelling for the future Seine North Europe canal and the demand forecast study for the future Charles de Gaulle Express (dedicated rail service between the CDG airport and Paris Gare de lEst). On the other hand, she took part in many European research projects, among other projects in relation with landuse/transport (ESTEEM, TRACE, PROPOLIS, SCATTER). In particular, she was coordinator of the SCATTER project. Dr Ann Jopson is a Research Fellow at the Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds. Her research interests are in travel behaviour psychology, transport market ing, planning and policy (including landuse transport interactions), with emphasis on attitudinal and behavioural measures, and social aspects of transport. Specifically, her expertise are in the role of social psychology in enhancing our understanding of human reactions to landuse and transport policies, and appraisal of qualitative policy objec tives, with regard to improving effectiveness of sustainability measures. She has worked on European and UK research projects for the European Commission, UK Department for Transport and research councils. Clemens Kaufmann studied Sociology at the University of Vienna. From 1998 to 1999, he was a freelancer at FACTUM, and since 1999, he is an employee of FACTUM. He is involved in several national and international projects (e.g. communication strategies for increased motorcyclist safety, alternative public transport in Austria, Assess implementa tion in the frame of Cities of Tomorrow, implementation work in Vienna, etc.), specialist on qualitative survey techniques like indepth interviews, behaviour observation (Wiener Fahrprobe) and workshops. He is secretary of the International Cooperation on Theo ries and Concepts in Traffic Safety.

Biographies xi Sander Kooijman, after his study of Spatial Planning at Nijmegen University, joined Buck Consultants International (BCI), a Dutch consultancy in the fields of economy, freight transport and regional development in 1989. In 1994, Sander took the position of Senior Consultant Economics, Spatial Planning, Transport and Infrastructure at BCI. He conducted and coordinated numerous studies in the field of freight transport, both at a national and international level. From 2004 to 2005, Sander acted as chairman of the ELITEnetwork, a professional network of renowned European consultancies in the fields of logistics, infrastructure and transport. At the end of 2005, Sander became partner and (co) managing director in BUITEN Consultancy for Economy & Environment, Utrecht, The Netherlands, where he is responsible for project management and coordination, product development and general management tasks. Kari Lautso is an urban and transport research and planning specialist with extensive experience of transportrelated research and planning on international, national and local levels. At WSP LTConsultants Ltd. he is Member of Board and Deputy CEO in charge of international operations of the companys research activities. In addition to consulting, Mr. Lautso has been employed by Helsinki University of Technology as laboratory engineer, leader of postgraduate courses and associate professor (traffic and transport planning). He has worked on several national and international projects involving integrated landuse and transport planning research, including the EC projects SPARTACUS and PROPOLIS that he coordinated. Other EC projects include SCAT TER, CITY FREIGHT and PLUME. In Finland, he has worked for Rail and Road Administrations and the Helsinki Metropolitan area Council in several strategic trans port research and planning projects. Mr. Lautso has published about 70 conference papers in national and international conferences. Stephen Marshall is Senior Lecturer at the Bartlett School of Planning, University College London, UK. Dr Marshall has 15 years experience in transport and planning fields. He has worked on several UK and international projects involving integrated land use and transport planning research, including the EC projects TRANSLAND, TRANSPLUS, ARTISTS and PLUME; and the UK project SOLUTIONS (Sustainability Of Land Use and Transport In Outer Neighbourhoods). He has several publications encompassing urban design, planning and transport fields, and has authored or contributed to seven books, including Encouraging Transport Alternatives and Streets and Patterns. Lucia Martincigh is an architect, Associate Professor of Technology of Architecture at the University of Roma Tre, Rome, Italy. She is a lecturer at Doctorate and Post graduation national and international courses and also a National Delegate in various Actions of the EC Cost Program. Lucia Martincigh is responsible for Italian and European researches on sustainable mobility and urban upgrading and design, including PROMISING, PROMT and SIZE. She is also a scientific coordinator, chairperson and lecturer at several national and international conferences and exhibitions. Her works include articles in specialized magazines, essays and books at national and international level. She is also a coordinator of interdisciplinary groups in DiPSA for the elaboration Pilot Projects. Bryan Matthews is a Senior Research Fellow at the Institute for Transport Studies at the University of Leeds, UK. He has 10 years research and consultancy experience focused

xii Biographies on transport economics. Much of his work has been on international research projects, including the EC projects PROSPECTS, ASTRAL and PLUME; and the international Knowledgebase on Sustainable LandUse and Transport (KonSULT). He has several publications encompassing transport economics and planning, and served as contributor and coeditor (with Chris Nash) for volume 14 of the Research in Transport Economics series on Measuring the Marginal Social Cost of Transport (2005). Tony May has over 35 years experience in transport planning and traffic engineering. His principal research interests at Leeds have focused on urban transport and sustain ability. He has served as Director of ITS, Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Pro Vice Chancellor for Research. He was elected to Fellowship of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1995 and awarded the OBE for services to transport engineering in 2004. Between 1985 and 2001, he maintained a link between research and teaching at Leeds and practical experience in consultancy with MVA Ltd, of which he was a director. Eric Monami, during his 15 years as researcher, consultant and ministerial advisor in transport and environment, he has contributed to or coordinated several projects for the European Commission, the American Transportation Research Board and a number of ministries and businesses in Belgium. His work has centred mainly on contracting mechanisms and service quality and environmental impacts assessments in both freight and passenger transports. Dr Monami has been an advisor to the Belgian Minister of Mobility and Transport, the Walloon Minister of Transport and the Brussels Minister for the Environment. He is the author of several articles on European railway reforms. Emanuele Negrenti is Project Manager at ENEA, the Italian Agency for Energy, Environ ment and Innovative Technologies. Dr Negrenti has 14 experiences in transport impacts and planning fields. He has worked on several Italian and international projects involv ing transport planning, transport impacts, pollutant emissions modelling, evaluation of transport and transport telematic systems. The European experience is based on FP3 QUARTET and KITE Projects, THERMIE JUPITER Project, COST319 and COST 346 Actions, FP4 COMMUTE, ESTEEM, CAPITALS and CAPITALS PLUS Projects, FP5 ISHTAR (Coordinator), HEARTS, INTEGAIRE, ASTRAL and PLUME Projects. He has several international publications on transport impacts fields. Kari Rauhala is architect, lately Senior Research Scientist at VTT (Technical Research Centre of Finland) Building and Transport. Kari Rauhala worked at VTT from 1974 until his retirement in summer 2005. His specialities have been urban planning economics, urban energy consumption, climate and housing, urban quality, environmental impacts, urban shape and transport, pedestrian environment as well as design methods and principles. He has participated in several EC projects, the latest being PROMPT (New Means to Promote Pedestrian Traffic in Cities) and ECOCITY (Urban development towards Appropriate Structures for Sustainable Transport). He was the coordinator of the PROMPT project. He has written several publications and articles as well as papers on national and international conferences. Ralf Risser is an Assistant Professor and Lecturer at the University of Vienna and at the Technical University of Vienna. He is visiting professor at the Institute of Technology

Biographies xiii and Society, Technical University Lund, Sweden. He works in several EU Projects. Secretary International Cooperation on Theories and Concepts in Traffic safety; Chair ing committee member of the NORBIT group (Nordic Organisation for Behaviour in Traffic). His work involves attitude and acceptance, marketing and motive research as a basis for social management. He is a specialist on qualitative survey techniques, behaviour observation (Developer of the Wiener Fahrprobe and derivatives), heuristic procedures like workshops etc., and groupdynamicsbased creative and training mea sures. Karel Schmeidler is Senior Researcher and Head of the S15 Department at CDV Trans port Research Centre and Associated Professor for Urban Design and Planning at the Faculty of Architecture, Technical University Brno, Czech Republic. Dr Schmeidler has 30 years experience in transport and planning fields. He has worked on several national and international research projects involving architecture, design, urban planning, inte grated landuse and transport planning research, including the EC projects SIZE, ASI, ADVISORS, COST 616 CITIAIR, COST 349, COST 352 and COST 355 projects, Central European University Fellowships (Soros Foundation Projects) and HUMANIST Centre of Excellence and many important national CZ projects funded by the Czech Grant Agency and some Czech ministries and universities. He has dozens of publications encompassing architecture, urban design, urban sociology, planning and transport fields, and has authored or contributed to several books, including Sociologie v architektonicke a urbanisticke tvorbe (Brno 1997 and reprinted 2001). Uwe Schubert studied law and economics in Vienna and San Diego, California. Until 2006, he was chairman of the Institute of Economic Geography, Regional Development and the Environment at the Vienna University of Economics and Business Administra tion. He held the chair in Environmental Economics and Management. His main research fields are urban development and environmental economics and policy. Since 1975, he has been active in comparative development research. He served as coordinator of sev eral national as well as European projects (e.g. ENVINNO, EASYECO, ECOCITY). Now he is Professor Emeritus. Carlo Sessa was in charge of the coordination of the European research project TRANSPLUS Transport Planning Land Use and Sustainability. He is president of ISIS Institute of Studies for the Integration of Systems of Rome. Before joining ISIS in 1983, he has conducted research at NYU, where he worked with Nobel Prize winner Wassily Leontieff. He was project coordinator or partner in several EU research projects, includ ing ACTVILL and ESTEEM for DGXII, and recently the RAISE Citezens Conference on EU research for the City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage. Franz Skala studied civil engineering at the Technical University Vienna (not com pleted); he is coauthor of publications in the field of transport and environment for example, Flexibility in Public Transportation (Flexibler Oeffentlicher Verkehr, VCOE Verkehrsclub Oesterreich 1996), cooperated in projects (e.g. Study for a pilot project for integrated transport in rural areas for the region Waidhofen an der Thaya) and initiated the multidisciplinary association Institute of Ecological Urban Development. For the

xiv Biographies ECOCITYproject, he was employed at the Department of Environmental Economics and Management of the Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration. Linda Steg is lecturer in Environmental Psychology at the University of Groningen. She conducted many studies within the field of Environmental and Traffic Psychology, and is particularly interested in studying individual and corporate behaviour related to sustainable development from a multidisciplinary perspective. Her research focuses on measuring, understanding and changing environmentally significant behaviour, like household energy use and car use. Steg is presidentelect of Division 4 Environmen tal Psychology, and treasurer of Division 13 Traffic Transportation Psychology of the international Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP). Furthermore, she coordi nates the sustainability network of the International Association of PeopleEnvironment Studies (IAPS). se Svensson is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Technology and Society, Lund University, Sweden. Dr Svenssons main background is in the area of traffic safety research, validation of the Swedish Traffic Conflicts Technique and further development of the concept towards general severity rating of interactive behaviour. She was co ordinator of EC project ARTISTS and is now project leader of a doctoral student project with the aim of adapting and developing ARTISTS concepts to Swedish conditions. She is also heading a doctoral student project in the area of developing and utilising cognitive vision for studies and analysis of road user behaviour. Luca Urbani is expert in the field of transport planning, transport infrastructures and traffic safety, now by IBV Ingenieurbro fr Verkehrplannung Zurich. Luca Urbani has almost 10 years of research experience in the field of traffic safety with particular regard to behavioural patterns and vulnerable road users. He has worked in several Italian and international research projects, including the EC founded PROMISING Promoting of Measures for vulnerable road users (1997), PROMPT New means to PROMote Pedestrian Traffic in cities (2003) and ASI Assessing Implementation (2005) as external senior researcher within the Department of Design and Study of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, University Roma Tre. On these and other topics. Dr Urbani has several publications presented at international conferences. Pascal J.W. van den Noort is Executive Director of Master Plan BV and of Velo Mondial and Velo.Info. He has vast experience in founding (inter)national and global organiza tions, projects, conferences and events. He was the founder and Executive Director of the Dutch Aids Foundation and of the Global Network of People Living with HIV/AIDS (GNP+). For Master Plan BV, he is involved in the setting up of research projects that promote sustainable urban development and specializes in making information for sus tainability better available. For Velo Mondial and Velo.Info, he initiates, promotes and organizes innovative developments with passion. Tina Wagner is working as a researcher at the Transportation and Logistics Group of the Hamburg University of Technology, Germany. Tina Wager is a younger transport planner with experiences in research and consulting on the European, national and regional level. Her research focus is on integrated planning. She has worked on several

Biographies xv projects involving sustainable land use and transportation (e.g. ECOCITY), integration of transport infrastructure into urban environments, air traffic and commercial and goods traffic. Michael Wegener was until 2003, Director of the Institute of Spatial Planning and Professor at the Faculty of Spatial Planning of the University of Dortmund, Germany. Since 2003, he is a partner in Spiekermann & Wegener, Urban and Regional Research in Dortmund. His main research fields are planning theory, urban and regional develop ment, European urban systems and transEuropean networks. His specialisation is urban and regional modelling, in particular of the landuse transport interface in cities and regions and of the regional impacts of European large transport infrastructure projects.

The Projects and Initiatives Featured in This Book LUTR PLUME Land Use and Transport Research (cluster of projects) (http://www.lutr.net/) PLanning and Urban Mobility in Europe (network) (http://www.lutr.net/) Individual Projects ARTISTS ASI Arterial Streets Towards Sustainability (http://www.tft.lth.se/Artists) Assess Implementations in the frame of the Cities of Tomorrow Programme (www.factum.at/asi) CITYFREIGHT ECOCITY Inter and Intra CityFreight Distribution Networks (http://www.cityfreight.eu/) Urban Development Towards Appropriate Structures for Sustainable Transport (http://www.ecocityprojects.net) ISHTAR Integrated Software for Health, Transport Efficiency and Artistic Heritage Recovery (http://www.ishtarfp5eu.com/) PROMPT PROPOLIS New Means to Promote Pedestrian Traffic in Cities (http://prompt.vtt.fi) Planning and Research for Land Use and Transport for Increasing Urban Sustainability (http://www.ltcon.fi/propolis) PROSPECTS Procedures for Recommending Optimal Sustainable Planning of European City Transport Systems (http://wwwivv.tuwien.ac.at/projects/prospects.html) SCATTER Sprawling Cities and Transport: from Evaluation to Recommendations (http://scatter.stratec.be) SUTRA TRANSPLUS VELOINFO Sustainable Urban Transportation (http://www.ess.co.at/SUTRA) Transport Planning, Land Use and Sustainability (http://www.transplus.net/) The European Network for Cycling Expertise (http://www.velo.info/)

Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors) Copyright 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 1 IntroductionStephen Marshall and David Banister

The distribution of different land uses in different locations stimulates the demand for transport, and the supply of transport enables the distribution of different land uses in different locations. In this simple statement are bound up the logic of transport geography, accessibility, land management and property markets, an implied division of labour and associated economic geography; and hence the professional concerns of various kinds of urban and spatial planner, transport planner and highway engineer, public transport and logistics operator, employer, retailer and developer; and ultimately the travel and location decisions made by every citizen. Despite the inherent logical complementarity of land use and transport the inter connectedness of their causes and effects each has tended to be pursued within different spheres of professional attention: in particular, land use planning and transport planning. These disciplines have not always been as well integrated as they might be. From the point of view of knowledge, there is not always a clear understanding of land use and transport relationships and the complex effects of policies on outcomes. From the point of view of action, there is not necessarily a clear consensus of how best to link the different kinds of land use and transport policy instruments, institutions and infrastructures; how to link incentives to more sustainable outcomes with disincentives to less sustainable ones; or what are the potential benefits of the different combinations of possible measures. The challenge of how to link land use and transport policy has existed for many years, but has remained unsolved, in part due to the interprofessional divide between land use planning and transport planning and in part due to inadequate channels of commu nication between researchers, planning officials and policymakers. This can result in frustrated causes: stateoftheart projects based on outofdate research, novel research addressing old problems, new data feeding old models and generally left hands not knowing what right hands are doing. It is against this backdrop that there has been a recognition of the need to undertake research that fills gaps and forges new links between land use planning and transport 1

2 S. Marshall and D. Banister planning, while also disentangling and hence clarifying the complex web of issues that is currently known to bind different aspects of land use and transport planning. This book offers a collection of results from a recent programme of research into integrated land use and transport issues to contribute to this fundamental and ongoing debate. The intention is to be able to contribute to better understanding and ultimately to better land use and transport integration. The book draws from the Land Use and Transport Research (LUTR) cluster of the European Union (EU) Cities of Tomorrow programme. In total, there are 12 individual projects in the LUTR programme, in addition a 13th initiative a network known as PLUME (PLanning and Urban Mobility in Europe) which has served to synthesise results across different research themes and to engage with enduser cities, in order to inform the policymaking process (for more details, see Box page in Prelims; Table 2.3, Chapter 2). The 12 LUTR projects comprise the work of dozens of partners, featuring dozens of cities across almost every European Commission (EC) country, taking place largely over a 6year period (20002005). This book does not attempt to provide a comprehensive summary of findings from this programme, since these are already available elsewhere. Each project has its own web site and set of reports detailing the project research, methods and findings. Additionally, PLUME provides a series of synthesis reports on specialised themes that cut across the subject matter of the individual LUTR projects (for more details, see Chapter 3). Rather, the intention of this book is to provide an introduction to this body of research, in two principal ways. First, the book provides a general overview of the main issues and implications of the research, which draws primarily from the LUTR projects themselves and also integrates this with wider knowledge of land use and transport planning in the European context. Secondly, the book provides more detailed insights into specific issues drawn from individual projects. It is hoped that both of these approaches offer useful points of entry to the larger body of research from which they are drawn. The remainder of this book is arranged in five parts: with Parts I and V dealing with the more general issues referred to above, and Parts II, III and IV focusing on specific LUTR projects. Part I provides an introduction to the context of the topic of land use and transport, and the LUTR research programme (Chapter 2), together with a presentation of the main issues and findings from the research (Chapter 3). Part II is broadly focused on policy perspectives. Chapter 4 discusses existing best practice for integrated policies (TRANSPLUS); Chapter 5 addresses the realisation of an urban vision for a sustainable settlement based on sustainable mobility and accessibility (ECOCITY); Chapter 6 addresses planning for promoting cycling (VELOINFO), while Chapter 7 presents a future vision of a sustainable settlement in 2030, looking back on what has been achieved (PLUME).

Introduction 3 Part III then shifts to the assessment of policies. Chapters 8 and 9 present the results of modellingbased studies evaluating the results of testing different policy combinations, the former for urban areas in general (PROPOLIS), the latter focusing on urban sprawl and public transport (SCATTER). The second two chapters in this section then address some aspects that are sometimes underrepresented in integrated land use trans port research: Chapter 10 addresses the assessment of Quality of Life issues (ASI), while Chapter 11 addresses the assessment of urban freight distribution initiatives (CITYFREIGHT). We then move to look at some specific tools and methods that have been developed within the LUTR projects. Chapter 12 discusses approaches appropriate for the man agement of arterial streets (ARTISTS), while Chapter 13 discusses a particular approach to generating solutions to problems, dealing with pedestrians from a human perspective (PROMPT). Chapter 14 reports on an integrative software tool devised to support land use and transport planning (ISHTAR), while Chapter 15 reports on means of improv ing decisionmaking for sustainable urban transport, culminating in the development of guidebooks for decisionmakers (PROSPECTS). Finally, Part V provides some final reflections on the LUTR research programme: first, providing lessons for policy (Chapter 16) and finally providing suggestions for a future LUTR agenda (Chapter 17). Part I provides a general introduction to the rest of the book, while Part V leads out from the book to address further policy and research spheres. The chapters in Parts IIIV may be read selectively and not necessarily in the order presented. Chapter 3 provides a convenient reference point relating all of the individual projects reported in the other chapters. The LUTR projects, although having the common theme of integrating land use and transport planning issues, and although covering a breadth of issues across this common theme (Chapter 3), necessarily deal with different aspects with different emphases and levels of detail. As research projects are commissioned to address outstanding research gaps, these are in effect complementary to existing knowledge, and therefore are to some extent a selective collection of topics. Accordingly, the book does not cover to any great extent the economic, fiscal, financial and land value levers available that are associated with either the transport or land use issues in isolation although many of these measures (particularly pricing) are embedded in the quantitative and qualitative approaches used in each of the chapters. Nor does the book address the technological futures covered by alternative fuels, new vehicle design and materials and the Information and Communications Technologies (ICT). All these can obviously contribute strongly to the City of Tomorrow; however, the main focus here is on policies integrating land use and transport planning. Just as the LUTR projects themselves are selectively focused, the issues addressed in individual chapters in Parts IIIV are also in turn selective and are reflections on and complementary to the projects formal outputs. Of those chapters addressing a specific

4 S. Marshall and D. Banister LUTR project, each has been prepared by the project coordinator and its topic selected to give the most useful focus to serve the purpose of the book, whether by summarising key findings or by focusing on details of particular interest. The editors are thankful to all those who contributed to realising this book, not least the 27 contributing authors, and Chris Pringle, Philip Tite and Zo La Roche at Elsevier, and e Sumi Poduri of Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd. We should also like to thank Michael Wegener for providing constructive comments on the draft manuscript. Together, we are all thankful to our colleagues from the 12 projects and over 50 cities who have provided the original material from which the research in the book draws, including all the participants in surveys and workshops whose contribution have also benefited the book. We would also like to acknowledge the funding support for this research provided by the EC FP5 Cities of Tomorrow programme, and in particular the coordinating role and personal support of Eric Ponthieu. Fuller details of the research programme and projects are given in Table 2.3, Chapter 2.

Part I Context

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors) Copyright 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 2 Land Use and Transport: The ContextDavid Banister, Stephen Marshall and David Blackledge

2.1 INTRODUCTIONAcross Europe, cities face common challenges relating to air quality, noise, urban sprawl, traffic congestion, waste and security, while promoting wealth creation and social inclusion and maintaining the built environment, cultural heritage and a deteriorating infrastructure. The challenge is to improve the quality of life in urban communities, maintaining economic viability while promoting sustainable development. This involves developing competitive cities that benefit from the economic advantages brought about by globalisation, increasing GDP and higher levels of personal income. But it is also equally important to address social issues relating to the distribution of wealth and opportunity and to ensure that all people are engaged in the inclusive city. Land use and transport issues intersect with these challenges whether as part of the problem or as part of the solution. Central here is the fundamental question of how to improve land use and urban planning and to strengthen the links with sustainable urban transport. The principle barriers are institutional, legislative, financial, social and cultural (Banister and Marshall, 2000; ECMT, 2002). The new question is how to inte grate these distinct barriers at the policy level and operationally, given the different actors involved. It is against this backdrop that this book offers a dedicated analysis of integrated land use and transport issues to contribute to this fundamental and ongoing debate.

2.2 THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEDuring the Industrial Revolution over 200 years ago, there was a mass exodus of people from the countryside seeking work, new opportunities and greater wealth in the cities. The social structure of these new and growing cities was not able to meet the needs for shelter, for public services (like water and waste disposal), or for the treatment of 7

8 D. Banister et al. health. The public health requirements formed the original focus for action in the cities. For example, as a result of the cholera epidemics which swept Britain in 1832, 1848 and 1866, and the high infant mortality rates that followed, a series of Public Health Acts (1848 and 1875) set up the administrative and financial arrangements, which together with the Local Government Acts of 1888 and 1894, formed the statutory basis for planning in Britain (Hall, 2002). Since that time, urban planning has continuously struggled for its own identity as it has interfaces with so many aspects of society. Early in the century, it was grappling with market forces that were transforming the city into a more complex entity. This was replaced later with the decline of the central city and the decentralisation of people and activities to the suburbs. Various problems such as housing and the homeless, the unemployed and the underclass, and the construction of new infrastructure and urban renewal have repeatedly been central to the concerns of planning, but often in different guises. In the USA, urban planning has evolved from city planning and social science, but in continental Europe, the tradition is based more on physical design, while in the UK there is a mixed approach (Alonso, 1966). The nature of planning is also different to many other disciplines as the methods and processes are eclectic, often being borrowed from other disciplines. Similarly, there is a strong desire for action, not just knowledge. More recently, the environment has become a new focus for land use and urban plan ning. This is not the slum environment of the nineteenth century which sought to provide housing, clean water and sewerage for the burgeoning industrial cities, but a new con cern over the quality of the built and natural environment. People and business are now leaving the city as the perceived quality of life has deteriorated, and as modern lifestyles and activities no longer require such close proximity of homes, workplaces and other activities. Transport, particularly suburban rail and above all the car, has had an instrumental role in this decentralisation process. The city is thus a source of concern. From the viewpoint of urban economists, the city is involved in a permanent struggle between economies of scale and scope (localisation advantages, economies of density, etc.) and agglomeration diseconomies (congestion, pollution, criminality, etc.). Urban land use is reflecting this structural conflict of interest through the patterns of residential and locational ramifications (Fujita, 1989). As a result, the city is faced with a dynamic movement where compact ways of living and working on the one hand and deconcentrated patterns of living and working on the other hand (e.g. urban sprawl, the edge city) are in turn advocated. This has also provoked new debates on optimal city size (AbdelRahman and Fujita, 1990; Anas, 1990; Arnott et al., 1998; Gordon and Richardson, 1997). This new urban economic discussion on the optimal pattern and size of urban activities is directly and indirectly playing a major role in the current debate on sustainable cities. This debate has been most active with respect to the crucial role that transport has in achieving sustainable development. The catalyst for the debate was the study of 32 major world cities (Newman and Kenworthy, 1991) which claimed to demonstrate clear links between transport and urban form, at least at the city level. It was suggested that economic factors, such as petrol prices and income levels, were less important than

Land Use and Transport: The Context 9 direct interventions from planners through location strategies and investment in public transport. The reaction from the USA was strong, both on criticising the quality of the empirical analysis and on questioning the implications for urban policy. The basic disagreement is whether the promotion of compact cities is an appropriate planning goal (Ewing, 1997; Gordon and Richardson, 1997). On the one hand, there are those (principally Gordon and Richardson) who are strongly in favour of market forces for the allocation of land for development, for the decisions on residential densities, for the achievement of energy resource savings, for the promotion of city centre development, for the maintenance of competition between cities, for the examination of the equity implications of compactness and for the balancing of the impacts of suburbanisation. On the other hand, there are those (Banister, 1997; Cervero and Landis, 1997; Ewing, 1997) who take a less extreme position and focus on the means to reduce trip lengths, encourage moderate concentration, the provision of local facilities and mixed land uses. The empirical evidence is complex and causality is difficult to demonstrate. There does seem to be some limited impact on land markets from joint developments at rail transit stations (Cervero, 1994), mainly in the form of slightly higher rents and lower vacancy rates. But in the most comprehensive study over 20 years of the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) in San Francisco, Cervero and Landis (1997) have not found compact, orderly growth with a multicentred settlement pattern. Even in the longer term, the land use changes associated with BART have been localised and limited to downtown San Fran cisco and Oakland, together with a few suburban stations. Most of the growth in the region has been linked to the freeway system, not the rail system. At the city level in the UK, the links between travel patterns, energy use and urban form in terms of its physical, economic and social structure have been examined (Banister et al., 1997). It is the physical characteristics that link most closely with energy use in transport through density, size and amount of open space. Yet even here data limitations make comparison difficult, and this is further complicated by the social and economic structures of cities which are so different. The sustainable city needs to be examined within its region, to encompass its labour mar ket area and its wider sphere of influence. This is what Breheny and Rookwood (1993) call the social city region, which in turn is an adaptation of the terminology used by Ebenezer Howard, one of the early generation of great planning thinkers. Howard (1898) published his seminal text To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform, in which he advocated a polycentric social city linked by public transport (Howard et al., 2003). It has taken a century to come full circle. There is no single solution to the sustainable city, but there must be a range of policies linked to the different current situations found in the diver sity of the cities around the world a MultipliCity approach to sustainability (Steele, 2004). To the extent that European cities face similar challenges, research and practice in different countries can learn from each other, converting knowledge into action.

2.3 PERSPECTIVES ON LAND USE AND TRANSPORTTo explore the means to integrate land use and transport, it is necessary to break with the tradition that sees them as essentially separate activities with some limited overlap

10 D. Banister et al. and move towards a richer and more varied set of perspectives on common issues that help understand the range and complexity of the interfaces between land use and transport. Table 2.1 identifies a set of seven perspectives on land use and transport. These perspectives cut across and interlink with each other, and they should not be looked at in isolation. The table can assist in understanding the similarities and oppositions between land use and transport issues within and across the seven perspectives, and each of them is now discussed in more detail.

Table 2.1: Alternative perspectives on land use and transport issues PerspectivesHuman activities and purposes Costs and benefits Network

Land Use and Transport: Similarities and DifferencesHuman activities and purposes are the ultimate drivers for land use, transport and their planning Destination activities (land uses) are associated with benefits Travel is primarily associated with costs The separation and distribution of people, activities and land uses gives rise to need for travel Land uses are represented by zones Transport network represented by nodes and links Land uses influenced by location and land value Transport creates a web of accessibility that stimulates and supports value of land and location Transport seen as just another land use Transport land uses connect up contiguously and connect all other land uses Land use planning and transport planning are distinct professions These may be integrated, fail to connect, or be in conflict Overall objectives of land use planning and transport planning are often similar, with differences in detail or emphasis Land use planning and transport planning policies may be disparate or integrated

Land value, location and accessibility Infrastructure and land area The professional dimension The policy dimension

2.3.1 Human Activities and PurposesAlthough often dealt with in terms of abstract elements such as land use classifications or trip matrices, land use and transport are ultimately concerned with fulfilling human needs and desires. In this respect, travel is just like any other urban activity that may be done for its own sake or as a means to an end. Shopping, for example, may be to some extent a means to an end (to access products) but may also be an attractive pastime in its own right. Similarly, work may also be seen as a means to an end (labour in return for wages) but also as an activity that directly contributes to an individuals selffulfilment. And although travel is conventionally regarded as a derived demand a nonproductive activity essentially undertaken for the sake of reaching a destination travel may be undertaken for its own sake. This may be the main purpose of a trip such as with walking, cycling or motoring for pleasure, or undertaking travel in the sense of seeing the world or may be inextricably bound up with another activity, such as with going out

Land Use and Transport: The Context 11 on the town, going shopping or going on holiday where the going is substantially part of the doing. In this sense, travel seen as a human activity or purpose is very similar to many other urban activities, and from this perspective, there is no intrinsic conflict, or fundamental difference in kind, between land use and transport no intrinsic conflict between going and other forms of doing but rather a spectrum of activities with different immediate and ultimate purposes.

2.3.2 Costs and BenefitsLand uses are associated with productive or attractive activities that may be associated with benefits, which give rise to the desire or demand for travel. Travel itself is con ventionally associated with cost, namely the cost necessary to make a trip to access the benefit at the destination. In reality, in some circumstances (as noted above), the travel itself may be an attractive or desirable activity, in which case the travel itself would include a component of benefit in addition to the component of cost. Either way, a common costbenefit mechanism applies: If the cost associated with the trip is less than the benefit, the trip may be expected to take place. Conventionally, the direct benefit component of travel for its own sake is often not accounted for in costbenefit calculations. As a result, an asymmetry is created, where transport and travel are seen ideally to be minimised relative to other land uses or activi ties. Hence, the land use as benefit and transport as cost assumption are approximations which place land use and transport conceptually in opposition to one another.

2.3.3 The Network ModelIn conventional transport analysis and modelling, the transport system is considered as a network comprising a series of nodes and links to which are connected zones representing trip origins and destinations. From this perspective, the land use and transport components are quite distinct, although parts of the same model. Operationally, the land uses are regarded as trip genera tors that is, they give rise to the demand for travel in the first place. The links and nodes represent the supply side that provide the essential connections between the zones representing the origins and destinations. This network model perspective of land use and transport is integrated in the sense that both land use and transport components are represented, and may be used successfully to predict travel movements on the network, given certain land uses LUT. However, this does not necessarily embody the full set of interactions feeding back from transport to land use TLU nor for that matter, land useland use interactions (LULU).

2.3.4 Land Value, Location and AccessibilityLand uses are influenced to some extent by location and land value. This locational or land value is partly connected to the quality and character of the land itself, the

12 D. Banister et al. buildings on it, and on the adjacent land and buildings. Land value is also supported and stimulated by the web of accessibility created by transport. This perspective recognises transportgenerated accessibility as one component of the attractiveness of a location and hence the influence of transport on land use TLU. However, on its own, this perspective does not necessarily embody the full set of interactions feeding back from land use to transport LU T nor for that matter, transporttransport interactions (TT). Note that in this perspective, transport although having an influence on land use is external to the land market per se, echoing the way that in the network perspective, land uses although represented as influencing transport are not part of the network proper. In both cases, the core focus of concern (the land market or transport network) could be analysed of itself, without necessarily considering the external mechanisms (transportgenerated accessibility or land usegenerated trips).

2.3.5 Infrastructure and Land AreaFrom another perspective, transport is a land use itself. The transport land use comprises (at least) roads, streets, paths, car parks, highways, petrol stations, railways, stations, railway yards and airports. This occupies a significant proportion of urban land perhaps a quarter or a third of the total ground level land area (the exact figure will depend on what is included in the calculation; Southworth and Ben Joseph, 2003). In this sense, transport is like any other land use, and in principle may be treated in an integrated manner with other land uses. On the other hand, transport is also a special land use in that it forms a contiguous area, the essential connective tissue of the urban fabric: the single land use through which all other land uses are linked (Marshall, 2005). This gives transport a unique pivotal role in the spatial organisation of urban areas which is what gives the network model perspective its significance.

2.3.6 The Professional DimensionThe twentieth century saw the emergence of separate spheres of professional concern, in particular, between the transport professionals (transport planners, traffic and highway engineers and logistics professionals) who looked after the routes, interchanges and terminal facilities, and the urban professionals (urban planners, urban designers and architects) who looked after the people places, buildings and land uses (Hebbert, 2005; Marshall, 2005). Although the ultimate objectives and societal values may be shared between the profes sions, their working methods, conceptual paradigms and institutional practices are often quite distinct and sometimes in conflict. Professional barriers need to be overcome to achieve the integration of land use and transport planning.

2.3.7 The Policy DimensionThe purpose of land use and transport policymaking is to intervene in the land develop ment and transport systems for the public good. This intervention could mean provision

Land Use and Transport: The Context 13 of infrastructure, control of land development, influencing the cost of travel or influenc ing peoples motivation to travel by particular modes of transport (i.e. applying to the different perspectives set out above). Overall, there is not necessarily any great gulf, here, between what is a transport or a land use policy these may each involve some kind of physical design, or some kind of regulation, or some kind of financial investment or incentive. These kinds of policy may often be complementary or synergistic: In principle, land use planning can support transport objectives, and transport planning can support land use planning objectives. It is true that conflicts may arise where there is competition for use of scarce urban land, for municipal resources, or conflict between incompatible activities but these conflicts can occur within either the transport or land use policy sphere (e.g. noise or pollution concern impacting from one land use to another, or from one transport mode to another) and are not intrinsically a function of transport versus land use policy. Clearly, policy links back to human activities and purposes, since policy acts to serve those activities and purposes, for the benefit of individuals and society as a whole.

2.4 CITIES AND LAND USE TRANSPORT RESEARCHCity of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage was the title of a key action of the European Commissions Fifth Research Framework Programme, and this forms the background to the research used in this book. The aim of this programme was to obtain practical results for cities and to include all stakeholders, and the main output consisted of were practical tools for use by cities. Four interrelated themes were covered by this programme including Urban governance and sustainable resource management Cultural heritage Sustainable built environment Sustainable transport.

More than 140 research, development and dissemination programmes were funded, and about E170 million was committed during the period 19982002. Among the key features of these key actions were A holistic approach and integration which were absolute requirements at the proposal evaluation stage; A strong focus on the practical nature of research and the development of afford able, effective and accessible tools for the application of sustainable development in urban areas; Involvement of all key stakeholders more than 1000 cities participated in the 140 projects as part of this research; Main outcomes related to the improvement of the decisionmaking process. Within the Sustainable Transport theme, the PLUME initiative was a thematic network building on the work of various individual projects, which address issues of LUTR

14 D. Banister et al. (Land Use and Transport Research) together with outputs from a wide range of other national and international projects. The specific objective of PLUME wasTo facilitate the transfer of innovation in the field of planning and urban mobility from the research community to end users in the cities of Europe in order to improve urban quality of life.

PLUME brought together researchers and endusers operating in the field of LUTR, and the PLUME EndUser Group comprised a range of cities from across Europe supported by city networks with a far wider range of members (Table 2.2). Table 2.2: Participation of cities in the PLUME networkCities or local authorities participating in PLUME Aalborg (Denmark) Athens (Greece) Barcelona (Spain) Brussels (Belgium) ClermontFerrand (France) Cologne (Germany) Dresden (Germany) Dublin (Ireland) Gdansk (Poland) Merseyside (UK) Naples (Italy) Rome (Italy) Southwark (UK) Stockholm (Sweden) Suceava (Romania) Surrey (UK) The Hague (Netherlands) Vienna (Austria) City networks participating in PLUME IMPACTS representing the larger cities INSULA representing the islands of Europe POLIS representing cities with a particular interest in transport issues Swedish Association of Local Authorities

The individual LUTR projects, which are reported in Parts IIIV in this book, were linked to these cities through case studies, bringing together a wide range of experience. The principal information source for PLUME has been the land use and transport cluster of research projects commissioned by DG Research within FP5. The research activities of this cluster focused on land transport, and its interaction with land use. The projects were all undertaken and completed between January 2000 and December 2004. In addition, we have drawn on other international and European research as appropriate. For exam ple, ASTRAL (Matthews, 2003) identified a large number of national projects and inter national networks, which were potentially relevant to PLUME. Another source has been KonSULT, a webbased knowledgebase maintained by ITS Leeds. It is regularly updated and covers a broad range of transportrelated topics and forms an important information source for PLUME, as well as a means of disseminating PLUME outputs, as new material identified through PLUME can be used to keep KonSULT up to date (see Chapter 15).

Land Use and Transport: The Context 15 The objectives of the LUTR projects were to develop strategic approaches and method ologies in urban planning that contribute to the promotion of sustainable urban devel opment. These included issues of transport demand and related land use planning, the design and provision of efficient and innovative transport services including alternative means of transport, and the minimisation of negative environmental and socioeconomic impacts. The cluster includes 12 research projects and covers a wide range of different topics. Short summaries of the objectives of these projects are presented in Table 2.3. The PLUME thematic network drew its findings from a wide range of case stud ies and research projects in Europe and worldwide. Cities can learn much from the detailed literature which is available via the gateway of the LUTR projects website (http://www.lutr.net/). Some of the general conclusions of PLUME are particularly rele vant to cities. A key point is that it remains important to increase the understanding of Table 2.3: Summary and objectives of projects reported in this bookARTISTS (Arterial Streets Towards Sustainability) To improve decisionmaking regarding the reconstruction of arterial streets, taking into account a broad set of social, economic and environmental factors. This should enable European city authorities to redesign arterial streets to improve the physical environment of corridors while contributing to the implementation of more sustainable transport systems To improve assessment of quality of life and to make appropriate consideration of, quality of life assessment results in connection with urban transport and mobility policies. The focus of the project is on the subjective part of quality of life To identify innovations in freight transport that could contribute to a more sustainable development in European cities; to set up assessment methods; to build sustainable freight transport options for seven cities, assess these options with the proposed assessment tools, and finally propose best practices and initiate implementation in the seven cities To develop settlement patterns giving priority to the requirements of sustainable transport. Necessary conditions are compactness and a balanced mix of land uses at suitable sites. The aim is to design model settlements in seven participating countries and to derive general guidelines for planning To build an advanced software suite for the analysis of the effects of shortterm actions and longterm policies to improve the quality of the environment, citizens health, conservation of monuments

ASI (Assess Implementations in the frame of the Cities of Tomorrow Programme) CITYFREIGHT (Inter and IntraCityFreight Distribution Networks)

ECOCITY (Urban Development Towards Appropriate Structures for Sustainable Transport) ISHTAR (Integrated Software for Health, Transport Efficiency and Artistic Heritage Recovery) PROMPT (New Means to Promote Pedestrian Traffic in Cities)

To promote nonmotorised transport in cities with particular focus on pedestrian traffic. The project seeks to identify, discover and disseminate innovative new tools and solutions for problem identification, problem solving, and implementation of measures in order to promote walking in cities To research, develop and test integrated land use and transport policies, tools and comprehensive assessment methodologies in order to define sustainable longterm urban strategies and to demonstrate their effects in European cities (Continued)

PROPOLIS (Planning and Research of Policies for Land Use and Transport for Increasing Urban Sustainability)

16 D. Banister et al. Table 2.3: (Continued)PROSPECTS Procedures for Recommending Optimal Sustainable Planning of European City Transport Systems) SCATTER (Sprawling Cities and Transport: from Evaluation to Recommendations) SUTRA (Sustainable Urban Transportation) TRANSPLUS (Transport Planning, LandUse and Sustainability) VELOINFO (The European Network for Cycling Expertise) To provide cities with guidance to generate optimal land use and transport strategies to meet the challenge of sustainability in their particular circumstances

To study the causes and consequences of urban sprawl in order to design and to assess the efficiency of measures aiming to prevent, mitigate or control this trend that threatens most European cities To develop a consistent and comprehensive approach and planning methodology for the analysis of urban transportation problems that helps to design strategies for sustainable cities To identify best practice in the organisation of land use and transport measures in order to reduce car dependency in European cities and regions and promote economic, social and environmental improvement To support local authorities and sustainable urban planning experts by establishing a webbased expertise centre on bicycle planning policies and bicycle use. European cities and transport planners represent supply/demand for expertise; VeloInfo is sustained by these users, ensuring optimal distribution of expertise

the public, politicians and the media about LUTR activities by directly involving them in future research programmes. EndUser regions and cities should be involved in the process from the beginning in order to achieve a more integrated approach between land use and mobility planning. Demonstration projects are an important way of achieving this. The EndUser cities participating in PLUME agreed that the network was of benefit and that European cooperation, networking and benchmarking are positive aspects for improving knowledge and key to the success of achieving integrated policies. While the LUTR programme has substantially increased our understanding of the requirements for sustainable urban land use and transport strategies, the barriers to implementing them and the potential benefits from doing so, several research needs remain. It is to be hoped that new cities will be interested to participate directly in the ongoing research through the provision of case studies, so that all cities can learn from each other, and through successful examples overcome the barriers to implementation.

REFERENCESAbdelRahman, H. and Fujita, M. (1990). Product variety, Marshallian externalities, and city size. Journal of Regional Science 30 (2), 165183. Alonso, W. (1966). Cities, planners and urban renewal. In J. Q. Wilson (Ed.), Urban Renewal: The Record and the Controversy (pp. 437453). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Land Use and Transport: The Context 17Anas, A. (1990). Taste heterogenerity and urban spatial structure. Journal of Urban Eco nomics 28 (3), 318335. Arnott, R., Anas, A. and Small, K. (1998). Urban spatial structure. Journal of Economic Literature 36 (3), 14261464. Banister, D. (1997). Reducing the need to travel. Environment and Planning B 24 (3), 437449. Banister, D. and Marshall, S. (2000). Encouraging Transport Alternatives. Good Practice in Reducing Travel. London: The Stationery Office. Banister, D., Watson, S. and Wood, C. (1997). Sustainable cities: Transport, energy and urban form. Environment and Planning B 24 (1), 125143. Breheny, M. and Rookwood, R. (1993). Planning in a sustainable city region. In A. Blowers (Ed.), Planning for a Sustainable Environment (pp. 150189). London: Earthscan. Cervero, R. (1994). Rail transit and joint development: Land market impacts in Washington DC and Atlanta. Journal of the American Planning Association 60 (1), 95106. Cervero, R. and Landis, J. (1997). Twenty years of the Bay area rapid transit system: Land use and development impacts. Transportation Research 31A (4), 309333. European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT/OECD) (2002). Implementing Sus tainable Urban Travel Policies, ECMT/OECD: Paris. Ewing, R. (1997). Is Los Angeles style sprawl desirable? Journal of the American Planning Association 63 (1), 107126. Fujita, M. (1989). Urban Economic Theory. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Gordon, P. and Richardson, H. (1997). Are compact cities a desirable planning goal? Journal of the American Planning Association 63 (1), 95106. Hall, P. (2002). Urban and Regional Planning. 4th edition. London: Routledge. Hebbert, M. (2005). Engineering, urbanism and the struggle for street design. Journal of Urban Design 10(1), 3959. Howard, E. (1898). To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform. London: Swan Sonnenschein. Howard, E., Hall, P., Hardy, D. and Ward, C. (2003). To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform. London: Routledge. Marshall, S. (2005). Streets and Patterns. London: Spon Press. Matthews, B. (2003). Cooperation with International, National and Regional Projects. ASTRAL Deliverable 2. Available at http://www.lutr.net/astral.asp. Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1991). Transport and urban form in 32 of the worlds principal cities. Transport Reviews 11 (3), 249272. Southworth, M. and Ben Joseph, E. (2003). Streets and the Shaping of Towns and Cities. 2nd edition. New York: McGrawHill. Steele, D. (2004). Spatial dimensions of global governance. Global Governance 10 (3), 373394.

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors) Copyright 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 3 Themes and RelationshipsMichael Wegener

3.1 INTRODUCTIONAfter the presentation of the problems of urban land usetransport interaction and the research framework of the Land Use and Transport Research (LUTR) cluster in the previous chapter, this chapter gives an overview about the themes addressed in the 12 projects and how they are related to urbanchange processes and the problems of land usetransport interaction. This chapter draws from stateoftheart knowledge assembled within the PLUME network, which includes reference to research outside as well as originating within the 12 LUTR projects.

3.2 THEMESThe cooperation between the 12 projects of the LUTR cluster was organised around 23 themes structured hierarchically into three main groups, Problems, Policies and Processes which reflect typical domains of decisionmaking in cities in practice: A) Problems are deviations between existing and desirable states of the urban system that may give rise to planning interventions. In todays cities, three major problem fields can be distinguished: 1. Environmental problems 2. Social problems 3. Economic problems. B) Policies are measures, policies or strategies to solve problems, that is, to reduce the gap between existing and desired states of the urban system. In todays cities, the following major groups of policies are available: 1. Land use planning measures 2. Infrastructure provision 3. Infrastructure management 4. Public transport 19

20 M. Wegener 5. Travel demand management 6. Information measures 7. Pricing measures 8. Walking and cycling measures 9. Urban freight transport measures 10. Vehicle technology measures 11. Innovative modes 12. Integrated strategies. C) Processes are steps or phases of the model of rational planning passed through from problem perception to implementation: 1. Setting targets 2. Strategy development 3. Strategy impacts forecasting 4. Strategy appraisal 5. Public participation 6. Strategy implementation 7. Financing 8. Institutional issues Tables 3.13.3 indicate which themes are addressed in the 12 LUTR projects. In the tables, the themes are further subdivided into subthemes. An inspection of the tables shows that the 12 projects cover the field of urban land use, transport and environment quite thoroughly, although there are different levels of emphasis.

A) ProblemsTable 3.1 shows which problems were addressed in the 12 projects. It also shows that environmental, social and economic problems are not evenly covered by the 12 projects: 1. Environmental problems. Virtually all the 12 projects mention central environ mental problems, such as atmospheric pollution, noise, land capture and green house gas emission, as principal targets of their research. Adverse visual impacts, loss of cultural heritage and negative health impacts are addressed less frequently. Environmental problems of cities are the consequence of the increase in eco nomic activity and mobility caused by economic growth and therefore cannot be discussed without addressing the goal conflict between economic growth and environmental sustainability. However, there are also links between environmen tal and social problems because many solutions to environmental problems have equity implications. 2. Social problems. The social dimension of urban sustainability is less fre quently addressed by the 12 projects. Only ARTISTS, PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS indicate that equal access, social exclusion and equity are important items on their agenda. The close relation ship between social and economic problems is obvious. However, there are also relationships between social and environmental problems, as in many cities envi ronmental problems are highest in lowincome neighbourhoods.

Themes and Relationships 21 Table 3.1: Problems addressed in the 12 projects...is addressed in project

CITYFREIGHT

TRANSPLUS

PROSPECTS

Theme/sub-theme... Air pollution Noise Land Greenhouse gases Visual impact Cultural heritage Health Access Social exclusion Mobility handicaps Equity Health Congestion Accidents Financial barriers Economic activity External costs Equity Health

Minor theme.

Environmental

Problems

Social

Economic

Major theme

3. Economic problems. Traffic congestion and traffic accidents are the most fre quently addressed economic problems in the 12 projects. The impacts of land use and transport policies on economic activity in the whole metropolitan area or parts of it are addressed in PROPOLIS and SCATTER. Economic problems in general have a strong social or distributional (equity) component. In many cases, solutions to economic problems are in conflict with the achievement of social and environmental objectives. However, economic equity aspects are considered only in PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and SCATTER. Health aspects are referred to in many projects but explicitly considered only in ASI.

B) PoliciesTable 3.2 shows which policies were addressed in the 12 projects. It can be seen that each of the projects addresses a certain group of policies: 1. Land use planning measures. Land use measures are addressed mainly in CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and

VELOINFO

PROPOLIS

SCATTER

ECOCITY

ARTISTS

PROMPT

ISHTAR

SUTRA

ASI

22 M. Wegener Table 3.2: Policies addressed in the 12 projects...is addressed in project

CITYFREIGHT

TRANSPLUS

PROSPECTS

Theme/sub-theme... Settlement planning Settlement size/containment Concentration/densification Urban structure Location by accessibility PT-oriented development Car-free development Urban design Motorways Local roads Walkways Cycling lanes Public transport Freight infrastructure Parking Better public transport Park and ride Parking management Road space management Traffic control systems New infrastructure Better service Fares Travel information Mixed-mode travel Marketing Company travel plans Ride sharing Car sharing Flexible work hours Teleworking Teleshopping Radio/TV-based services Internet-based services PT passenger information Navigation systems Mobility centres

Infrastructure provision

Policies

Infrastructure management

Land use planning

Public transport

Travel demand management

Information

(Continued)

Major theme

Minor theme

VELOINFO

PROPOLIS

SCATTER

ECOCITY

ARTISTS

PROMPT

ISHTAR

SUTRA

ASI

Themes and Relationships 23 Table 3.2: (Continued)...is addressed in project

CITYFREIGHT

TRANSPLUS

PROSPECTS

Theme/sub-theme... Fuel taxes Car taxes Road pricing, motorways Road pricing, all roads Parking charges Rail network charges Public transport fares Walkways Pedestrianisation Safe crossings Cycling lanes Bicycle service stations Access constraints Loading zones Freight terminals City logistics Parcel delivery points Cleaner cars More energy-efficient cars Safer cars Hybrid cars Natural gas vehicles Alternative fuels Personal rapid transit Ultra-light rapid transit Cybercars Co-operative highway Infrastructure Infrastructure and pricing Infrastructure and land use Pricing and land use Infrastructure and TDM TDM and information Integrated programmes

Walking cycling

Innovative Vehicle technology modes

Pricing

Policies

Urban freight transport

Integrated strategies

Major theme

Minor theme TDM travel demand management.

VELOINFO

PROPOLIS

SCATTER

ECOCITY

ARTISTS

PROMPT

ISHTAR

SUTRA

ASI

24 M. Wegener TRANSPLUS. It is recognised that land use measures strongly interact with the provision of transport infrastructure, such as roads or public transport routes as well as with travel demand management policies. Infrastructure provision. Infrastructure provision measures are dealt with in ARTISTS, CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SUTRA, TRANSPLUS and VELOINFO. With respect to transport policies, PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS are similarly comprehensive. VELOINFO, not surprisingly, focuses on measures related to cycling. All projects emphasised the need to coordinate infrastructure provision with appropriate land use planning measures and also refers to travel demand management, transport pricing and urban freight measures as necessary accompanying measures. Infrastructure management. Issues of road and public transport infrastruc ture management were considered in ARTISTS, CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS. ARTISTS focused on road space management, whereas the other projects addressed management mea sures, including public transport service provision, walking and cycling facilities and travel demand management. Public transport. Public transport was addressed in virtually all projects. How ever, public transport strategies are explicitly addressed in PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS. Improving public transport is one of the main policy fields of sustainable urban planning and is to become even more important with the prospect of rising energy prices and increasing car costs. Such measures are closely linked to infrastructure provision, pricing and travel demand management. Travel demand management attitudinal and behavioural measures. Only a few projects looked into the potential of attitudinal and behavioural transport measures. PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS are the most comprehensive in this respect; VELOINFO suggests marketing as a means to promote cycling. It is stressed that successful travel demand management depends on a nottoodispersed land use system and needs to be accompanied by appropriate transport pricing policies and a welldeveloped network of public transport, walkways and cycling lanes. Information measures. Information measures, such as traffic or public trans port information systems were treated in ARTISTS, CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, ISHTAR, PROSPECTS, TRANSPLUS and VELOINFO. Providing relevant and timely information on travel opportunities to travellers before starting a trip and en route is important for mitigating road congestion and attracting new passengers to public transport. Pricing measures. Only PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER, SUTRA and TRANSPLUS looked into the impacts of pricing policies, such as fuel or car taxes, different schemes of road pricing, parking charges or changing public transport fares, impacts on mobility and environment and in some cases, impacts on land use and the spatial distribution of population and economic activities. This is surprising as these policies have been found to be by far the most effective in reducing car travel and the related environmental impacts. More than other policies, pricing measures depend on supporting measures in the field of land use planning, infrastructure provision, travel demand, walking and cycling and urban freight.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Themes and Relationships 25 8. Walking and cycling measures. Walking and cycling were dealt with in infrastruc ture provision and in this separate group of policies. Measures promoting walk ing were considered in ARTISTS, ECOCITY, PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS. Cycling was dealt with in ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, TRANSPLUS and of course in VELOINFO. Successful promotion of the slow modes, walking and cycling, cannot be done in isolation but requires a highdensity mixedused land use system, supporting travel demand measures, taxation of car travel and a welldeveloped network of walkways and cycling lanes. 9. Urban freight measures. Only four projects explicitly dealt with urban freight transport. CITYFREIGHT dealt exclusively with urban freight transport. In ARTISTS, loading and unloading was considered as a function to be accommo dated in the street space. ECOCITY considered city logistics, and PROSPECTS discussed various freightrelated policies. Sustainable urban freight transport is connected to land use planning, as well as infrastructure provision and management. 10. Vehicle technology measures. ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, SUTRA and TRANSPLUS considered the impact of cleaner cars on air quality or of more energyefficient cars on greenhouse gas emissions and air quality. However, as these developments cannot be influenced by local government decisions, they were not generally con sidered in the projects. More energyefficient cars become economically feasible only if fuel becomes more expensive. 11. Innovative modes. Innovative modes were not explicitly addressed in any of the 12 LUTR projects but were addressed in NETMOBIL, a sister research cluster. The EDICT, CYBERCARS, CYBERMOVE and STARDUST projects of NETMOBIL were devoted to these themes, although they addressed some of the issues of interaction of new modes and land use planning. New ways of using and combining travel modes are becoming more and more important to achieve synergies between modes and to maintain quality of access in lowdensity areas. 12. Integrated strategies. Only a few projects studied integrated land use and trans port policies: CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and SCAT TER. However, in PROPOLIS and PROSPECTS, integrated strategies were a major concern.

C) ProcessesTable 3.3 shows which processes were addressed in the 12 projects. This table reveals the distinction between What projects and How projects. What projects are mainly interested in finding solutions to problems, that is, to find out what should be done. How projects, on the other hand, are predominantly interested in how policies can be implemented. 1. Setting targets. CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and SCATTER paid attention to the process of goal setting as a political and partici patory process. PROPOLIS and PROSPECTS developed their own goal systems, partly in cooperation with their client partners in their case study cities. Setting targets is closely linked to the subsequent steps of strategy development, strategy impact forecasting and strategy appraisal.

26 M. Wegener Table 3.3: Processes addressed in the 12 projects...is addressed in project

CITYFREIGHT

TRANSPLUS

PROSPECTS

Theme/sub-theme... Defining objectives Defining indicators Soliciting preferences Updating targets Decision-making Public participation Specification of objectives Defining indicators Understanding barriers Combining policies Theoretical foundations Forecasting techniques Scenario building Simulation Policy optimisation Definition of sustainability Cost benefit analysis Multicriteria analysis Equity Presentation of strategies Barriers to implementation Overcoming barriers Implementation Monitoring Stages of participation Levels of participation Organisational aspects Participants Current practice Cost analysis Sources of funding Financing techniques Overcoming barriers Levels of government Vertical co-operation Horizontal co-operation Publicprivate partnerships Privatisation

Processes

Institutional issues

Financing

Public participation

Strategy implementation

Strategy appraisal

Strategy impact forecasting

Strategy development

Setting targets

Major theme

Minor theme.

VELOINFO

PROPOLIS

SCATTER

ECOCITY

ARTISTS

PROMPT

ISHTAR

SUTRA

ASI

Themes and Relationships 27 2. Strategy development. In a certain sense, all 12 projects developed strategies. But only ARTISTS, ASI, ECOCITY, PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCAT TER and TRANSPLUS paid attention to the process and methodology of how strategies are developed. CITYFREIGHT, PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS explicitly addressed the potential of combinations of policies, or policy packages. Strategy development is intrinsically linked to strategy appraisal, and in many cases, involves public participation. 3. Strategy impact forecasting. Only a few projects addressed issues of forecasting the impacts of land use and transport policies, as this is a task of extreme com plexity and, because of the many factors and interactions to be considered, of great methodological difficulty. CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, ISHTAR, PROPO LIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS reviewed the state of the art and developed innovative methods in this field. With the p